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Amistad Seizure: The Court Case that Captivated the World

The Amistad Seizure (also known as the Amistad Incident, the Amistad Rebellion, the Amistad Mutiny, and Amistad Revolt) was a conflict aboard the Spanish schooner La Amistad in July 1839, off the coast of Cuba, during which free Blacks, who had been illegally kidnapped from Africa to be sold as slaves, took over the ship, killed crew members, and demanded return to their home in Mendeland (modern-day Sierra Leone, West Africa). Instead, the ship's owners secretly steered them toward the United States, where the ship was seized and the resulting court case – United States v. The Amistad (1841) – became the most famous of its time.

The ship (whose name means "friendship") and its human cargo were claimed by Spain (as it was a Spanish ship), by the Cuban owners, and by Lt. Thomas R. Gedney of the brig Washington, who had brought La Amistad into port at New London, Connecticut, and so sought salvage rights. To determine which of these claims was valid, the court first had to establish the status of the 49 African adults and 3 children found on board – whether they were slaves or free – and this was extremely difficult as all of them only spoke their native tongues.

The administration of President Martin van Buren was eager to resolve the case quickly and extradite the Africans to Cuba, but the abolitionists of Connecticut, led by the lawyer Lewis Tappan raised funds for their legal defense, found an interpreter, and, after the case was finally heard by the US Supreme Court, where the Africans were defended by former president and lawyer John Quincy Adams, they were freed and eventually returned home.

The case received international attention as it focused on the issue of slavery, what defined a "slave", and whether enslaved people had the right to armed revolt in securing their freedom. It also brought to light discrepancies between established laws regarding the slave trade and how those were skirted by various parties. The media covered the case extensively right from the start, and these stories were eventually heard by the slave Madison Washington, inspiring his leadership of the Creole Mutiny/Creole Rebellion of 1841.

The decision of United States v. The Amistad (1841) also generated widespread support for the abolitionist movement in the North, enraged pro-slavery factions in the South, and further escalated conflict between the two in the years leading up to the American Civil War.

The Amistad Seizure

The people who eventually wound up at the center of the Amistad case were kidnapped from their various villages in the modern-day Sierra Leone region of West Africa at some point in February 1839. They were sold to Portuguese slave traders who loaded them onto the slave ship Tecora and took them to Cuba.

England and the United States had abolished the international slave trade by this time, and Spain, allied to England, had, too, but refused to outlaw slavery in its colonies and allowed for the transfer, by ship or any other means, of slaves between different points. Slave traders could get around the laws prohibiting the international slave trade by filling their ships' holds with kidnapped people on the coast of Africa, sailing to a port like Havana, Cuba, and then claiming the "slaves" on board had been born in Cuba and were only being transported from one place to another.

The men, women, and children were unloaded from the Tecora and sold at a market in Havana. 53 of them were purchased by Jose Ruiz and Pedro Montes, who planned to sell them in Puerto Principe, Cuba. La Amistad, captained by its owner Ramon Ferrer, was hired for transport and left Havana on 28 June 1839 for Puerto Principe, a journey that should have taken only four days.

La Amistad was not a slave ship, but a domestic cargo schooner 120 feet (37 m) long with a small hold. As it could not accommodate the 53 Africans below deck, many were kept above and, although all were restrained by shackles, could move about freely, and, as was later revealed, learn about the ship and who among the crew could steer it.

On the night of 1 July 1839, one of the men below deck, Sengbe Pieh (better known as Joseph Cinque, circa 1814 to circa 1879) found a rusty file (or was given it by a fellow prisoner), broke his padlock, freed himself, and then freed the others. Early in the morning of 2 July, they came up on deck to take control of the ship, as described by scholar Marcus Rediker:

A group of four men – Cinque, Faquorna, Moru, and Kimbo – led the way as they climbed up and out of the hatchway onto the main deck. They moved with the grace and precision of warriors accustomed to daring midnight attacks. They picked up belaying pins and barrel staves and stole over to the ship's boat where the mulatto cook and slave sailor Celestino lay sleeping. They bludgeoned him to death. As more men escaped their irons and swarmed up on deck, they opened a box of cane knives, tools they were meant to use in cutting sugar cane, but which would now serve the purpose of self-emancipation.

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Two Africans were killed in taking the ship, Captain Ferrer was killed, and two deckhands escaped in a small boat. The Africans spared Ruiz, Montes, and Ferrer's slave, Antonio, because they had observed that these three could navigate the ship and return them to their home. Ruiz and Montes agreed to take them back but then secretly steered them north toward the United States, where, they hoped, the ship would be seized by authorities and their 'property' returned to them.

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⇒ Amistad Seizure: The Court Case that Captivated the World

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Causes of the Russian Revolution of 1917

There were many causes behind the Russian Revolution of 1917, ranging from the unpopular authoritarian rule of Tsar Nicholas II (reign 1894-1917) to the radical mobilisation of the working class, who wanted better working conditions and more political representation. Actually a double revolution, the first revolution brought about the abdication of the tsar in March, then, after the ineffective rule of the Provisional Government of 1917, a second revolution occurred in November. The latter is often called the Bolshevik Revolution because it saw the Bolsheviks (later called the Communist Party) led by Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924) seize power and establish Soviet Russia.

The main causes of the Russian Revolution of 1917 were:

The tsar's rule was increasingly authoritarian.

The tsar failed to deliver the reforms he had promised after the Russian Revolution of 1905.

The tsar was unpopular because of his association with Grigori Rasputin.

Russia's participation in WWI caused severe economic upheaval and food shortages.

The tsar, as commander-in-chief, was associated with the defeats of WWI.

The tsar lost the support of the increasingly undisciplined Russian armed forces.

Socialist revolutionaries agitated for a fairer society, such as that suggested by Karl Marx.

The working classes were increasingly influenced by socialist revolutionaries.

Workers wanted better pay, working conditions, and political representation.

Peasants wanted a fairer distribution of land and local political representation.

The middle classes wanted social reforms and more power in government.

Women wanted the right to vote and equal legal rights with men.

Nations within the Russian Empire wanted independence.

The Provisional Government failed on its promise to hold an election for a Constituent Assembly.

The Provisional Government failed to solve severe economic and infrastructure problems.

Many workers and peasants wanted Russia to withdraw from WWI.

The radical Bolsheviks led by Lenin seized power by force, closing down the Provisional Government and declaring Russia a republic.

The Tsar's Loss of Prestige

Tsar Nicholas II's reputation amongst his people as a wise and just ruler spiralled downwards from 1905. An economic slump, defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-5), the massacre of peaceful and unarmed protestors on Bloody Sunday in 1905, and the failure to deliver promised reforms all made people question if the tsar really was the best person to lead the nation. Nicholas seemed oblivious to the societal changes in 20th-century Russia. He once confided to a relative: "I'll never agree to a representative form of government because I consider it harmful to the people whom God has entrusted to me" (Montefiore, 521). The tsar believed autocracy was really the best form of governance. Nicholas ruthlessly repressed any dissent to his rule. Protests were violently quashed by the army and police, and countless arrests were made.

Exiled, imprisoned, and temporarily subdued, perhaps, but those who called for change would not go away. Radical underground parties were formed that worked for either a constitutional monarchy or even a republic. The tsar's position began to weaken further following unsavoury and persistent rumours about just how much influence the odd self-proclaimed holy man Grigori Rasputin (1869-1916) had on the royal family and politics. Rasputin had first gained access to the halls of power because he could seemingly bring relief to the tsar's heir, Alexei, who suffered from haemophilia. Rasputin may have had no more real effect than a psychological one of calmness on his patient, but the empress was particularly impressed by Rasputin, and he soon became a seemingly indispensable part of the royal entourage. Rumours spread that the 'holy man' was really a drunk who indulged in sexual activities with anyone he could get his hands on. Scurrilous magazines and less reputable newspapers published unflattering cartoons and even speculated on whether Rasputin was having an affair with the empress. Nicholas refused to react to the rumours but, as the historian T. Hasegawa notes, "More than anything else, the Rasputin affair contributed to the catastrophic erosion of the autocracy's prestige" (39).

Another blow to the tsar's prestige was his vigorous support of ultra-reactionary nationalist and anti-Semitic organisations such as the Union of Russian People, which carried out vicious attacks on Jewish people and other traditional scapegoats. These pogroms and Bloody Sunday effectively erased the long-held belief that the Tsar of Russia, chosen by God, was by definition a just and fair ruler. The final blow to the tsar's prestige was his decision to make himself commander-in-chief of the armed forces in September 1915 during the First World War (1914-18). Completely unqualified for such a role, the end result was only that the army's defeats became closely associated with the country's ruler rather than its generals.

Perhaps even worse for Nicholas, while he was at the front playing soldier, the government was essentially left under the guidance of Empress Alexandra Feodorovna (1872-1918), and for many, this really meant Rasputin. Certainly, there was a whirlwind of ministerial sackings and appointments, many of which were paid for, it was said. Royalists saw the damage Rasputin was doing – or, more precisely, the rumours concerning Rasputin were doing – to the reputation of the tsar. The most damaging rumour was that Rasputin and the empress were forming some sort of pro-German government, the only evidence of which was that the empress was herself German, her title prior to her marriage being Princess Alix of Hesse-Darmstadt. One group of royalists hatched a plot to assassinate Rasputin, and his body – beaten and shot – was discovered in a river in early January 1917.

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⇒ Causes of the Russian Revolution of 1917

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Zachary Taylor: Old Rough and Ready - the 12th US President

Zachary Taylor (1784-1850) was an American military officer who served as the twelfth president of the United States. Born to a family of prominent Virginian planters, Taylor joined the US Army in 1808 and eventually rose to the rank of major general. Nicknamed 'Old Rough and Ready' by his men, he played a significant role in the Mexican-American War (1846-1848), leading US forces to victory in such actions as the Battle of Monterrey (21-24 Sept 1846) and Battle of Buena Vista (22-23 Feb 1847). He used his newfound status as a war hero to win election to the presidency in 1848. However, he abruptly died a little over a year into his term, on 9 July 1850.

Early Life & Military Beginnings

Zachary Taylor was born on 24 November 1784 on his family's plantation in Orange County, Virginia. He was the third of nine children born to Richard Taylor, a prominent planter and veteran of the American Revolution, and his wife, Sarah Dabney Strother Taylor. His family was an old one, with deep roots in the Commonwealth of Virginia; he was related to the distinguished Lee family of Virginia and was a distant cousin of both President James Madison (1751-1836) and Confederate General Robert E. Lee (1807-1870). But by the time of Zachary's birth, the soil on the family's tobacco plantation was almost depleted of nutrients, forcing Richard Taylor to search for more fertile lands out west. The Taylors settled in the burgeoning frontier community of Louisville, Kentucky, where they initially lived in a small cabin. Before long, they were prosperous enough to upgrade to a brick home, and by the turn of the century, Richard Taylor had accumulated 10,000 acres of land throughout Kentucky as well as 26 slaves.

Growing up, Zachary Taylor received some formal education, but he was mostly educated at home by his mother. The Kentucky of his childhood was a dangerous place, the scene of bloody fighting between Anglo-American settlers and various Native American peoples that was part of the Northwest Indian War (1785-1795). Taylor would have been acutely aware of this bloodshed and indeed, this frontier violence may have influenced him to pursue a military career. He joined the Kentucky militia in 1806 and, two years later, was commissioned in the US Army as a first lieutenant. His first assignment was to a military camp near New Orleans in 1809, which was disease-ridden and woefully undersupplied. Taylor soon fell sick and returned home to Louisville to recover. While there, he met Margaret Mackall Smith, the daughter of a wealthy Maryland planter. They were married in June 1810 and soon moved into a small cottage in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.

After the outbreak of the War of 1812 (1812-1815) between the United States and the United Kingdom, many Northwestern Native American nations decided to ally themselves with the British, seeing the war as their best chance to resist US encroachment onto their remaining lands. Taylor, now a captain, was ordered to take command of Fort Harrison in the Indiana Territory, which was vulnerable to Native attack. On 4 September 1812, Fort Harrison came under siege by a 600-man force consisting of Miami, Potawatomi, Winnebago, and Kickapoo Indians. Despite being hopelessly outnumbered, Taylor refused an offer to surrender – that night, one warrior set fire to the fort's blockhouse as a distraction while the rest assaulted the west wall. Taylor organized a bucket brigade to put out the fire, putting his surgeons and the wives of his soldiers to work, while the garrison held back the attackers.

Though the fire was eventually put out and the Native Americans repulsed, the next morning found that most of the garrison's food supply had been destroyed in the fire; all the besiegers had to do now was starve them out. Luckily for Taylor, a detachment of 1,000 reinforcements arrived on 12 September, lifting the siege and forcing the Indian attackers to melt back into the woods. Taylor had held the fort at a time when the US sorely needed victories – he was rewarded with a brevet promotion to major. He would spend the rest of the war fighting Indians on the frontier, at places such as Wild Cat Creek (Nov 1812) and Credit Island (Sept 1814).

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⇒ Zachary Taylor: Old Rough and Ready - the 12th US President

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Why We Use BCE and CE

The dating system using BCE (Before Common Era) and CE (Common Era) might seem new and controversial, but it’s actually centuries old. It was created to offer a more inclusive, neutral way to mark historical dates without assuming religious beliefs. Surprisingly, BCE/CE is not a recent invention meant to erase Christianity but a thoughtful alternative used by scholars worldwide.

What Are BCE and CE?

BCE means "Before the Common Era," and CE means "Common Era." They mark the same years as the older BC (Before Christ) and AD (Anno Domini, meaning "Year of Our Lord"), but without explicitly referring to Jesus Christ. BCE/CE is popular in academic writing to respect diverse religious and cultural perspectives.

Why It’s Not Just Political Correctness

Some argue BCE/CE tries to "remove Christ from the calendar." But that’s a misunderstanding. The Bible does not command using BC/AD; those terms appeared over 500 years after Jesus’ time and took another 500 years to catch on fully. BCE/CE first showed up in 17th-century Germany, then England in the 18th century, well before modern debates on political correctness.

Key Facts

BCE/CE dating started in the 17th century.

BCE and CE refer to the exact same years as BC and AD.

BC/AD dates back over 1500 years but was formalized centuries after Jesus.

BCE/CE aims for religious neutrality and historical accuracy.

Critics wrongly assume BCE/CE opposes Christianity.

Historical Context

The BC/AD system was devised by a Christian monk named Dionysius Exiguus in the 6th century to number years after Jesus’ birth. It spread slowly through Europe and became standard in the 12th century. BCE/CE was introduced to avoid privileging Christian perspectives in scholarly work.

Historical Significance

Using BCE/CE reflects broader efforts to create inclusive language in history and science. It allows historians and students from all backgrounds to engage with dates without religious bias. The system’s longevity and acceptance show it’s more about clarity and respect than exclusion or controversy.

Next time you see BCE or CE in history books, you’re witnessing a centuries-old, thoughtful way to mark time—one that invites everyone to join in the story of our shared past.

Learn More: The Origin & History of the BCE/CE Dating System

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12 Key Women in Revolutionary Russia

Women were involved in all aspects of the Russian Revolutions of 1905 and 1917 when radical socialists and other sections of society challenged the authoritarian rule of Tsar Nicholas II (reign 1894-1917). As writers, activists, demonstrators, strikers, party members, and even assassins, women pushed not only for social change and a fairer society but specifically for better rights and opportunities for women of all classes. Participating in the wider and not necessarily Bolshevik revolutionary movement, women supported a variety of organizations, both those that attacked the Tsarist regime and those that defended it and its successor, the short-lived Provisional Government of 1917. Here are presented 12 prominent women who played significant roles in this turbulent period of Russia's history.

Yekaterina Breshko-Breshkovskaya

Yekaterina Breshko-Breshkovskaya, aka Catherine Breshkovsky (1844-1934), was an activist and member of the Socialist Revolutionaries, but she had worked for greater women's rights since the 1860s, particularly among the peasantry. Breshko-Breshkoskaya founded a socialist commune in Kyiv (Kiev) in 1881, was arrested for agitating for reform and sent to Siberia in 1878, and toured the US in 1904 to raise funds for the Socialist Revolutionaries. She was again arrested in Russia and again sent to hard labour in Siberia, but she was still involved in revolutionary politics during the 1917 revolution when she returned from exile to support the moderate Provisional Government. When the Bolsheviks took power, she lived in exile in Czechoslovakia, where she founded a Russian-language school. She became known as 'Babushka' or 'Grandmother' of the Russian Revolution.

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⇒ 12 Key Women in Revolutionary Russia

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John Brown's Raid on Harpers Ferry: How Mistakes Made a Martyr

John Brown's Raid on Harpers Ferry, Virginia (16-18 October 1859) was carefully planned and, at first, perfectly executed – until he made the mistake of letting the physician John Starry go (who then raised the local militia) and allowing the train of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, which had stopped there, to continue on – thereby giving the train's conductor the chance to sound the alarm outside of town.

Although the local militia engaged Brown and his men by the morning of 17 October, they were so disorganized and ineffective that it seems clear that, had Brown stuck to his original plan of looting the arsenal, loading the weapons and ammunition into carts, and vanishing into the wilderness to then wage a guerrilla war against pro-slavery forces, he might well have succeeded. Instead, he delayed, even after allowing the alarm to be given, hoping for the arrival of slaves who would join his army of liberation, although he must have known this would almost certainly doom any chance he had of achieving the goals of the raid.

Why John Brown acted as he did at Harpers Ferry continues to be debated today. Throughout his life, he was known as a man of decisive action who never deviated from a course once set. In this instance, however, he seems to have purposefully acted against his own best interests and those of the cause he had devoted his life to, and, possibly, this was done on purpose to create a martyr for the anti-slavery movement in the USA.

Background

John Brown (1800-1859) was raised by abolitionist parents, first in Connecticut and then in Ohio, and, at around the age of twelve, witnessed a young Black boy beaten by his master for no reason, furthering his hatred for slavery. His parents were also ardent Christians, and Brown was raised an evangelical Christian, making his profession of faith at 16 as a member of the Congregational Church of Hudson, Ohio.

He worked in his father's tannery until he started his own and devoted himself to the efforts of the Underground Railroad, hiding fugitive slaves on his various properties and assisting them on their way north to Canada and freedom. His devotion to the anti-slavery movement seems to have been his only interest outside of work. He condemned social gatherings, dancing, drinking, card-playing, hunting, and fishing (which he regarded as leisure activities), and the theater. He read the Bible and Plutarch's Parallel Lives daily for years, and any other reading material that could be applied practically, as when he taught himself surveying from a book.

Brown was married twice, had over 20 children, and built and lost various businesses, but the constant in his life was always the vision that he had been placed by God on earth to bring about the end of slavery in the United States. In November 1837, the abolitionist minister, writer, and editor Elijah Parish Lovejoy was murdered by a pro-slavery mob from Missouri, and this further strengthened Brown's resolve, eventually leading him to Kansas in 1854.

"Bleeding Kansas" was a term coined by the New York Tribune in 1856 to describe the repeated outbreaks of hostilities between pro-slavery advocates and 'free state' abolitionists over whether Kansas would enter the Union as a slave or free state. Brown and his sons established themselves near the free-state settlement of Osawatomie, and he quickly became recognized as a leader of the free-state faction.

On 21 May 1856, pro-slavery militia and Missouri border ruffians sacked the free-state city of Lawrence, and the next day, in Washington, D.C., abolitionist Republican Charles Sumner was beaten senseless by pro-slavery Democrat Preston Brooks in the US Senate Chamber. Brown retaliated by leading his sons and supporters in the now-infamous Pottawatomie Massacre of 24-25 May 1856, during which five pro-slavery advocates were murdered.

He continued his efforts in Kansas, although now there was a price on his head, until 1859, when he left the region to gather arms and men for an event he had been planning for at least 20 years: the raid on the arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia.

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⇒ John Brown's Raid on Harpers Ferry: How Mistakes Made a Martyr

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Women in the Russian Revolution

Women actively participated in the Russian Revolution of 1905 and the two revolutions of 1917, which deposed the tsar and established a Bolshevik government. Women worked both within the Bolsheviks led by Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924) and in the many opposition groups and in non-political organisations. Seeking to improve the rights and opportunities of women of all classes, women agitated for change through journalism, political writing, party activism, strikes, assassinations, and forming both political and non-political philanthropic organisations across the Russian Empire.

Ever since the Enlightenment and the French Revolution of the 18th century, women in Russia began to apply the ideas of rationalism and egalitarian liberty to their own situation in society. As elsewhere, convincing male-dominated political institutions that women should have equal rights with men proved to be an immensely difficult task, with ridicule being the typical response to such demands. In Russia, the social reforms of the second half of the 19th century, which included allowing girls into secondary education, did finally give women hope that further change was possible. The women's rights movement was small in terms of numbers, but thanks to women journalists, writers, and political activists, its voice was heard regularly throughout this revolutionary period of Russia's history.

Women in Russian Society

In rural Russia, many teachers and doctors were women, but most women were expected to fulfil their traditional role of wives and mothers. In the cities, several universities admitted female students, but the University Statute of 1884 then reversed this trend when it prohibited women from entering higher education. It was in the second half of the 1880s that women really began to agitate for change and secure more equal rights with men. Women wanted opportunities beyond a domestic home life, equal voting rights with men, access to higher education, professional training, and the right to enter any profession. Women also worked to improve the lives of women who were victims of circumstances beyond their control. For example, late-19th-century Moscow had a charitable organization to help poor women, the Society for Improving the Lot of Women.

The women's movement was essentially split into two groups:. The reformers sought change by working with and within existing male-dominated institutions. Reformers believed in discussion, petitions, philanthropy, and compromise. The radicals, in contrast, believed only direct and often violent action would achieve their aims. Radicals often wished to be clearly identified as such and so cut their hair short, wore simple clothing, and broke social conventions like women not smoking in public. One such radical was the student, Vera Zasulich, who shot the governor-general of St. Petersburg, Colonel Trepov, in 1878. Trepov survived, and Zasulich was acquitted; she later helped found the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP). Assassinations became part and parcel of Russian politics, and the women's rights movement was obliged to adopt increasingly extreme measures as Russia plunged into a period of violent revolution in the early 20th century.

Many radical women joined radical male-dominated underground political parties where the idea of equality for women received sympathy but ultimately became subordinate to the overall aim of completely overthrowing the existing political system and creating an entirely new form of society, ideally a completely fair and equal one. Some political groups wanted to postpone the issue of women's rights until a revolution had been achieved that brought down the present form of government and society. A particularly successful group in attracting women was the terrorist People's Will, one-third of whose executive was composed of women. The People's Will was responsible for the assassination of Tsar Alexander II (reign 1855-81). At the other end of the scale, there were more moderate seekers of change, such as Anna Shabanova (1848-1932), a founder member of the non-political Russian Women's Mutual Philanthropic Society; Shabanova served as its president from 1896 until 1917.

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⇒ Women in the Russian Revolution

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A. P. Hill: The Confederate General Who Saved Lee at Antietam

Ambrose Powell Hill (1825-1865) was a Confederate general during the American Civil War (1861-1865), who commanded the Third Corps of the Army of Northern Virginia. Often referred to as 'A. P. Hill' to distinguish him from fellow Confederate general Daniel Harvey Hill (D. H. Hill), he was one of Robert E. Lee's most valued officers, playing a vital role in the battles of Antietam, Fredericksburg, and Gettysburg. He was killed at the Third Battle of Petersburg on 2 April 1865, only a week before Lee's surrender at Appomattox.

Early Life

A. P. Hill was born on 9 November 1825 on his father's plantation near Culpeper, Virginia. He was the last of seven children born to Thomas Hill, a prominent local politician and merchant, and his wife, Fannie Russell Baptist Hill. Growing up, Hill was said to have been "self-reliant, forceful, and bright" (quoted in Hassler, 8). He spent his summers riding, hunting, and fishing with his father, and in the evenings would come home to read a book by candlelight with his mother. As a boy, Hill was very close to his mother, who affectionately called him Powell. He inherited not only her thin, delicate physique and proud Virginian temperament but also her love of reading, with a particular fondness for the Bible, poetry, and the works of William Shakespeare. By his teenage years, however, Hill had exchanged his love poems for works of military history, coming to idolize the great generals of the past, like Napoleon Bonaparte. He decided to embark on a military career, and, with the help of his father's political connections, was admitted to the US Military Academy at West Point, New York, in the summer of 1842.

The West Point class of 1846 was a veritable "who's who" of future Civil War generals. Hill's roommate was George B. McClellan (1826-1885), the son of a Philadelphia physician who was a year younger than Hill and had to obtain special permission from the secretary of war to enter the academy at such a young age. He and Hill quickly became close friends. Other classmates included George Pickett, Cadmus Wilcox, and, most significantly, a strange and serious young cadet named Thomas J. Jackson (1824-1863). Hill, a flamboyant and easy-going student, took an immediate dislike to the dour, devoutly religious Jackson. Although he maintained decent grades, Hill enjoyed the good things in life and was known to party, perhaps a little too hard – in 1844, he contracted a bad case of gonorrhea, forcing him to take a furlough from school. He missed so many classes that he had to repeat his third year at the academy, graduating a year behind schedule in 1847. He ranked 15th out of a class of 38 and was assigned to the 1st US Artillery Regiment as a brevet second lieutenant.

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⇒ A. P. Hill: The Confederate General Who Saved Lee at Antietam

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Château d'Amboise

The Château d'Amboise, located in the Loire Valley, in central France, was built over several centuries and was the centre of royal power during the Renaissance (from the 15th to the early 17th century). Witness to the heyday of the French monarchy, but also to great tragedies, the château welcomed such famous figures as Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Chevalier d'Artagnan (c. 1611-1673), and Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1500-1558), to name but a few. Its architecture evolved over the centuries and reflects its eventful history.

Architectural Highlights

Located on a rocky spur overlooking the town and the royal river, the Loire, the site of the Château d'Amboise covers an area of approximately two hectares. Inhabited since Neolithic times, it was transformed into a defensive structure in the 4th century, and the first fortress was built there in the 5th century. Today, only a few parts of the former palace remain, but visitors can still admire the beauty of the Chapel of Saint Hubert, completely restored from 2021 to 2024, the Minimes Tower and the Heurtault Tower, the royal lodge, and the superb gardens.

Chapel of Saint Hubert

The entrance ramp leads directly to the Chapel of Saint Hubert on the left. This flamboyant Gothic chapel with a golden spire was built under Charles VIII (reign 1483-1498) and served as a chapel for his wife, Queen Anne of Brittany (1477-1514). Built in tuffeau stone, typical of the Loire Valley, it houses some beautiful stained glass windows. It is in this chapel that Leonardo da Vinci is buried. According to the tradition reported by historian Giorgio Vasari, he passed away in the very arms of King Francis I (r. 1515-1547). In 1930, his tomb was rebuilt by Italian sculptor Francesco La Monaca (1882-1937), and the medallion, created by sculptor Jean Cardot, was added in the 2000s.

The Royal Lodge

The Renaissance wing was also built during the reign of Charles VIII. In order to offer his queen new buildings worthy of her love, the king had a large part of the castle courtyard cleared away, and the earth dumped at the foot of the promontory helped drain part of the surrounding marshes. To finance his architectural ambitions, Charles raised new taxes, which enabled him to build not only new lodgings but also most of the buildings we can see today. In fact, 75% of Charles' castle still remain to this day. Historian André Castelot gives a brief description of the interior:

Thanks to the king's accounts that have been kept, we know that the interior walls, decorated with French lilies and Breton ermines, disappeared under a truly astonishing profusion of tapestries, some of which – such as those depicting the life of Moses, the Romance of the Rose or Esther and Ahasuerus – were composed of fragments measuring a total of one hundred and fifty French ells, or more than 175 metres in length.

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The royal lodge now consists of three levels: the ground floor and first floor evoke the Renaissance period, and the second floor, which dates from the 19th century (the reign of Louis-Philippe I of France, 1830-1848). The tour will also take you through the guards' rooms, the guards' promenade with its balustrades overlooking the Loire, the great council chamber, the king's bedroom, and the Minimes Tower.

The Cavalier Towers

The Minimes Tower, overlooking the Loire, is a 21-metre-diameter building. It has a slightly sloping ramp that allowed horses and carts to access the terraces and gardens. Its counterpart, the Heurtault Tower, located to the north of the site, is 24 metre in diameter and also has a ramp to facilitate access to the castle from the town. With the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) finally over, the defence of the site was no longer considered a priority, and practical and aesthetic architecture ended up taking precedence.

The Gardens

The gardens cover just over two hectares and are now divided into two distinct parts. The well-defined Naples Terrace was designed by Italian artist Dom Pacello da Mercogliano (1453-1534) at the request of Charles VIII. The other section is a more contemporary English-style landscape garden, conceived by King Louis Philippe I in the 19th century. As you stroll along the paths of this park, you may come face to face with the Carrara marble bust by Henri de Vauréal, representing the man who bore witness to the heyday of this royal estate, the genius artist Leonardo da Vinci.

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⇒ Château d'Amboise

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A c. 1767 oil-on-canvas portrait by David Martin of Benjamin Franklin (1706-90). This portrait depicts Franklin as a scholarly figure of the Enlightenment with a bust of Isaac Newton gazing at him. The portrait was commissioned by Robert Alexander of William Alexander & Sons, a prominent Scottish family business based in Edinburgh during the 18th century. The portrait shows Franklin holding one...

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Renaissance Art Revealed

Renaissance art, spanning roughly 1400 to 1600 CE in Europe, transformed art from medieval craft into a powerhouse of cultural expression. Artists combined ancient classical ideas with new techniques like mathematical perspective, creating deeply realistic, emotional, and detailed works that still captivate today. This era elevated artists to a new status — not just artisans but key cultural figures shaping society.

Key Facts

Renaissance artists drew heavily on classical antiquity for inspiration, focusing on human form and proportion.

They developed mathematical perspective to create realistic 3D space on flat surfaces.

Art combined religious themes with pagan elements but always kept human experience at the center.

Use of oil paints and fine print techniques allowed vivid colors and detailed textures.

Scenes and portraits were hyperrealistic, often packed with subtle symbolic meanings.

Artists are recognized as intellectuals, blending practical skills with scholarly studies.

Dramatic, monumental figures and emotional impact were important goals.

Historical Context

The Renaissance began as a rebirth of learning after the Middle Ages, fueled by renewed interest in Greek and Roman culture. Advances in science and exploration paralleled artistic innovations, reflecting a broader cultural shift toward humanism—focusing on human potential and achievement.

Historical Significance

Renaissance art redefined the role of the artist and laid the foundation for modern Western art. Its emphasis on realism, emotion, and technical mastery influenced countless generations and helped shift European culture into a new age where human experience and creativity were celebrated.

This period gave us iconic masterpieces that are both visually stunning and rich in meaning—testaments to an era when art, science, and philosophy fused into a powerful expression of humanity.

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The Natchez Trace is a historic 444-mile route stretching from Natchez, Mississippi, through northern Alabama, to Nashville, Tennessee, originally formed by prehistoric animal paths and later used by Native Americans and European settlers. It began as trails made by bison moving toward salt licks in Tennessee and developed into a major trade network connecting Archaic, Woodland, and Mississippian cultures. The Native American Natchez tribe built ceremonial mounds along the route, such as the Grand Village with the Great Sun’s Mound, honoring their beliefs in a Great Spirit and animism.

European contact began in the 16th century with Hernando de Soto’s expedition, followed by French colonization efforts. Conflicts with indigenous peoples, including the Natchez and Chickasaw Nations, marked this period. By the 19th century, the United States under President Jefferson expanded and formalized the route, with the Chickasaw operating “stands”—rest stops and inns—along it. The path gained fame through travelers known as Kaintucks, boatmen who traded goods in Natchez and returned to Tennessee by foot or horseback.

The Trace declined in importance as river steamboat travel grew, becoming nearly forgotten by the late 19th century. Interest revived in the early 20th century thanks to the Daughters of the American Revolution, who worked to preserve the history through monuments and markers. This led to the creation of the Natchez Trace Parkway, completed in 2005. Although the parkway doesn’t follow the exact original trails, it protects and commemorates key historic sites including mounds, former Chickasaw stands, and landmarks such as the grave of explorer Meriwether Lewis. Today, the Natchez Trace Parkway offers scenic travel, hiking trails, and a tangible connection to thousands of years of Native American history and early American frontier life.

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The above summary was generated by AI using Perplexity Sonar. To read the orginial human-authored article, please visit Natchez Trace.

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Russia's Provisional Government of 1917

The Russian Provisional Government of 1917, really a series of unelected coalitions, briefly held power from March to November, that is between the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II (reign 1894-1917) and the Bolshevik Revolution led by Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924). Lacking legitimacy from the outset and without the backing of the army, the government faced a series of severe crises, not least of which was Russia's ongoing and disastrous participation in the First World War (1914-18). With rocketing inflation, strikes in the cities, and revolts in the countryside, the Provisional Government was pushed aside by the Bolsheviks, radical socialists who claimed to best represent worker and peasant interests and who promised both an immediate withdrawal from the war and democratic elections for a new Constituent Assembly.

The Tsar's Abdication

Tsar Nicholas II was obliged to abdicate on 2 March 1917. Nicholas was deeply unpopular following defeats in the First World War, where he had unwisely taken upon himself the role of commander-in-chief of the Russian armed forces. The tsar had been unpopular ever since the Russian Revolution of 1905, when workers, peasants, and the middle classes all called for modernisation in industry and agriculture and a more representative form of government. Although he survived the trouble of 1905, the tsar's authoritarian rule and unwillingness to pass reforms finally caught up with him. Nicholas was unpopular, too, because of his close association with the distinctly odd and self-proclaimed holy man Grigori Rasputin (1869-1916), around whom swirled all kinds of unsavoury rumours concerning his conduct and just how much influence he had over the royal family. On top of all that, the cost of living had risen dramatically during the war. When demonstrations in the capital, Petrograd (formerly Saint Petersburg), against bread and fuel shortages turned violent, the army and aristocracy failed to support the tsar, and he was advised to abdicate.

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⇒ Russia's Provisional Government of 1917

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Hei Tiki: New Zealand's Greenstone Icon

The hei tiki is a unique Maori necklace carved from pounamu, a hard greenstone native to New Zealand. This small pendant represents a human figure and holds deep cultural and spiritual meaning for the Maori people. Its design and significance are part of a wider Polynesian tradition of tiki figures found across the Pacific islands.

What is a Hei Tiki?

A hei tiki is a greenstone pendant worn around the neck.

The word hei means "neck ornament," while tiki means a carved human figure.

These pendants are handmade from tough nephrite jade, known locally as pounamu.

The shapes and styles vary, but all carry symbolic meanings connected to ancestry and spirituality.

Key Facts

Hei tiki are specific to New Zealand but relate to Polynesian tiki traditions.

The Polynesian triangle includes New Zealand, Hawaii, and Easter Island where tiki figures appear.

Polynesians use related words: tiki in New Zealand and Cook Islands, ti’i in Tahiti, and ki’i in Hawaii.

European explorers first documented tiki carvings in the Marquesas Islands in 1595 CE.

The hei tiki is recognized globally as a symbol of Maori identity and heritage.

Historical Context

The tiki figure is a shared cultural expression across Polynesia, reflecting the broad seafaring connections among these distant islands. In New Zealand, the hei tiki is a distinct adaptation made from pounamu, a treasured local stone prized for its strength and beauty.

Historical Significance

The hei tiki is more than jewelry; it embodies Maori ancestors and spiritual beliefs. Wearing one connects people to their heritage, preserves tradition, and celebrates Polynesian cultural ties. Globally, it represents Indigenous craftsmanship and identity from New Zealand.

This tiny pendant tells tales of Polynesian migration, artistry, and respect for nature — a powerful symbol packed into a small piece of greenstone.

Learn More: Hei Tiki

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Stonewall Jackson: General Lee's Lieutenant

Thomas J. Jackson (1824-1863), better known as Stonewall Jackson, was one of the most famous Confederate generals of the American Civil War (1861-1865). A veteran of the Mexican-American War and a former VMI instructor, he joined the Confederate army in 1861 and rose to prominence in his Shenandoah Valley Campaign (March to June 1862). He became the right-hand man of General Robert E. Lee (1807-1870) and led the Second Corps of the Army of Northern Virginia, which included his celebrated 'Stonewall Brigade'. On 2 May 1863, Jackson was wounded by friendly fire during the Battle of Chancellorsville and died of pneumonia eight days later. His loss was greatly lamented across the South.

Early Life

Thomas Jonathan Jackson was born on 21 January 1824 in Clarksburg, Virginia (now West Virginia). He was the third child born to Jonathan Jackson, a lawyer of Scotch-Irish descent, and his wife, Julia Beckwith Neale Jackson. His early years were marred by tragedy. On 6 March 1826, when he was only two years old, he was at the bedside of his older sister Elizabeth as she died of typhoid fever. His father, having nursed Elizabeth in her dying days, caught the same fever and died a few weeks later. Julia Jackson gave birth to another daughter, Laura Ann, the day after her husband's death; widowed at only 28 and with three young children to feed, she was forced to sell the family's possessions to get enough money to scrape by. She remarried in 1830, but her health was fragile, and she died the following year, leaving her children orphaned. Jackson and his little sister, Laura, were sent to live with their uncle, Cummins E. Jackson. Their older brother, Warren, went to live with other relatives and died of tuberculosis at age 20.

Growing up, Jackson often helped Cummins around the farm, tending sheep and harvesting crops. With little time for formal education, he had to educate himself and could often be found with his nose buried in a book. During these years, he formed a close bond with his sister Laura, and their devotion to one another would last until their estrangement during the Civil War – a staunch Unionist, Laura would become disgusted by Jackson's leadership role in the Confederate army. In 1842, Jackson was accepted as a cadet at the US Military Academy at West Point, New York. Due to his lack of schooling, he soon fell behind the other students and had to work extra hard to catch up. He graduated in June 1846, ranking 17th in a class of 59 students. He was commissioned as a second lieutenant and assigned to Company K of the 1st US Artillery Regiment.

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⇒ Stonewall Jackson: General Lee's Lieutenant

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A Gallery of Zeppelin Airships

The Zeppelin was a category of rigid airship first designed and built in Germany by Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin. The first Zeppelin airship flew in 1900, and they became popular in peacetime as passenger liners. The airships were then used in the Zeppelin bombing raids of WWI (1914-18). In the interwar years, the transatlantic Zeppelins regularly carried passengers from Europe to New York and Rio. Following the Hindenburg disaster of May 1937, when the LZ 129 Hindenburg's hydrogen gas cells caught fire and destroyed the airship, Zeppelin travel fell out of public favour, to be replaced after WWII (1939-45) by commercial airplanes. This gallery shows this brief but glamorous history in pictures.

Those who had not travelled on the Zeppelin before could not tear themselves away from the windows, running from one side to the other, exclaiming at every new phase of the scenery. Others were fascinated by the cabin arrangement, the charming little sleeping compartments…

Lady Drummond Hay in 1929 on the Graf Zeppelin (Christopher, 7 & 91)

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⇒ A Gallery of Zeppelin Airships

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A map tracing the extraordinary journeys of Ibn Battuta (1304–c.1368), a 14th-century Maghrebi explorer and Islamic scholar born in Tangier. Over nearly three decades, he traveled 75,000 miles (120,000 km) across the Islamic world and beyond — from Morocco and Mali to India, China, and the Maldives — recording his experiences in The Rihla (Arabic: رحلة, Journey). His travel account remains one...