#archaeology in the 60s

[chanakakamal]

What happened in archaeology during the 20th century? - Part 2

As mentioned in the previous article, during the time before 1960 in the 20th century, the focus was on methodological improvements in archaeology. From 1960 on, the focus was on theoretical improvements in archaeology. This does not mean that the 1960s marked a clear line between methodological and theoretical development in archaeology. This means the majority of events and concerns in the discipline were slightly different before and after 1960.

What happened in archaeology after 1960s?

From 1960 on, archaeology transformed into a new version of itself. We refer to it as “New Archaeology”. So, the birth of new archaeology is the main thing that happened in archaeology after 1960.

What is New Archaeology?

In new archaeology, the main focus is on studying the cultural processes of past human societies. As you may remember, in the background era of archaeology, the focus was to discover the legendary cities of the past. In the Renaissance era, the focus was to collect antiquities and study the history of antiquity. Then, in the 19th century, the focus was on studying the history of humans and their culture. Again, in the 20th century before 1960, the focus was the same. Then, only after 1960, scholars started to study how human cultures were born, evolved, and changed.

In simple words, before this new archaeology, what archaeologists studied were random and independent events in the past related to humans. But with new archaeology, they studied how those events in history connected with each other. They studied how both intentional and accidental acts of human ancestors have shaped their culture. How did the things that past humans did as well as the things that happened to past humans shape the cultures of past humans? They examined. So, as archaeologists focused on this process of birth and evolution of cultures, we call this processual archaeology.

Read full article on New Archaeology: Processual Archaeology at kamalsjournal.com

Other than the birth of New Archaeology, there were a few important events and trends that occurred after the 1960s, as listed below:

Scholars like Lewis Binford introduced new theories that resulted the emergence of new archaeology

Gordon Childe had introduced his theory of the Neolithic Revolution, explaining how human ancestors domesticated animals and plants. He said that after the domestication of animals and plants, establishing settlements and making pottery took place in order. Archaeology became the scientific discipline to test these theories.

The extensive use of technology to analyse and interpret data

Studies transformed into problem-oriented studies. Scholars began to conduct studies to find answers to research questions.

The studies focused on providing more rational conclusions than ever.

Archaeologists introduced Rescue archaeology, or salvage archaeology, to save archaeological monuments and sites as warfare and development projects were causing huge destruction to them Soon, Archaeological Impact assessments became a necessity before development projects.

In 1970, scholars introduced cultural resource management to protect valuable archaeological sites and monuments. Then, they introduced archaeological heritage management and cultural heritage management too.

So, the new archaeology is an upgrade of archaeology that emerged in the 1960s with better theories and methods, focusing on studying the cultural processes of the human past through material data.

What Happened in Archaeology After 1980?

After 1980, the new archaeology was questioned, and a new version emerged, named post-processual archaeology. Scholars like Ian Hodder introduced new theories for archaeology. This age was literally a period of theoretical reform in archaeology. In order to understand archaeology in this age, the characteristics of new archaeology and post-processual archaeology can be compared.

The new archaeology focused on quantitative results. Post-processual archaeology focused on qualitative results.

The new archaeology was pessimistic. Post-processual archaeology was optimistic. In new archaeology, it was believed that past human cultures were never able to be reconstructed with the limited data found in archaeology. In post-processual archaeology, the approach was optimistic regarding the matter.

New archaeology focused on the processes that were behind creating antiquities. Post-processual archaeology focuses on the culture behind antiquities.

The new archaeology focused on explaining past landscapes as cultural processes. Post-processual archaeology focuses on cultural or cognitive aspects of past human beings.

New archaeology considered that past incidents happened that way because of external factors such as environmental conditions, and things only changed when the environment changed. But post-processual archaeology considers the choices made by humans in the formation of history.

New archaeology looked into the past from the same point of view as we look into the present. But post-processual archaeology looked at the past from different perspectives.

New archaeology tried to understand the past as patterns of social, economic, and political anomalies, but post-processual archaeology tries to understand the past as a collection of individual anomalies. As an example, in new archaeology, it will be said that the Stone Age is followed by the Bronze Age, and the Bronze Age is followed by the Iron Age as a pattern, with some minor exceptions, due to the nature of the impact from the environment. But, in post-processual archaeology, it will be specific with the place and time where and when the Stone Age was followed by which, either bronze, copper, or iron, considering the individuality of incidents and trends that occurred in the history of mankind due to the cognition of mankind, not the environment.

Read full article on Post-Processual Archaeology at kamalsjournal.com

Summary

As discussed above, the discipline of archaeology, which had already emerged in the 19th century, was developed further as a science in the 20th century. In the first six decades of the 20th century, the use of technology extensively developed archaeology as a science in practical ways, such as chemical dating methods.

Then, in the 1960s, the theoretical evolution of archaeology took place. Rather than explaining the story behind antiquities, the past human cultural process was studied with the use of antiquities, marking the first origin of the form of archaeology we have today, which is ‘studying through material data’. And also, archaeological heritage management was introduced to have standards for dealing with archaeologically important heritage.

Then, in the 1980s, with post-processual archaeology, the approach to archaeological studies changed. Earlier, mankind’s cognition was neglected when recreating the past through material remains. There, the environment was considered the force of evolution. Simply put, it said that human culture had changed due to environmental changes. But, in post-processual archaeology, it was said that human culture changed mainly due to the intelligence humans had. As humans, we could choose whatever we wanted with our intelligence. Further, it emphasised that the past is not a pattern but a collection of various occurrences that happened at various times and in various places individually.

As of today, the archaeology we refer to is this post-processual archaeology. So, this is the long process of the origin of archaeology. However, there is an ongoing, never-ending debate about processual archaeology vs. post-processual archaeology.

At this point, if you read all seven articles, I am sure you probably get the same image in your head as I do when I hear “History of Archaeology”. And now, most probably, you have your own idea of the origin of archaeology too.

[aerosolspritz]

intro !!⋆˚࿔ 🍂🌖🥮✨

꩜ hii !! i'm celeste, welcome to my blog 😚

꩜ i am 20 yrs old, hispanic/native, and use she/her :)

꩜ this is a personal blog for things like my art, books i'm reading/book reviews, photography/life diaries, and my interests, which i'll list some of below !!

-`✮´- 60's-90's fashion + art

-`✮´- vintage cars (or just cars i like lol)

-`✮´- history, art history, archaeology, linguistics, biology, physics

-`✮´- witchcraft/paganism

-`✮´- nature - hiking, foraging, bird watching, etc.

-`✮´- art - drawing, painting, photography, crochet, sewing + DIY, crafts, clay/pottery

-`✮´- reading and writing

-`✮´- halloween, fall, all things spooky 🎃

-`✮´- movies and tv - especially horror or older comedies. both older classic cinema, newer cinema, and silly "degenerate" cinema (lol)

-`✮´- video games !! primarily switch, or PC (i have a nintendo hyperfixation lol, esp nintendo ds !!)

-`✮´- collecting !! i just love collecting things <3 toys, rocks, keychains, plushies, etc., show me ur collections pls 😞

obviously there is much more, but these are my BIGGEST interests and what i think this blog will primarily focus on.

i'm always looking for moots and new friends, so feel free to send me a dm, follow, or like/rb this to be... bffs? 😳🫣

[visenyaism]

Imo canon aemond has no interest in Helaena beyond the fact that he deserves to be the first born and thus she should belong to him. She is just an object.

like that’s his sister and he clearly cares about her a little but the main thing for him really does seem to be that it’s not fair that aegon gets given her because it’s also not fair he’s going to get given the crown when aemond thinks it should be him. Aemond’s “if we were betrothed i would treat her well as befits our house” to aegon in the show doesn’t read as much as an “i care about helaena’s specific well being” as it does an “i would be a better king than you and would respect the trappings of power which includes our sister�� yknow. like that didn’t read to me as romantic interest at all

[horrorcrawl]

The Mummy (1932) 🪲

Director: Karl Freund (Universal Pictures) Genres: Horror, Creature Feature 💀 Notes: Egyptology, Mummy, Curse, Souls, Spells, Magic, Forbidden Romance, Boris Karloff, Black/White Film🖤🤍

Review: What better way to start the month of December with some (mummy) unwrapping! To get in the festive spirit I jumped back a few decades to watch this classic for the first time! Was immediately in love with the lighting, the cinematography and the tone of the film. It's quick pace and storytelling are enjoyable with the mix of academic and fantasy. There was one line "The British Museum is interested in science not looting" that a Professor says that made me laugh out loud. I can definitely tell this was the defining film for much of the following Mummy movies in the genre and much to be inspired by! There are definitely flaws to the film that don't hold up under a modern lens but the rest of the film is a joy to watch. Overall I give The Mummy(1932): Must Watch, a Classic 💀 Adjacent Recommendations: Watch OverlySarcasticProductions Mummy History feature videos over on youtube, they recently released an awesome dive into the Mummy genre in books and film here and here, I highly recommend since I think it'll enhance your watching experience with the context they give around the film if you care not for too many spoilers and want something to listen to.

-Warnings for Folks- Racism and Racist tropes: The only black character in the film who is referred to as "The Nubian" is turned into a slave and there is some weird suggestion that he becomes Imhotep's thrall because it's in his "ancient blood". Big yikes man. White Washing: Actors who are not Egyptian playing Egyptian characters, very common in this era of film unfortunately.

[lasagras]

Icelandic archaeology culture is having beef with one of our former presidents not for political reasons but because of his lack of preciseness in archaeological records

[gaykarstaagforever]

My favorite episode of Time Team was the one where the trench they dug suddenly filled up with blood and a tentacle lashed out of it and grabbed Carenza. And Phil was right there but he didn't react to her screams for like a full 20 seconds because he was excited about a thumb-sized piece of knapped flint he found in his boot.

[starswallowingsea]

Just had the most baffling interaction

[lunalight-001]

After putting in a lot of effort into this, I’m finally done making and fully prepared to do what I see girls of my age do online just to earn,I sure hope all my hard work don’t go to waste.

[ltwilliammowett]

For the first time in millennia, a Magan Boat sails off the coast of Abu Dhabi. It’s a reconstruction that has taught the world much about the skill and achievements of Bronze Age sailors

Archaeology on Marawah Island, west of Abu Dhabi, has revealed that 8,000 years ago the Arabian coast was home to a sophisticated seafaring people. They built stone structures, herded livestock, fished and dived for pearls, crafted jewelry, and developed a talent for sailing that started a remarkable cultural exchange.

By the Bronze Age, around 4,500 years ago, the region was prominent enough to have a name in ancient writings: Magan. From the island of Umm an-Nar, in modern Abu Dhabi which was part of ancient Magan, merchants sailed an international trade route that connected Mesopotamia, in what is now Iraq, to the Indus Valley in today’s India and Pakistan. Magan traded locally sourced pearls, stone and copper, one of the most sought-after commodities of the time, for ceramics, fabrics, jewelry, and other precious objects. Its ships were renowned through the Arabian Gulf.

The ship was built using 15 tons of locally sourced reeds that were painstakingly prepared by being soaked, stripped of leaves, crushed, and then tied into bundles using rope made from date palm fibers. These formed the hull, to which was attached a wooden frame. The boat’s dimensions were calculated based on what is known about similar vessels as well as hydrostatic analysis of what was needed to make it float. The reed hull was then waterproofed with a coating of bitumen, which was traded from Iraq. The heavy sail, raised purely by muscle without the benefit of pulleys, was crafted of goat’s hair in a patchwork of shades.

The result was the world’s largest ever reconstructed Bronze Age vessel: 60 feet long, capable of carrying 36 tons of cargo, and achieving surprisingly high speeds of 5.6 knots.

[antotheethnographer]

Quizás deberíamos armar una red de papers similar pero en castellano. No sé lo suficiente de egiptología, pero tiro la idea por si a alguien más le interesa.

Tenemos que ganar la calle o perdemos contra los aliens ancestrales.

Egyptology tumblr. Help. One of my coworkers at a construction site knows I'm an archaeologist and asked if I knew of Graham Hancock. We had an... interesting discussion. He seems reasonable and open to considering different ideas, but he is *convinced* there are no records of the Giza Pyramids being built and thinks that their construction is still a mystery. I told him otherwise, and he seemed legitimately interested if I could find sources and challenged me to do so. @somecunttookmyurl @thatlittleegyptologist @rudjedet and anyone else who might be able to help, if you happen to have sources or resources about construction of the pyramids. Please share if you're able/have the time. I can probably find some stuff on my own but if anyone has sources on hand that would be amazing.

[thesilicontribesman]

The Hoxne Roman Hoard, The British Museum, London

The late-Roman treasure from Hoxne, Suffolk, was discovered in November 1992 by Mr Eric Lawes, who reported the find immediately without taking all the objects from the ground. This responsible conduct enabled the Suffolk Archaeological Unit to carry out a controlled excavation of the deposit. Small context groups were lifted intact and packed for transfer to the British Museum, where the excavation and detailed recording was completed.

The hoard consists of over 15,000 gold and silver coins, gold jewellery, numerous small items of silver tableware, in particular spoons, and traces of boxes or caskets within a larger wooden chest. Though no vestige of the wood from the outer container was preserved, fragments of iron bands and precise observation of the extent of the deposit made it possible to infer its size, approximately 60 x 45 x 30 cm.

[blueiscoool]

‘Rare’ 400-Year-Old Tomb Found in China

For centuries, the pale blue doors of an imposing stone tomb remained largely shut. When archaeologists in China finally walked in, they found themselves surrounded by a “rare” and elaborate interior.

Archaeologists excavated the ancient stone tomb in Xinfu District ahead of highway construction, Shanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology said in a March 6 news release shared via a post on Weibo.

The tomb was about 400 years old, dating to the Ming dynasty, and well-preserved, archaeologists said. The roughly 83-foot-long grave was made up of a sloping passageway, main burial chamber and smaller back chamber.

The 400-year-old tomb was sealed with a stone gatehouse and set of double doors, a photo shows.

Inside the main burial chamber, archaeologists found two wooden coffins. The painted coffins were decorated with gold diamonds, leaves, flowers and other designs. Several pottery jars containing grain, oil or other liquids were also found in the room.

The final back chamber held several pieces of wooden furniture including altars, tables and chairs, the institute said. Most of the furniture was collapsed and broken, photos show.

Archaeologists also found “writing tools such as inkstones, Chinese calligraphy brush pens, and pen holders” in the back chamber, according to an article from the China Daily, a state-controlled news outlet.

Several inscriptions on the coffins and walls helped researchers identify the deceased as a man who lived between 1533 and 1588, the institute said.

Because of the tomb’s high-quality artifacts and preservation, archaeologists described the grave as “rare” and elaborate.

Archaeologists have excavated over 60 tombs ahead of the highway construction projects, the institute said.

Xinfu District is in Shanxi Province and about 300 miles southwest of Beijing.

[whencyclopedia]

Although climate change has today become a much bigger and more globalized problem than in the past, ancient peoples did have to contend with local events that severely disrupted or even ended their way of life as they knew it. A long series of droughts in parts of the Americas led to the abandonment of such cities as Cahuachi in Peru and may have contributed to the collapse of the Maya civilization in Mesoamerica while similar climatic changes in southern Africa likely contributed to the demise of Mapungubwe and Great Zimbabwe. Another notable catastrophe was the Bronze Age Collapse, which had devastating consequences: Climate change, combined with other stressors, brought down the Hittite Empire, the Mycenaean Civilization, Kassite Babylonia and many other states, ushering in a dark age around the Mediterranean. There were, too, the more explosive events that brought total disaster in a matter of hours such as the great floods that are told in so many myths around the world and which archaeology has revealed often have a basis in fact. There were devastating earthquakes such as the one that brought down the walls of Jericho or toppled the Colossus of Rhodes, and the explosions of the volcanoes on Thera and at Pompeii that killed thousands in a moment. All of these events, often exacerbated by overpopulation, overworking the soil, and heavy deforestation of a specific area meant that competition for power and resources became intense as agriculture was disrupted and leaders were challenged. Sometimes, even entire cities and states succumbed. In this collection, we examine these dramatic events and their lasting consequences. Cahuachi was abandoned from the mid-6th century CE, perhaps due to climate change as the local environment became more arid. Earthquakes, too, may have been a contributing factor to the centre's decline. It is interesting to note that the number of geoglyphs created at this time increased, perhaps indicating the urgent need for divine help to meet the crisis. The mounds were systematically covered with earth and so the abandonment of Cahuachi was both planned and deliberate. We also have a free lesson plan for teachers on this subject.

[vestaignis]

Пещера Деветашка считается одной из самых крупных в Болгарии и всей Европе. Она расположена на реке Осым, между селами Деветаки и Дойренци (Ловечская область). Пещера обнаружена лишь в 1921 году, а с 1996 года является охраняемым памятником природы. Ее протяженность составляет около 1,5 км, а входом служит гигантский проем 55 м в ширину и 35 м в высоту.

Пещера Деветашка поражает воображение туристов. Ее потолки высотой от 60 до 100 метров имеют многочисленные провалы, которые местные жители называют окнами. Они создают естественное освещение, но практически не нагревают пещеру. Поэтому здесь прохладно даже в знойные летние дни. Внутри протекает река, есть подземные озера, водопады, сталагмиты и сталактиты. В залах обитают летучие мыши, поэтому они закрыты с 1 ноября по 1 апреля, чтобы не мешать размножению животных.

В пещере обнаружены следы обитания древнего человека. Согласно археологическим исследованиям пещера служила убежищем людям с поздней палеолитической эпохи. Археологические раскопки обнаружили остатки из культурного слоя почти всех доисторических периодов. Рельефный слой толщиной от 0,3 до 5,5 м содержит остатки поселений разных эпох: палеолита(кремневые орудия мустьерских форм, позднепалеолитические изделия из кремня и костей); неолита (очаги с каменной основой, узкие каменные топоры, кремневые заточки и скребки, костяные лощила, шила и долота, керамику с резьбленными надписями); энеолита ( разрушенные жилища, печи, зернотерки,орудия из камня и костей, посуда с резной, рельефной и другой орнаментацией, антропоморфные фигуры); бронзового века (боевые топоры из бронзы, темнолощённые керамические изделия); железного века (бронзовые ножи, железное оружие).

Вторая мировая война оставила и здесь свой след. Во времена социализма пещера использовалась в качестве склада боеприпасов на случай военных действий, а также служила хранилищем нефтепродуктов. В пещере до сих пор остались следы в виде кругов с тех времен.

Немаловажной частью этого чудного места является разнообразие представителей фауны. В пещере обитают более сотни различных видов живности, некоторые из которых даже занесены в Красную книгу! В их числе 12 видов охраняемых земноводных (эскулап, полоз, тритон, древесные лягушки, черепахи Германа), около 80-ти видов птиц, 34 вида млекопитающих и 15 видов летучих мышей.

Devetashka Cave is considered one of the largest in Bulgaria and throughout Europe. It is located on the Osam River, between the villages of Devetaki and Doirentsi (Lovech region). The cave was discovered only in 1921, and since 1996 it has been a protected natural monument. Its length is about 1.5 km, and the entrance is a gigantic opening 55 m wide and 35 m high.

Devetashka Cave amazes tourists. Its ceilings range from 60 to 100 meters high and have numerous gaps, which locals call windows. They create natural light, but practically do not heat the cave. Therefore, it is cool here even on hot summer days. A river flows inside, there are underground lakes, waterfalls, stalagmites and stalactites. The halls are inhabited by bats, so they are closed from November 1 to April 1, so as not to interfere with the breeding of animals.

Traces of ancient human habitation were found in the cave. According to archaeological research, the cave has served as a shelter for people since the late Paleolithic era. Archaeological excavations have discovered remains from the cultural layer of almost all prehistoric periods. The relief layer, 0.3 to 5.5 m thick, contains the remains of settlements from different eras: Paleolithic (flint tools of Mousterian forms, Late Paleolithic objects made of flint and bones); Neolithic (hearths with a stone base, narrow stone axes, flint sharpenings and scrapers, bone polishes, awls and chisels, ceramics with carved inscriptions); Eneolithic (destroyed dwellings, ovens, grain grinders, tools made of stone and bones, dishes with carved, relief and other ornamentation, anthropomorphic figures); Bronze Age (battle axes made of bronze, dark-polished ceramics); Iron Age (bronze knives, iron weapons).

The Second World War left its mark here too. During socialism, the cave was used as an ammunition depot in case of hostilities, and also served as a storage facility for petroleum products. There are still traces in the cave in the form of circles from those times.

An important part of this wonderful place is the diversity of fauna. The cave is home to more than a hundred different species of living creatures, some of which are even listed in the Red Book! These include 12 species of protected amphibians (aesculapius, snake, newt, tree frogs, Hermann's tortoises), about 80 species of birds, 34 species of mammals and 15 species of bats.

Источник:/bulgariaexpert.ru/info/peschera-devetashka.php, /www. ntabulgaria.ru/blog/interesnye-mesta/peshhera-devetashka/, juicyworld.org/devetashka-cave/,/volimo-balkan.livejournal .com /450004.html,//meteo.by/around/c288c52491142c32.html, //www. tripadvisor.ru/Attraction_Review-g14037230-d4184576-Reviews-Devetashka_Cave-Devetaki_Lovech_Province.html,/bolgarskiydom .com/devetashka/.

[wheelsgoroundincircles]

1970 Dodge Challenger T/A

1970 Dodge Challenger T/A Sitting for 45 Years Is a Rare Barn Find in Sublime Green

Introduced in 1969 on the then-new E-body platform, the first-generation Dodge Challenger was a big hit, moving nearly 77,000 units in its first year on the market. And while it may seem rather common, the 1970 Challenger lineup included a few rare gems.

Nearly 73% of the cars were ordered in standard trim, leaving only 18,512 R/T models. Most of the latter left the assembly line with the 383-cubic-inch (6.3-liter) V8, and just 6,231 units were specified with the larger 440-cubic-inch (7.2-liter) RB and 426-cubic-inch (7.0-liter) HEMI mills.

The HEMI is arguably the rarest 1970 Challenger, with only 356 examples made. Just 60 were also ordered with the SE package, and only nine were convertibles. The 440 Six Pack version is also rare at 2,035 examples, while the regular four-barrel 440 found its way into 3,840 vehicles.

But Dodge also built a small-block gem that saw daylight in limited numbers. I'm talking about the Challenger T/A. Developed to homologate the Challenger for the SCCA Trans-Am series, the T/A was available for only a few months in 1970. And its short stint on the assembly line resulted in only 2,399 street-legal models being built and sold.

The T/A packs several unique features, including a low-restriction exhaust system with side-exiting pipes, a larger air scoop, a fiberglass hood, and a heavy-duty suspension. The stripe package is also unique to this car, as is the 340-cubic-inch (5.6-liter) V8 with a triple two-barrel carburetor setup.

An upgrade over the more common four-barrel 340, the Six Pack layout gave the T/A 290 horsepower to play with. And even though it's nowhere near as powerful as the big-block cars, the T/A has a solid advantage in terms of curb weight and handling.

Come 2023, the T/A is one of the most desirable versions of the 1970 Challenger. And while many cars are still around as restored gems, some are rotting away in junkyards and barns, often missing vital components. The Sublime green example you see here is one of them. But unlike other abandoned T/As, this survivor got a second chance at life, and it's roaming the streets again.

Documented by YouTube's "Auto Archaeology," this T/A spent most of its life off the road. According to our host, the Challenger was parked for unknown reasons sometime in 1977. So that's only seven years on the road and more than four decades in storage.

Parked with a four-barrel carburetor instead of the Six Pack setup, it remained in storage in Memphis and Arkansas until 2022. That's when the car was sold and dragged out of its barn. And surprisingly enough, the T/A emerged in surprisingly solid condition.

Sure, the Sublime paint has faded away, and the black vinyl top is long gone, but the body is straight and almost rust-free. There's some rust on the trunk floor, but it's an easy fix with a regular Challenger pan, which is relatively easy to find.

The engine bay was empty at the time of the rescue, but the car still had the original block. And even though the Six-Pack carb was gone, it came with a period correct unit. The driveshaft, air cleaner, automatic gearbox, and the original wheels (which are very rare) were still with the car.

Speaking of which, the automatic makes this T/A one of 1,410 vehicles built with this drivetrain combo. The vinyl top decreases that number even more. It's unclear if it came with a V1G gator grain top, but if it did, it's one of only 33 T/As built like this.

But the really good news about this Challenger is that it has since been revamped and put back on the road. It hasn't been restored just yet, but it's not a solid survivor that's no longer rotting away in a barn. And that's a win in my book.