#Central nervous system

[underneaththatblackblanket]

"The 200+ Symptoms of Fibromyalgia"

(Note: Some symptoms may overlap)

GENERAL

1. Activity level decreased to less than 50% of pre-illness activity level

2. Cold hands and feet (extremities)

3. Cough

4. Craving carbohydrates

5. Delayed reaction to physical activity or stressful events

6. Dryness of eyes and/or mouth

7. Edema (Oedema)

8. Family member(s) with Fibromyalgia

9. Fatigue, made worse by physical exertion or stress

10. Feeling cold often

11. Feeling hot often

12. Frequent sighing

13. Heart palpitations

14. Hoarseness

15. Hypoglycemia (blood sugar falls or low)

16. Increased thirst

17. Low blood pressure (below 110/70)

18. Low body temperature (below 97.6)

19. Low-grade fevers

20. Night sweats

21. Noisy joints – with or without pain

22. Poor circulation in hands/feet

23. Profuse sweating

24. Recurrent flu-like illness

25. Shortness of breath with little or no exertion

26. Severe nasal allergies (new or worsening allergies)

27. Sore throat

28. Subjective swelling of extremities – (feels swollen Bu can’t find anything)

29. Sweats

30. Symptoms worsened by air travel

31. Symptoms worsened by stress

32. Symptoms worsened by temperature changes

33. Tender or swollen lymph nodes, especially in neck and underarms

34. Tremor or trembling

35. Unexplained weight gain or loss

PAIN

36. Abdominal wall pain

37. Bad hip pain

38. Burning Nerve Pain

39. Chest pain

40. Collarbone pain

41. Diffuse swelling

42. Elbow pain

43. Exacerbated Plantar arch or heel pain

44. “Growing” pains that don’t go away once you are done growing

45. Headache – tension or migraine

46. Inflamed Rib Cartilage

47. Joint pain

48. Lumpy, tender breasts

49. Morning stiffness

50. Muscle pain - widespread

51. Muscle spasms

52. Muscle twitching

53. Muscle weakness

54. Pain that ranges from moderate to severe

55. Pain that moves around the body

56. Paralysis or severe weakness of an arm or leg

57. Restless Leg Syndrome

58. Rib Pain

59. Scalp Pain (like hair being pulled out)

60. Sciatica-like pain

61. Tender points or trigger points

62. TMJ syndrome

63. “Voodoo Doll” Poking Sensation in random places

NEUROLOGICAL

64. Blackouts

65. Brain fog

66. Carpal Tunnel

67. Feeling spaced out

68. Hallucinating smells

69. Inability to think clearly

70. Lightheadedness

71. Noise intolerance

72. Numbness or tingling sensations

73. Photophobia (sensitivity to light)

74. Seizures

75. Seizure-like episodes

76. Sensation that you might faint

77. Syncope (fainting)

78. Tinnitus (ringing in one or both ears)

79. Vertigo or dizziness

EQUILIBRIUM/PERCEPTION

80. Bumping into things

81. Clumsy Walking

82. Difficulty balancing

83. Difficulty judging distances (when driving, etc.)

84. Directional disorientation

85. Dropping things frequently

86. Feeling spatially disoriented

87. Frequent tripping or stumbling

88. Not seeing what you’re looking at

89. Poor balance and coordination

90. Staggering gait

SLEEP

91. Alertness/energy best late at night

92. Altered sleep/wake schedule

93. Awakening frequently

94. Difficulty falling asleep

95. Difficulty staying asleep

96. Excessive sleeping

97. Extreme alertness or energy levels late at night

98. Falling asleep at random and sometimes dangerous moments

99. Fatigue

100. Light or broken sleep pattern

101. Muscle spasms/twitches at night

102. Narcolepsy

103. Sleep disturbances

104. Sleep starts or falling sensations

105. Teeth grinding - "Bruxism"

106. Tossing and turning

107. Un-refreshing or non-restorative sleep

108. Vivid or disturbing dreams/nightmares

EYES/VISION

109. Blind spots in vision

110. Eye pain

111. Difficulty switching focus from one thing to another

112. Frequent changes in ability to see well

113. Night driving difficulty

114. Occasional Blurry vision

115. Poor night vision

116. Rapidly worsening vision

117. Vision changes

COGNITIVE

118. Becoming lost in familiar locations when driving

119. Confusion

120. Difficulty expressing ideas in words

121. Difficulty following conversation (especially if background noise present)

122. Difficulty following directions while driving

123. Difficulty following oral instructions

124. Difficulty following written instructions

125. Difficulty making decisions

126. Difficulty moving your mouth to speak

127. Difficulty paying attention

128. Difficulty putting ideas together to form a complete picture

129. Difficulty putting tasks or things in proper sequence

130. Difficulty recognizing faces

131. Difficulty speaking known words

132. Difficulty remembering names of objects

133. Difficulty remembering names of people

134. Difficulty understanding what you read

135. Difficulty with long-term memory

136. Difficulty with simple calculations

137. Difficulty with short-term memory

138. Easily distracted during a task

139. Dyslexia-type symptoms occasionally

140. Feeling too disoriented to drive

141. Forgetting how to do routine things

142. Impaired ability to concentrate

143. Inability to recognize familiar surroundings

144. Losing track in the middle of a task (remembering what to do next)

145. Losing your train of thought in the middle of a sentence

146. Loss of ability to distinguish some colors

147. Poor judgment

148. Short term memory impairment

149. Slowed speech

150. Staring into space trying to think

151. Stuttering; stammering

152. Switching left and right

153. Transposition (reversal) of numbers, words and/or letters when you speak

154. Transposition (reversal) of numbers, words and/or letters when you write

155. Trouble concentrating

156. Using the wrong word

157. Word-finding difficulty

EMOTIONAL

158. Abrupt and/or unpredictable mood swings

159. Anger outbursts

160. Anxiety or fear when there is no obvious cause

161. Attacks of uncontrollable rage

162. Decreased appetite

163. Depressed mood

164. Feeling helpless and/or hopeless

165. Fear of someone knocking on the door

166. Fear of telephone ringing

167. Feeling worthless

168. Frequent crying

169. Heightened awareness – of symptoms

170. Inability to enjoy previously enjoyed activities

171. Irrational fears

172. Irritability

173. Overreaction

174. Panic attacks

175. Personality changes –usually a worsening of pervious condition

176. Phobias

177. Suicide attempts

178. Suicidal thoughts

179. Tendency to cry easily

GASTROINTESTINAL

180. Abdominal cramps

181. Bloating

182. Decreased appetite

183. Food cravings

184. Frequent constipation

185. Frequent diarrhea

186. Gerd-like Symptoms

187. Heartburn

188. Increased appetite

189. Intestinal gas

190. Irritable bladder - "Angry Bladder Syndrome"

191. Irritable bowel syndrome - IBS-C, IBS-D

192. Nausea

193. Regurgitation

194. Stomachache

195. Vomiting

196. Weight gain - unexplained

197. Weight loss - unexplained

UROGENITAL

198. Decreased libido (sex drive)

199. Endometriosis

200. Frequent urination

201. Impotence

202. Menstrual problems

203. Painful urination or bladder pain - "Interstitial Cystitis"

204. Pelvic pain

205. Prostate pain

206. Worsening of (or severe) premenstrual syndrome (PMS or PMDD)

SENSITIVITIES

207. Alcohol intolerance

208. Allodynia (hypersensitive to touch)

209. Alteration of taste, smell, and/or hearing

210. Sensitivity to chemicals in cleaning products, perfumes, etc.

211. Sensitivities to foods

212. Sensitivity to light

213. Sensitivity to mold

214. Sensitivity to noise

215. Sensitivity to odors

216. Sensitivity to yeast (getting yeast infections frequently on skin, etc.)

217. Sensory overload

218. Sensitivity to pressure & humidity changes

219. Sensitivity to extreme temperature changes

220. Vulvodynia

SKIN

221. Able to “write” on skin with finger

222. Bruising easily

223. Bumps and lumps

224. Eczema or psoriasis

225. Hot/dry skin

226. Ingrown hairs

227. Itchy/Irritable skin

228. Mottled skin

229. Rashes or sores

230. Scarring easily

231. Sensitivity to the sun

232. Skin suddenly turns bright red

CARDIOVASCULAR (Heart)

233. “Click-murmur” sounds through stethoscope

234. Fluttery heartbeat

235. Heart palpitations

236. Irregular heartbeat

237. Loud pulse in ear

238. Pain that mimics heart attack - "Costochondritis"

239. Rapid heartbeat

HAIR/NAILS

240. Dull, listless hair

241. Heavy and splitting cuticles

242. Irritated nail beds

243. Nails that curve under

244. Pronounced nail ridges

245. Temporary hair loss

OTHER

246. Canker sores

247. Dental problems

248. Disk Degeneration

​249. Hemorrhoids

250. Nose bleeds

251. Periodontal (gum) disease

252. Need for early hysterectomy

[becauseanders]

i hate you ehlers-danlos syndrome i hate you pots i hate you chronic migraines i hate you brainstem auras i hate you central nervous system complications i hate you degenerative disc disease i hate you hypotension i hate you osteoarthritis i hate you fibromyalgia i hate you tmj disorder i hate you carpal tunnel i hate you mcas

[bpod-bpod]

Nervous System Shapers

Identifying the genes that regulate the shaping and maintenance of the fruit fly central nervous system – insight for possible roles for homologous genes in mammals

Read the published research article here

Image from work by Haluk Lacin and Yuqing Zhu, and colleagues

Division of Biological and Biomedical Systems, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City and Department of Genetics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA

Image originally published with a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0)

Published in bioRxiv, February 2024 (not peer reviewed)

You can also follow BPoD on Instagram, Twitter and Facebook

[justkidneying]

Q: Are the eyes and optic nerve (aka CN II) part of the central nervous system or peripheral nervous system?

A: CNS

I know we say that the PNS has 12 cranial nerves, but that is false. It has 11 (CNI,CNIII-CNXII). How do we know this? Embryology, my dude (and pathology)

So the eyes come out of the brain around 3 wks after fertilization. They are a diverticulum of the brain (as everything in your body is a diverticulum of something else). The retina and optic nerve come out of the neural ectoderm. The lens comes from the surface ectoderm. If you know embryology, everything in medicine and anatomy will become so much clearer, trust me.

*we are like balloon dogs, just one long tube that got twisted around a bunch*

Anyways, pathologically, we can tell that the eyes are part of the CNS as well. What does Multiple Sclerosis do? It demyelinates the CNS....and the optic nerve. What does Guillian-Barre do? It demyelinates the PNS...but not the optic nerve.

So why do we call the optic nerves...nerves when they should be a tract? (remember that axons of the CNS are called tracts, and in the PNS they are called nerves) Honestly, I have no idea. It was probably some dumbass anatomist...and he probably also thought humans have one heart...

[thestorybotsfanlol]

PNS and CNS

PNS=Peripheral Nervous System

CNS=Central Nervous System

Creidts to Amoeba Sisters

[1introvertedsage]

It’s such a long process unlearning and healing from trauma and abuse.

I wonder if the damage ever fully leaves.

Something so simple and innocent can send the central nervous system into a frenzy and the body into fight or flight.

Just breathe

[jcsmicasereports]

Primary dural-based parafalcine diffuse large b-cell lymphoma mimicking meningioma by Amr El Mohamad in Journal of Clinical Case Reports Medical Images and Health Sciences

Abstract

Background: Primary dural-based diffuse large B-cell lymphoma is very rare. Only few cases were reported in the literature. Case presentation: Herein, we present a case of an immunocompetent patient with primary dural-based diffuse large B-cell lymphomas mimicking meningioma associated with ghost tumor phenomenon without any evidence of a systemic lymphoma. Conclusion: Primary central nervous system lymphomas are rare. Clinicians should always consider this lesion as a differential diagnosis if radiological findings are not indicative of typical one meningiomas.

Key words: Dural-based tumor, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, ghost tumor, MATRIX regimen, central nervous system.

Introduction

Primary central nervous system lymphomas (CNSLs) (PCNSLs) are rare and account for 2%–5% of all brain tumor cases, whereas secondary CNSLs are more common [1,2]. One study has shown that the most common intraparenchymal histological type is diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, as among 26 patients with PCNSL, 25 had diffuse large B-cell lymphoma [3]. Although primary dural-based lymphomas are rare, the most common area of involvement is the cerebral hemispheres. Most dural-based lymphomas are secondary and present as extra-nodal systemic diffuse large B-cell lymphomas. Primary dural-based lymphomas are usually histologically marginal-zone lymphomas, representing a group of lymphomas that have been historically classified together because they appear to arise from post-germinal center and marginal-zone B cells and share a similar immunophenotype, and few cases were reported to be diffuse large B lymphomas [4]. Here, we present a case of an immunocompetent patient with primary dural-based diffuse large B-cell lymphomas mimicking meningioma associated with ghost tumor phenomenon without any evidence of systemic disease.

Case Presentation

A 58-year-old male individual previously healthy and immunocompetent presented with headache, recurrent vomiting, and memory problems lasting for 3 days. No loss of consciousness, seizure, subjective weakness, or fever was observed. On physical examination, the patient’s Glasgow coma scale score was 15; his pupils were 3 mm in diameter, equal, and reactive; and the patient had nominal aphasia without motor and sensory deficit. He had normal cerebellar functions, and cranial nerve exams revealed no deficit. Head computed tomography (CT) (Fig. 1) showed a 2.2 × 3.8 cm (transverse × anteroposterior) iso-dense lesion with internal hypodensity in the left parasagittal frontal region extending to the right frontal region. Extensive perilesional edema was observed with effacement of the sulci and mass effect on bilateral frontal horns, associated with 3-mm midline shift. Head magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) showed an isointense parasagittal lesion on T1 and heterogeneous intense on T2, with redemonstration of perifocal edema (Fig. 2). Head T1-weighted imaging with contrast enhancement (Fig. 3) showed a large, left frontal, parafalcine, irregular-shaped mass located below the superior sagittal sinus level. It measured 4 × 3 × 3.3 cm in anteroposterior, mediolateral, and craniocaudal, respectively. It showed diffusion restriction (Fig. 4). There was central hyperintensity on T2-weighted imaging, without post-contrast enhancement area representing cyst formation. It exerts a mass effect characterized by effacement of the adjacent sulci, compression of the left lateral ventricle, and a 3-mm shift of the midline structures to the right side, and the impression of our neuroradiologist was atypical meningioma. Regarding extensive edema, dexamethasone was started at a dose of 4 mg, thrice a day, and the patient was planned for craniotomy and resection of the tumor. Initially, the patient was reluctant to undergo surgery; however, subsequently, the patient agreed to undergo surgery after approximately 10 days. During surgery, parasagittal craniotomy was performed; however, to our surprise, no definite mass lesion was found at the proposed site, in contrast to the findings described on imaging. The falx was thinned out and partly deficient. A biopsy sample was obtained from this abnormally appearing falx. Moreover, we obtained biopsy samples under neuronavigation guidance from abnormally appearing tissue, which was completely intra-axial, deep down in the lesion visualized on navigation. On postoperative day 1, MRI head with contrast enhancement (Fig. 5) showed that the previously seen lesion had a significant regression in size. Its right frontal extension and adjacent enhanced meningeal tail showed size reduction. Moreover, some regression in the perilesional vasogenic edema was observed. A significant regression in the previously described enhancement was noted at the left-side lentiform nucleus and external capsule. The MR spectroscopy study showed an increased choline/N-acetyl aspartate ratio and elevated lactate level within the lesion.

The histopathology results of the first brain biopsy samples (Figs.6–7) obtained from the falx cerebri showed meningothelial hyperplasia with calcification and focal perivascular lymphocytic infiltrate composed of small and large, atypical lymphocytes. Immunohistochemical staining was performed; however, the area of interest disappeared. The pathology team recommended another fresh biopsy to have the final diagnosis and flowmetry studies. So, the patient underwent redo craniotomy using the same incision, and multiple biopsy samples were taken. The second fresh brain biopsy (Figs. 8–9) showed multiple brain fragments with predominant perivascular atypical lymphoid infiltrates. Most cells were medium to large with moderate cytoplasm, atypical irregular nuclei having vesicular chromatin, variably prominent nucleoli, and several mitoses, including atypical one. Necrotic areas were also seen. Immunohistochemistry of the second biopsy (Fig.10 A-D) showed that atypical perivascular cells were positive for CD45, CD20, CD79a, BCl2, BCl6, MUM1, OCT2, and C-MYC, and negative for CD10, CD21, TDT, ALK1, EBV-LMP1, CD3, and CD5; however, few reactive/residual lymphocytes were positive for these enzymes. Moreover, 80% of lymphoid cellular nuclei were positive for Ki67. These findings were consistent with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, not otherwise specified.

Whole-body positron emission tomography (PET) showed intense fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) uptake higher than that in the healthy brain cortex, without evidence of coexisting systemic disease. In addition to PET scan, contrast-enhanced chest, abdomen, pelvis CT did not show any other lesions in the body; furthermore, workup for viral markers and autoimmune conditions were all unremarkable, thus confirming the diagnosis of “primary dural-based diffuse large B-cell lymphoma,” distinguishing it from secondary CNSL. The patient was transferred to the Oncology Department and started on three cycles of the methotrexate, cytarabine, thiotepa, and rituximab (MATRIX) protocol, which is the current standard treatment regimen for PCNSLs [5]. Three months after the diagnosis and after receiving two cycles of the MATRIX protocol, brain MRI with contrast enhancement (Fig. 11A, B) showed regression of the lesion, and PET scan showed complete metabolic resolution in terms of decreased FDG activity of the previously seen PCNSL without signs of lymphoma activity elsewhere. Subsequently, the patient received the third cycle of the MATRIX protocol without specific complications. Two weeks later, autologous stem cell transplantation (50 × 106/kg) was performed as part of the consolidation phase of treatment. Six weeks later, conditioning chemotherapy with carmustine–thiotepa was administered, followed by stem cell infusion (CD34 = 12 million/kg). The post-transplant course was complicated with mucositis, folliculitis, diarrhea, febrile neutropenia, and prolonged thrombocytopenia. Two months after transplantation, PET scan was repeated and showed complete metabolic resolution of initially seen PCNSL involvement. Currently, the patient is being followed by the hematology team; the patient is in good health and remission. The last outpatient follow-up was 8 months after the first surgery. The patient was seen by the vascular surgery (for permcath removal) and oncology teams. At this time, the patient was stable with complete remission; then, the patient was lost to follow-up. Another head MRI was performed and showed almost total regression of the lesion.

Discussion

Lymphomas in CNS are classified as primary, arising de novo from brain parenchyma, leptomeninges, eye, and spinal cord and as secondary to systemic lymphoma, which can be dural-based lesions. Secondary CNSLs are more common than PCNSLs. Most PCNSLs are intraparenchymal diffuse large B-cell lymphomas with a predilection to occur in the frontal lobe and then deep nucleic and periventricular locations; the infratentorial cerebellum is the most common location. However, primary dural-based lymphomas are rare, and even when found, they are histologically marginal-zone lymphomas. Few cases of primary dural-based diffuse large B-cell lymphoma have been reported in the literature [4,6]. Furthermore, PCNSLs are more common in immunocompromised patients with a mean age of 34 years, and they occur in immunocompetent individuals at an older age with a mean of 52 years [7]. The patient in this case report was 58 years old and immunocompetent without significant previous medical conditions. The latest review of the literature on primary dural-based lymphoma has been conducted by Quinn et al., who have found only 24 reported cases of primary dural-based diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, which confirms the rarity of the disease and subsequently the limited knowledge regarding this disease entity [8]. CNSLs have rapid response to steroids with shrinkage in size and initial remission [9]. Moreover, the initial response to steroids is associated with a better response to chemoradiotherapy and good prognosis [9]. In the patient in this case report, there was an unintentional delay of surgery for approximately 10 days, and the patient was on steroids (dexamethasone). In this case report, the failure to identify a discrete lesion of the size expected as perceived on initial imaging, despite proper surgical planning using neuronavigation, was probably due to the rapid regression of the tumor in response to steroids. This phenomenon agrees with the scientific literature reporting about the disappearance of lymphomas in response to steroids (ghost tumors) [10,11]. The pathogenesis of primary dural-based lymphoma remains unknown as there is no lymphoid tissue in the dura. It is hypothesized that it is related to chronic infection, autoimmune disease, or chronic inflammatory condition, which recruits polyclonal lymphocytes resulting in monoclonal lymphomas [6]. In contrast, the patient in this case report did not have any chronic conditions. All workups were negative, including the entire viral panel and autoimmune markers. Basic research is needed to determine the etiology of PCNSL, especially dural-based lymphomas. In the patient in this case report, the initial radiological findings were mimicking those of a meningioma: dural-based and uniformly enhanced. There was significant surrounding edema, significant diffusion restriction, and blooming in susceptibility-weighted image, which goes more with higher-grade meningioma or another high-grade lesion. One review has shown that primary dural-based lymphomas can display the “dural tail “sign, further confusing the preoperative diagnosis with meningioma [12], which did happen in the patient in this case report. Therefore, we suggest that in case of a dural-based lesion that has non-typical features of grade 1 meningioma, clinicians should consider lymphoma in the differential diagnosis and avoid steroids unless necessary due to edema and mass effect keeping in mind the ghost tumor phenomena of lymphoma.

The role of surgery in PCNSLs is limited mainly to histological diagnosis through biopsy or tumor debulking in case of increased intracranial pressure or impending brain herniation. Some studies have shown no benefit of complete surgical resection of PCNSLs; however, a recent systematic review of 244 articles has shown evidence in support of cytoreductive surgery [13]. Previously, whole-brain radiotherapy (WBRT) was the recommended treatment; however, this treatment modality resulted in a high rate of relapse and a decrease in performance status and cognitive impairment, and with the improvement in survival with high-dose methotrexate, WBRT is no longer recommended. Currently, newly diagnosed PCNSLs are initially treated with induction chemotherapy until complete radiological response, followed by consolidation therapy, to prolong the overall survival [14]. The International Extra Nodal Lymphoma Study Group-32 trial has shown that a methotrexate-based MATRIX regimen results in a good outcome and control rate in PCNSL [5], and it is the standard induction chemotherapy. Ferreri AJM, in his article “The role of autologous stem cell transplantation in PCNSL” has compared various consolidation phase treatment modalities, including beam radiation, carmustine–thiotepa regimens, and autologous stem cell transplantation, and the results showed that autologous stem cell transplantation resulted in good outcomes [15]. The patient in this case report showed a good response to treatment with almost total resolution of PCNSL with three cycles of MATRIX chemotherapy, followed by conditioning chemotherapy with stem cell infusion.

Conclusion

PCNSL is a rare entity. Clinicians should always consider it in differential diagnosis of meningioma if the radiological findings are not typical for meningioma. When there is a high index of suspicion of lymphoma, repeating neuroimaging, particularly MRI, before surgery, especially if the surgery is delayed while the patient is on steroids, may help develop a better management plan while dealing with this rare lesion. In case of lesion disappearance, falx biopsy can be an option. The aim of surgery in PCNSL is mainly biopsy or debulking to decrease intracranial pressure in case of significant mass effect.

List of abbreviation:

Primary central nervous system lymphomas (PCNSLs)

Central nervous system lymphomas (CNSLs)

Head computed tomography (CT)

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

positron emission tomography (PET)

fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG)

whole-brain radiotherapy (WBRT)

[ricisidro]

#LongCovid and Cognitive Deficits by @EricTopol

"None of this is good news for Long Covid and the brain, folks."

https://erictopol.substack.com/p/long-covid-and-cognitive-deficits?utm_campaign=post&triedRedirect=true

#psychiatry #neuroscience #BrainHealth #Neurology #brain #SARSCoV2 #COVID19 #CentralNervousSystem #NervousSystem #BrainFog

[estefanyailen]

[er-cryptid]

[unflappedflea]

GUGA EVERYONE SAY HI TO GUGA!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

[surinderbhalla]

Fibromyalgia: Latest Findings and prevention tips!

Fibromyalgia is a chronic disorder characterized by widespread musculoskeletal pain, tenderness, and other symptoms. Despite its prevalence, fibromyalgia has long been shrouded in mystery due to its complex and often elusive nature. However, recent research has shed new light on the condition. In this blog, we will be discussing fibromyalgia, Its latest findings, and prevention tips. We will also…

[teachersource]

Santiago Ramón y Cajal was born on May 1, 1852. A Spanish neuroscientist, pathologist, and histologist specializing in neuroanatomy and the central nervous system. He and Camillo Golgi received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906. Ramón y Cajal was the first person of Spanish origin to win a scientific Nobel Prize. His original investigations of the microscopic structure of the brain made him a pioneer of modern neuroscience. Hundreds of his drawings illustrating the arborizations ("tree growing") of brain cells are still in use, since the mid-20th century, for educational and training purposes.

[ahb-writes]

Spinal Reflexes || Unconventional Senses and Sensory Attributes

❯ ❯ Spinal Reflexes

Also not considered among the traditional senses, reflexes are important and effective components of sensory stimulus-reaction complexes. Reflexes are involuntary or unintentional (uncontrolled). Each type of reflex response is initiated by sensory stimuli relayed from any of the other major senses. Most importantly, the stimulus itself excites specialized sensory receptors that respond unambiguously to a certain type, quality, or intensity of stimulation.

Interestingly, reflexive actions receive their signals from the spinal cord. This makes them considerably faster than one's normal reactions because they bypass the traditional neural pathway (the brain). Not to say the brain is uninvolved. The brain continuously builds, adapts, and influences spinal circuitry, in both short- and long-term development, and many spinal reflexes operate simultaneously as a result. An overview of the main types of spinal reflexes will include: stretch reflex (muscle contraction), crossed-extensor reflex (opposite limb compensating for loss of support), withdrawal reflex (nociceptive reflex, protecting the body from pain), and autogenic inhibition reflex (negative feedback mechanism to control muscle tension).

"The spinal cord is the simplest and most technically accessible part of the mammalian [central nervous system]. Thus, spinal cord reflexes, the brain's influence over them, and the spinal cord plasticity this influence produces provide the basis of a powerful experimental protocol for studying the mechanisms and substrates of learning." (Encyclopedia of Neuroscience)

❯ ❯ Adapted from a senses-writing masterpost: 15 Unconventional Senses and Sensory Attributes

[drchristophedelongsblog]

From frontal cortex to motor plate: a neuronal ballet

When you decide to raise your hand in greeting, a veritable neuronal orchestra is set in motion:

Primary motor cortex:

This is where the motor impulse originates, in the frontal lobe. Neurons in this area send precise electrical signals, like a musical score, to tell the muscles what movement to make.

The pyramidal pathway:

These electrical signals then travel along the pyramidal pathway, a bundle of nerve fibers linking the brain to the spinal cord. It's a bit like a freeway linking the capital (the brain) to the provinces (the rest of the body).

Spinal cord:

Once the signals have reached their destination, they are relayed to the motor neurons, the messengers that transmit the contraction command to the muscles.

The neuromuscular junction:

At the motor plate, the encounter between nerve and muscle triggers a chemical reaction that causes muscle contraction. It's like lighting a fuse to set off a firework!

But that's not all!

Other brain regions also play a crucial role:

- Premotor cortex: plans and organizes complex movement sequences.

- Basal ganglia: Regulates the initiation and amplitude of movements.

- Cerebellum: Ensures coordination, balance and precision of movements.

And did you know...

- Reflexes are involuntary, rapid and stereotyped movements that do not pass through the cerebral cortex.

- Damage to certain areas of the brain can lead to motor disorders, such as Parkinson's disease or multiple sclerosis.

- Neuroscientists use brain imaging techniques (MRI, EEG) to study brain activity during movement.

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