#19th century techniques

[alwaysbewoke]

Thomas Jennings was a free man born in 1791 in New York City. He was 30 years old when he was granted a patent for a dry cleaning process. In his early 20s Thomas Jennings became a tailor, and later opened a dry cleaning business in the city. As a tailor. Jennings' skills were so admired that people near and far came to him to alter or custom tailor items of clothing for them. Eventually, Jennings reputation grew such that he was able to open his own store on Church street which grew into one of the largest clothing stores in New York City. While running his business Jennings developed dry-scouring. He had many customers complain of their clothes being ruined by stains and so he began experimenting with cleaners and mixtures that would remove the stains without harming the material. He earned a large amount of money as a tailor and even more with his dry scouring invention and most of the money he earned went to his abolitionist activities. In 1831, Thomas Jennings became assistant secretary for the First Annual Convention of the People of Color in Philadelphia, PA. Thomas L. Jennings Dry Scouring technique created modern day dry cleaning. Jennings was fortunate that he was a free man at the time of his invention. Besides all the other indignities and cruelties slaves had to face, they were also ineligible to hold a patent. Under the US patent laws of 1793 a person must sign an oath or declaration stating that they were a citizen of the USA. While there were, apparently, provisions through which a slave could enjoy patent protection, the ability of a slave to seek out, receive and defend a patent was unlikely. Later, in 1858, the patent office changed the laws, stating that since slaves were not citizens, they could not hold a patent. Furthermore, the court said that the slave owner, not being the true inventor could not apply for a patent either. Thomas Jennings died in New York City in 1856.

[empirearchives]

Köbbler Sisters in ‘pas de deux de Shawl’ —Watercolor illustration by Johannes Jelgerhuis, 1812, Napoleonic era

According to Manon Schooneman, this illustration (drawn in 1812) is the earliest documented evidence of pointe ballet, which is the style of ballet where dancers stand on their toes.

This drawing was a surprising discovery because it was widely believed that the pointe technique was first performed in 1825 by the Swedish-Italian ballerina Marie Taglioni.

Background on the drawing:

Depicts an Austrian-German family of dancers, the sisters Köbbler, who moved to the Netherlands (which was then part of the French state under the Napoleonic Empire) in the 1810s.

(Source: Allard Pierson Vertelt: Tekening van de eerste spitz)

[historyguide]

The Groenmarkt at The Hague by Petrus van Schendel.

[desolatus]

The Swan Maidens, C. 1894

Walter Crane

[oceancentury]

The Marchioness of Waterford and her first child Lady Blanche Maud de la Poer Beresford. Circa 1898. Ireland.

[thedailydescent]

My opinion after watching the Artful Dodger: needed more gore and sex, otherwise it was brilliant👍

[alisfelia]

academic art

Academic art, a style prevalent in the 19th century, adhered to traditional techniques and subject matter, often depicting historical, mythological, or biblical themes. It emphasized realism, precise draftsmanship, and idealized forms, aiming to elevate the viewer's moral and intellectual sensibilities. Led by institutions like the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, academic art set strict standards, which some saw as stifling creativity. Yet, its influence persisted, shaping the development of art education and laying the groundwork for later movements to rebel against its conventions.

flaming june by frederic leighton

[spockvarietyhour]

[localcryptideli]

Dual wielding has been used in multiple places and multiple times in history and it comes with very precise techniques and schools of fighting.

Just one example off the top of my head because I am having bad exhaustion right now but 16th century Naples was very big on rapier+knife as a fighting style, to the point that a lot of HEMA schools that specialize un rapier or italian fighting styles tend to specialize in that too. It's not only practical snd very safe when taught properly, but it was the favourite way of fighting for many people if you lived in the area at that time.

"dual wielding is too dangerous and impractical to be effective in real life combat" dual wielding is cool and sexy and sick as fuck and he who makes his enemy look like a lame little punk ass loser has already won half the battle before he even starts fighting the war. sun tzu said that.

[fashionsfromhistory]

Day Dress

c.1855

England

This type of widely protruding skirt that appeared around the middle of the 19th century came to be known later under the name of the "crinoline style." As can be seen with this dress, large design motifs proved immensely effective on these voluminous skirts. The border pattern here is wood-block printed and repeats every 20.6 cm. Compared to small-scale designs, large patterns require a solid technique to avoid misalignment of the print colors. Considering that this mixed fabric of silk and wool is a material hard to print on, this dress with its bright and cheerful colors is a particularly fine example on how much cloth printing techniques had evolved.

The Kyoto Costume Institute

[agarthanguide]

It’s finally time for another proper series- the Bells Hells in historical art styles!

First up is Saint Laudna with the tools of her martyrdom as stained glass. This is technically in the style of 19th century medieval revivalism.

I had a ton of fun studying stained glass techniques so I could replicate them while working on this. I specifically used a lot of (digital) sgraffito and back staining.

Fun fact- the “stain” in stained glass refers to silver stain, generally silver nitrate, which was used to build yellows on white glass, or greens on cobalt blue glass.

[beautysnake]

Okay I know this horse has been beaten to death but I've been chewing on this for a while and I still havent seen anyone mention anything--

Im running with the assumption the picture of Narinder on the Lamb's desk is a photograph due to the rendering being completely different than their drawings.

Judging by the phonograph, we can assume the more advanced technology in this world is on par with the latter half of the 19th century (or at least vaguely victorian era inspired; 1820-1914). During this time photography was growing in popularity. Many methods evolved to refine the technique but a popular format for capturing portraits specifically was a daguerreotype.

And, well, here's the thing about early photography

do what you will with this knowledge, but theres good reason why victorian era portraits always looked so stoic

Moreover, there's a good chance Narinder had to hold this pose for at least 30 seconds, and at most 30 minutes

[bijoumikhawal]

RE: how the tattoos would look when you get older and archeological evidence from an Egyptian perspective

Tattoos that were done at a young age in most of history would indeed distort and get blow out as you got older, to the point of being nearly unrecognizable if you got very old. Some photos of Egyptian women I've seen with traditional tattoos look like their faces are just smudged. However, those are VERY old women, often in their 80s or 90s. Traditional tattooing in Egypt is sometimes done as an adult, but written records indicate it was common for children as young as 5 to get tattoos. Copts traditionally tattooed our children at a young age too (some Copts I've talked to think this was to prevent them being kidnapped), but today I don't think doing them that young is as common for a lot of people, especially not for Copts in diaspora or in cities. These days a lot of us machines too, so the tattoo quality is better, but based on that and those old women likely being tattooed as children, I agree that the tattoo would distort over time. It also means that even by 30 or so, the tattoo design may still be recognizable, but there probably would be blow out making the tattoo appear blue-ish like you suggested

additionally in Egyptian archeology there's trouble establishing the commonality of tattoos for similar reasons you've described. One is we aren't sure of certain items were for tattooing, and the other is that tattoos on mummies are rarely visible with the naked eye. You have to scan them with a machine (I forget which one) to get the images, and only a few mummies have been scanned. One of then was on display for decades before being scanned and no one noticed the tattoos, or something like that, to give an idea of how it's slipped notice

Did the ancient Celts really paint themselves blue?

Part 2: Irish tattoos

Clockwise from top left: Deirdre and Naoise from the Ulster Cycle by amylouioc, detail from The Marriage of Strongbow and Aoife by Daniel Maclise, a modern Celtic revival tattoo, Michael Flatley in a promotional image for the Irish step dance show 'Lord of the Dance'

This is my second post exploring the historical evidence for our modern belief that the ancient and medieval Insular Celts painted or tattooed themselves with blue pigment. In the first post, I discussed the fact that body paint seems to have been used by residents of Great Britain between approximately 50 BCE to 100 CE. In this post, I will examine the evidence for tattooing.

Once again, I am looking at sources pertaining to any ethnic group who lived in the British Isles, this time from the Roman Era to the early Middle Ages. The relevant text sources range from approximately 200 CE to 900 CE. I am including all British Isles cultures, because a) determining exactly which Insular culture various writers mean by terms like ‘Briton’, ‘Scot’, and ‘Pict’ is sometimes impossible and b) I don’t want to risk excluding any relevant evidence.

Continental Written Sources:

The earliest written source to mention tattoos in the British Isles is Herodian of Antioch’s History of the Roman Empire written circa 208 CE. In it, Herodian says of the Britons, "They tattoo their bodies with colored designs and drawings of all kinds of animals; for this reason they do not wear clothes, which would conceal the decorations on their bodies" (translation from MacQuarrie 1997). Herodian is probably reporting second-hand information given to him by soldiers who fought under Septimius Severus in Britain (MacQuarrie 1997) and shouldn't be considered a true primary source.

Also in the early 3rd century, Gaius Julius Solinus says in Collectanea Rerum Memorabilium 22.12, "regionem [Brittaniae] partim tenent barbari, quibus per artifices plagarum figuras iam inde a pueris variae animalium effigies incorporantur, inscriptisque visceribus hominis incremento pigmenti notae crescunt: nec quicquam mage patientiae loco nationes ferae ducunt, quam ut per memores cicatrices plurimum fuci artus bibant."

Translation: "The area [of Britain] is partly occupied by barbarians on whose bodies, from their childhood upwards, various forms of living creatures are represented by means of cunningly wrought marks: and when the flesh of the person has been deeply branded, then the marks of the pigment get larger as the man grows, and the barbaric nations regard it as the highest pitch of endurance to allow their limbs to drink in as much of the dye as possible through the scars which record this" (from MacQuarrie 1997).

This passage, like Herodian's, is clearly a description of tattooing, not body staining or painting. That said, I have no idea of tattoos actually work like this. I would think this would result in the adult having a faded, indistinct tattoo, but if anyone knows otherwise, please tell me.

The poet Claudian, writing in the early 5th c., is the first to specifically mention the Picts having tattoos (MacQuarrie 1997). In De Bello Gothico he says, "Venit & extremis legio praetenta Britannis,/ Quæ Scoto dat frena truci, ferroque notatas/ Perlegit exanimes Picto moriente figuras."

Translation: "The legion comes to make a trial of the most remote parts of Britain where it subdues the wild Scot and gazes on the iron-wrought figures on the face of the dying Pict" (from MacQuarrie 1997).

Last, and possibly least, of our Mediterranean sources is Isidore of Seville. In the early 7th c. he writes, "the Pictish race, their name derived from their body, which the efficient needle, with minute punctures, rubs in the juices squeezed from native plants so that it may bring these scars to its own fashion [. . .] The Scotti have their name from their own language by reason of [their] painted body, because they are marked by iron needles with dark coloring in the form of a marking of varying shapes." (translation from MacQuarrie 1997)

Isidore is the earliest writer to explicitly link the name 'Pict' to their 'painted' (Latin: pictus) i.e. tattooed bodies. Isidore probably borrowed information for his description from earlier writers like Claudian (MacQuarrie 1997).

In the 8th century, we have a source that definitely isn't Romans recycling old hearsay. In 786, a pair of papal legates visited the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria (Story 1995). In their report to Pope Hadrian, the legates condemn pagans who have "superimposed most hideous cicatrices" (i.e gotten tattoos), likening the pagan practice to coloring oneself "with dirty spots". The location of the visit indicates that these are Anglo-Saxon tattoos rather than Celtic, but some scholars have suggested that the Anglo-Saxons might have adopted the practice from the Brittonic Celts (MacQuarrie 1997).

A gloss in the margin of the late 9th c. German manuscript Fulda Aa 2 defines Stingmata [sic] as "put pictures on the bodies as the Irish (Scotti) do." (translation from MacQuarrie 1997).

Fulda Aa 2 folio 43r The gloss is on the left underlined in white.

Irish Written Sources:

Irish texts that mention tattoos date to approximately 700-900 CE, although some of them have glosses that may be slightly later, and some of them cannot be precisely dated.

The first text source is a poem known in English as "The Caldron of Poesy," written in the early 8th c. (Breatnach 1981). The poem is purportedly the work of Amairgen, ollamh of the legendary Milesian kings. In the first stanza of the poem, he introduces himself saying, "I being white-kneed, blue-shanked, grey-bearded Amairgen." (translation from Breatnach 1981)

The text of the poem with interline glosses from Trinity College Dublin MS 1337/1

The word garrglas (blue-shanked) has a Middle Irish (c. 900-1200) gloss added by a later scribe, defining garrglas as: "a tattooed shank, or who has the blue tattooed shank" (Breatnach 1981).

Although Amairgen was a mythical figure, the position ollamh was not. An ollamh was the highest rank of poet in medieval Ireland, considered worthy of the same honor-price as a king (Carey 1997, Breatnach 1981). The fact that a man of such esteemed status introduces himself with the descriptor 'blue-shanked' suggests that tattoos were a respectable thing to have in early medieval Ireland.

The leg tattoos are also mentioned c. 900 CE in Cormac’s Glossary. It defines feirenn as "a thong which is about the calf of a man whence ‘a tattooed thong is tattooed about [the] calf’" (translation from MacQuarrie 1997)

The Irish legal text Uraicecht Becc, dated to the 9th or early 10th c., includes the word creccoire on a list of low-status occupations (Szacillo 2012, MacNeill 1924). A gloss defines it as: crechad glass ar na roscaib, a phrase which Szacillo interprets as meaning "making grey-blue sore (tattooing) on the eyes" (2012). This sounds rather strange, but another early Irish text clarifies it.

The Vita sancti Colmani abbatis de Land Elo written around the 8th-9th centuries (Szacillo 2012) contains the following episode:

On another time, St Colmán, looking upon his brother, who was the son of Beugne, saw that the lids of his eyes had been secretly painted with the hyacinth colour, as it was in the custom; and it was a great offence at St Colmán’s. He said to his brother: ‘May your eyes not see the light in your life (any more). And from that hour he was blind, seeing nothing until (his) death. (translation from Szacillo 2012).

The original Latin phrase describing what so offended St Colmán "palpebre oculorum illius latenter iacinto colore" does not contain the verb paint (pingo). It just says his eyelids were hyacinth (blue) colored. This passage together with the gloss from the Uraicecht Becc implies that there was a custom of tattooing people's eyelids blue in early medieval Ireland. A creccoire* was therefore a professional eyelid tattooer or a tattoo artist.

A possible third reference to tattooing the area around the eye is found in a list of Old Irish kennings. The kenning for the letter 'B' translates as 'Beauty of the eyebrow.' This kenning is glossed with the word crecad/creccad (McManus 1988). Crecad could be translated as cauterizing, branding, or tattooing (eDIL). McManus suggests "adornment (by tattooing) of the eyebrow" as a plausible interpretation of how crecad relates to the beauty of the eyebrow (1988). The precise date of this text is not known (McManus 1988), but Old Irish was used c. 600-900 CE, meaning this text is of a similar date to the other Irish references to tattoos.

Kenning of the letter 'b' with gloss from TCD MS 1337/1

There is a sharp contrast between the association of tattoos with a venerated figure in 'The Caldron of Poesy', and their association with low-status work and divine punishment in the Uraicecht Becc and the Vita. This indicates that there was a shift in the cultural attitude towards tattoos in Ireland during the 7th-9th centuries. The fact that a Christian saint considered getting tattoos a big enough offense to punish his own brother with blindness suggests that tattooing might have been a pagan practice which gradually got pushed out by the Catholic Church. This timeline is consistent with the 786 CE report of the papal legates condemning the pagan practice of tattooing in Great Britain (MacQuarrie 1997).

There are some mentions of tattooing in Lebor Gabála Érenn, but the information largely appears to be borrowed from Isidore of Seville (MacQuarrie 1997). The fact that the writers of LGE just regurgitated Isidore's meager descriptions of Pictish and Scottish (ie Irish) tattooing without adding any details, such as the designs used or which parts of the body were tattooed, makes me think that Insular tattooing practices had passed out of living memory by the time the book was written in the 11th century.

*There is some etymological controversy over this term. Some have suggested that the Old Irish word for eyelid-tattooer should actually be crechaire. more info Even if this hypothesis is correct, and the scribe who wrote the gloss on creccoire mistook it for crechaire, this doesn't contradict my argument. The scribe clearly believed that eyelid-tattooer belonged on a list of low-status occupations.

Discussion:

Like Julius Cesar in the last post, Herodian of Antioch c. 208 CE makes some dubious claims of Celtic barbarism, stating that the Britons were: "Strangers to clothing, the Britons wear ornaments of iron at their waists and throats; considering iron a symbol of wealth, they value this metal as other barbarians value gold" (translation from MacQuarrie 1997). If the Britons wore nothing but iron jewelry, then why did they have brass torcs and 5,000 objects that look like they're meant to attach to fabric, Herodian?

Brass torc from Lochar Moss, Scotland c. 50-200 CE. Romano-British trumpet brooch from Cumbria c. 75-175 CE. image from the Portable Antiquities Scheme.

Trumpet brooches are a Roman Era artifact invented in Britain, that were probably pinned to people's clothing. more info

Although Herodian and Solinus both make dubious claims, there are enough differences between them to indicate that they had 2 separate sources of information, and one was not just parroting the other. This combined with the fact that we have more-reliable sources from later centuries confirming the existence of tattoos in the British Isles makes it probable that there was at least a grain of truth to their claims of tattooing.

There is a common belief that the name Pict originated from the Latin pictus (painted), because the Picts had 'painted' or tattooed bodies. The Romans first used the name Pict to refer to inhabitants of Britain in 297 CE (Ware 2021), but the first mention of Pictish tattoos came in 402 CE (Carr 2005), and the first explicit statement that the name Pict was derived from the Picts' tattooed bodies came from Isidore of Seville c. 600 CE (MacQuarrie 1997). Unless someone can find an earlier source for this alleged etymology than Isidore, I am extremely skeptical of it.

Summary of the written evidence:

Some time between c. 79 CE (Pliny the Elder) and c. 208 CE (Herodian of Antioch) the practice of body art in Great Britain changed from staining or painting the skin to tattooing. Third century Celtic Briton tattoo designs depicted animals. Pictish tattoos are first mentioned in the 5th century.

The earliest mention of Irish tattoos comes from Isidore of Seville in the early 6th c., but since it seems to have been a pre-Christian practice, it likely started earlier. Irish tattoos of the 8-9th centuries were placed on the area around the eye and on the legs. They were a bluish color. The 8th c. Anglo-Saxons also had tattoos.

Tattooing in Ireland probably ended by the early 10th c., possibly because of Christian condemnation. Exactly when tattooing ended in Great Britain is unclear, but in the 12th c., William of Malmesbury describes it as a thing of the past (MacQuarrie 1997). None of these sources give much detail as to what the tattoos looked like.

The Archaeology of Insular Ink:

In spite of the fact that tattooing was a longer-lasting, more wide-spread practice in the British Isles than body painting, there is less archaeological evidence for it. This may be because the common tools used for tattooing, needles or blades for puncturing the skin, pigments to make the ink, and dishes to hold the ink, all had other common uses in the Middle Ages that could make an archaeologist overlook their use in tattooing. The same needle that was used to sew a tunic could also have been used to tattoo a leg (Carr 2005). A group of small, toothed bronze plates from a Romano-British site at Chalton, Hampshire might have been tattoo chisels (Carr 2005) or they might have been used to make stitching holes in leather (Cunliffe 1977).

Although the pigment used to make tattoos may be difficult to identify at archaeological sites, other lines of evidence might give us an idea of what it was. Although the written sources tell us that Irish tattoos were blue, the popular modern belief that woad was the source of the tattoo pigment is, in my opinion, extremely unlikely for a couple of reasons:

1) Blue pigment from woad doesn't seem to work as tattoo ink. The modern tattoo artists who have tried to use it have found that it burns out of the person's skin, leaving a scar with no trace of blue in it (Lambert 2004).

2) None of the historical sources actually mention tattooing with woad. Julius Cesar and Pliny the Elder mention something that might have been woad, but they were talking about body paint, not tattoos. (see previous post) Isidore of Seville claimed that the Picts were tattooing themselves with "juices squeezed from native plants", but even assuming that Isidore is a reliable source, you can't get blue from woad by just squeezing the juice out of it. In order to get blue out of woad, you have to first steep the leaves, then discard the leaves and add a base like ammonia to the vat (Carr 2005). The resulting dye vat is not something any knowledgeable person would describe as plant juice, so either Isidore had no idea what he was talking about, or he is talking about something other than blue pigment from woad.

In my opinion, the most likely pigment for early Irish and British tattoos is charcoal. Early tattoos found on mummies from Europe and Siberia all contain charcoal and no other colored pigment. These tattoos range in date from c. 3300 BCE (Ötzi the Iceman) to c. 300 CE (Oglakhty grave 4) (Samadelli et al 2015, Pankova 2013).

Despite the fact that charcoal is black, it tends to look blueish when used in tattoos (Pankova 2013). Even modern black ink tattoos that use carbon black pigment (which is effectively a purer form of charcoal) tend to look increasingly blue as they age.

A 17-year-old tattoo in carbon black ink photographed with a swatch of black Sharpie on white printer paper.

The fact that charcoal-based tattoo inks continue to be used today, more than 5,000 years after the first charcoal tattoo was given, shows that charcoal is an effective, relatively safe tattoo pigment, unlike woad. Additionally, charcoal can be easily produced with wood fires, meaning it would have been a readily available material for tattoo artists in the early medieval British Isles. We would need more direct evidence, like a tattooed body from the British Isles, to confirm its use though.

As of June 2024, there have been at least 279 bog bodies* found in the British Isles (Ó Floinn 1995, Turner 1995, Cowie, Picken, Wallace 2011, Giles 2020, BBC 2024), a handful of which have made it into modern museum collections. Unfortunately, tattoos have not been found on any of them. (We don't have a full scientific analysis for the 2023 Bellaghy find yet though.)

*This number includes some finds from fens. It does not include the Cladh Hallan composite mummies.

Tattoos in period art?

It has been suggested that the man fight a beast on Book of Kells f. 130r may be naked and covered in tattoos (MacQuarrie 1997). However, Dress in Ireland author Mairead Dunlevy interprets this illustration as a man wearing a jacket and trews (Dunlevy 1989). Looking at some of the other figures in the Book of Kells, I agree with Dunlevy. F. 97v shows the same long, fitted sleeves and round neckline. F. 292r has long, fitted leg coverings, presumably trews, and also long sleeves. The interlace and dot motifs on f. 130r's legs may be embroidery. Embroidered garments were a status symbol in early medieval Ireland (Dunlevy 1989).

Left to right: Book of Kells folios 130r, 97v, 292r

A couple of sculptures in County Fermanagh might sport depictions of Irish tattoos. The first, known as the Bishop stone, is in the Killadeas cemetery. It features a carved head with 2 marks on the left side of the face, a double line beside the mouth and a single line below the eye. These lines may represent tattoos.

The second sculpture is the Janus figure on Boa Island. (So named because it has 2 faces; it's not Roman.) It has marks under the right eye and extending from the corner of the left eye that may be tattoos.

I cannot find a definitive date for the Bishop stone head, but it bears a strong resemblance to the nearby White Island church figures. The White Island figures are stylistically dated to the 9th-10th centuries and may come from a church that was destroyed by Vikings in 837 CE (Halpin and Newman 2006, Lowry-Corry 1959). The Janus figure is believed to be Iron Age or early medieval (Halpin and Newman 2006).

Conclusions:

Despite the fact that tattooing as a custom in the British Isles lasted for more than 500 years and was practiced by at least 3 different cultures, written sources remain our only solid evidence for it. With only a dozen sources, some of which probably copied each other, to cover this time span, there are huge gaps in our knowledge. The 4th century Picts may not have had the same tattoo designs, placements or reasons for getting tattooed as the 8th c. Irish or Anglo-Saxons. These sources only give us fragments of information on who got tattooed, where the tattoos were placed, what they looked like, how the tattoos were done, and why people got tattooed. Further complicating our limited information is the fact that most of the text sources come from foreigners and/or people who were prejudiced against tattooing, which calls their accuracy into question.

'The Cauldron of Posey' is one source that provides some detail while not showing prejudice against tattoos. The author of the poem was probably Christian, but the poem appears to have been written at a time when Pagan practices were still tolerated in Ireland. I have a complete translation of the poem along with a longer discussion of religious elements here.

Leave me a tip?

Bibliography:

BBC (2024). Bellaghy bog body: Human remains are 2,000 years old https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-68092307

Breatnach, L. (1981). The Cauldron of Poesy. Ériu, 32(1981), 45-93. https://www.jstor.org/stable/30007454

Carey, J. (1997). The Three Things Required of a Poet. Ériu, 48(1997), 41-58. https://www.jstor.org/stable/30007956

Carr, Gillian. (2005). Woad, Tattooing and Identity in Later Iron Age and Early Roman Britain. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 24(3), 273–292. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0092.2005.00236.x

Cowie, T., Pickin, J. and Wallace, T. (2011). Bog bodies from Scotland: old finds, new records. Journal of Wetland Archaeology 10(1): 1–45.

Cunliffe, B. (1977) The Romano-British Village at Chalton, Hants. Proceedings of the Hampshire Field Club and Archaeological Society, 33(1977), 45-67.

Dunlevy, Mairead (1989). Dress in Ireland. B. T. Batsford LTD, London. 

eDIL s.v. crechad https://dil.ie/12794

Giles, Melanie. (2020). Bog Bodies Face to face with the past. Manchester University Press, Manchester. https://library.oapen.org/viewer/web/viewer.html?file=/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/46717/9781526150196_fullhl.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

Halpin, A., Newman, C. (2006). Ireland: An Oxford Archaeological Guide to Sites from Earliest Times to AD 1600. Oxford University Press, Oxford. https://archive.org/details/irelandoxfordarc0000halp/page/n3/mode/2up

Hoecherl, M. (2016). Controlling Colours: Function and Meaning of Colour in the British Iron Age. Archaeopress Publishing LTD, Oxford. https://www.google.com/books/edition/Controlling_Colours/WRteEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0

Lambert, S. K. (2004). The Problem of the Woad. Dunsgathan.net. https://dunsgathan.net/essays/woad.htm

Lowry-Corry, D. (1959). A Newly Discovered Statue at the Church on White Island, County Fermanagh. Ulster Journal of Archaeology, 22(1959), 59-66. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20567530

MacQuarrie, Charles. (1997). Insular Celtic tattooing: History, myth and metaphor. Etudes Celtiques, 33, 159-189. https://doi.org/10.3406/ecelt.1997.2117

McManus, D. (1988). Irish Letter-Names and Their Kennings. Ériu, 39(1988), 127-168. https://www.jstor.org/stable/30024135

Ó Floinn, R. (1995). Recent research into Irish bog bodies. In R. C. Turner and R. G. Scaife (eds) Bog Bodies: New Discoveries and New Perspectives (p. 137–45). British Museum Press, London. ISBN: 9780714123059

Pankova, S. (2013). One More Culture with Ancient Tattoo Tradition in Southern Siberia: Tattoos on a Mummy from the Oglakhty Burial Ground, 3rd-4th century AD. Zurich Studies in Archaeology, 9(2013), 75-86.

Samadelli, M., Melisc, M., Miccolic, M., Vigld, E.E., Zinka, A.R. (2015). Complete mapping of the tattoos of the 5300-year-old Tyrolean Iceman. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 16(2015), 753–758.

Story, Joanna (1995). Charlemagne and Northumbria : the influence of Francia on Northumbrian politics in the later eighth and early ninth centuries. [Doctoral Thesis]. Durham University. http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1460/

Szacillo, J. (2012). Irish hagiography and its dating: a study of the O'Donohue group of Irish saints' lives. [Doctoral Thesis]. Queen's University Belfast.

Turner, R.C. (1995). Resent Research into British Bog Bodies. In R. C. Turner and R. G. Scaife (eds) Bog Bodies: New Discoveries and New Perspectives (p. 221–34). British Museum Press, London. ISBN: 9780714123059

Ware, C. (2021). A Literary Commentary on Panegyrici Latini VI(7) An Oration Delivered Before the Emperor Constantine in Trier, ca. AD 310. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. https://www.google.com/books/edition/A_Literary_Commentary_on_Panegyrici_Lati/oEwMEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0

[literaryvein-reblogs]

Word List: Fashion History

to try to include in your poem/story (pt. 1/3)

Adinkra - a flat, cotton textile that is stamped with symbols which create the meaning of the garment; produced by the Asante peoples in Ghana

Agal - a rope made from animal hair which wraps around a keffiya (square cloth) on the head and is worn typically by Bedouin men

Akwete - a decorative cloth with complex weave designs, creating intricate geometric patterns, made with many vibrant colors; it is usually made into wrappers for women to wear and it is made by the Igbo women of Nigeria

Aniline Dyes - synthetic, chemical dyes for garments first invented in the 19th century

Anorak - a jacket that typically has a hood, but not always, which was originally worn by the indigenous peoples of the Arctic designed to keep them warm and protected from harsh weather

Back Apron (Negbe) - an oval-shaped decorative pad worn by Mangbetu women over the buttocks in Central Africa

Backstrap Loom - a lightweight, mobile loom made of wood and a strap that is wrapped around the back; it only needed to be attached to a tree or a post for stability and to provide tension

Banyan - a loose-fitted informal robe or gown typically worn by men in the late 17th to the early 19th centuries

Barbette - a piece of linen which passes under the chin and is pinned at the sides, usually worn in conjunction with additional head coverings during the Middle Ages

Bark Cloth - fabric made out of bark from trees

Beadnet Dress - a decorative sheath dress made of beads worn in ancient Egypt

Bloomers - a bifurcated garment that were worn under dresses in the 19th century; they soon became a symbol of women’s rights because early activist Amelia Bloomer wore drawers long enough to stick out from under her dress

Bogolanfini - (bogolan- meaning cloth; fini- meaning mud) a cotton cloth made from strips of woven fabric, which are decorated with symbolic patterns using the mud-resist technique, sewn together at the selvage to create a fabric that is utilized during the main four stages of a West African Bamana woman’s life: puberty, marriage, motherhood, and death

Bombast/Bombasted - the padding used to structure clothing and create fashionable silhouettes in the 16th and 17th centuries

Boubou - an African robe made of one large rectangle of fabric with an opening in the center for the neck; when worn it drapes down over the shoulders and billows at the sleeves

Buff Coat - a leather version of the doublet that was often, but not exclusively, worn by people in the military in the 17th century

Bum Roll - a roll of padding tied around the hip line to hold a woman’s skirt out from the body in the late 16th and early 17th centuries

Burqa - an outer garment worn by Muslim women that covers the entire body, often with a cutout or mesh at the eyes

Busk - a flat length stay piece that was inserted into the front of a corset to keep it stiff from the 16th century to the early 20th century

Bustle - a pad or frame worn under a skirt puffing it out behind

Cage Crinoline - a hooped cage worn under petticoats in the 19th century to stiffen and extend the skirt

Caraco - 18th century women’s jacket, fitted around the torso and flared out after the waist

Carrick Coat - an overcoat with three to five cape collars popular in the 19th century and mostly worn for riding and travel–sometimes called a Garrick or coachman’s coat

Chantilly Lace - a kind of bobbin lace popularized in 18th century France; it is identifiable by its fine ground, outlined pattern, and abundant detail, and was generally made from black silk thread

Chaperon - a turban-like headdress worn during the Middle Ages in Western Europe

Chemisette - a piece of fabric worn under bodices in the 19th century to fill in low necklines for modesty and decoration

Chiton - an ancient Greek garment created from a single piece of cloth wrapped around the body and held together by pins at the shoulders

Chlamys - a rectangular cloak fastened at the neck or shoulder that wraps around the body like a cape

Chopines - high platform shoes worn mostly in Venice in the 16th & 17th centuries

Clavus/Clavi - decorative vertical stripes that ran over the shoulder on the front and back of a Late Roman or Byzantine tunic

Clocks/Clocking - decorative and strengthening embroidery on stockings in Europe and America during the 16th-19th centuries

Cochineal Dyes - come from the Cochineal beetle that is native to the Americas and is most commonly found on prickly pear cacti; when dried and crushed, it creates its famous red pigment that is used to dye textiles

Codpiece - originally created as the join between the two hoses at the groin, the codpiece eventually became an ornate piece of male dress in the 16th century

Cuirass Bodice - a form-fitting, long-waisted, boned bodice worn in the 1870s and 1880s–almost gives the appearance of armor as the name suggests

Dagging - an extremely popular decorative edging technique created by cutting that reached its height during the Middle Ages and Renaissance

Dalmatic Tunic - a t-shaped tunic with very wide sleeves; worn by both men and women during the Byzantine empire

Dashiki - a loose-fitting pullover tunic traditionally worn in West African cultures that was adopted by African diasporic communities as a symbol of African heritage in the 1960s and then more widely worn as a popular item of “ethnic” fashion

Dentalium Cape - or dentalium dress is a garment worn by Native American women that is made from the stringing together of dentalium shells in a circular pattern around the neck and across the chest and shoulders

Doublet - an often snug-fitting jacket that is shaped and fitted to a man’s body–worn mostly in the 15th to 17th centuries

Échelle - a decorative ladder of bows descending down the stomacher of a dress; worn during the late 17th and 18th centuries; sometimes spelled eschelle

If any of these words make their way into your next poem/story, please tag me, or leave a link in the replies. I would love to read them!

More: Fashion History ⚜ Word Lists

[olrastrologytarot]

Chaos Magick

Chaos Magick is a modern form of occultism that defies traditional structures and dogmas, embracing a pragmatic, results-oriented approach to magical practice. Unlike conventional magical systems that adhere to specific rituals, symbols, and deities, Chaos Magick emphasizes flexibility, personal belief, and the use of any technique or symbolism that achieves the desired outcome. Originating in the late 20th century, Chaos Magick has become a significant and influential movement within the broader landscape of contemporary occultism, attracting practitioners who value creativity, experimentation, and personal empowerment. This essay explores the history, principles, practices, and significance of Chaos Magick.

History of Chaos Magick

Chaos Magick emerged in the late 1970s and early 1980s as a response to the rigid structures of traditional ceremonial magick and the occult revival movements of the 19th and 20th centuries. The origins of Chaos Magick can be traced to the writings of occultists such as Peter J. Carroll and Ray Sherwin, who were instrumental in developing and popularizing this new approach to magic.

The Influence of Austin Osman Spare:

A significant precursor to Chaos Magick was the work of artist and occultist Austin Osman Spare (1886-1956). Spare's ideas about the subconscious mind, sigils, and the power of belief were highly influential on later Chaos Magicians. He emphasized the use of personal symbols and the manipulation of belief as tools for magical success, laying the groundwork for many of the ideas central to Chaos Magick.

The Birth of the Movement:

In the late 1970s, Peter J. Carroll and Ray Sherwin co-founded the Illuminates of Thanateros (IOT), a magical order dedicated to the practice and development of Chaos Magick. Carroll’s seminal works, "Liber Null" (1978) and "Psychonaut" (1982), became foundational texts for Chaos Magicians. These books outlined the core principles of Chaos Magick, including the emphasis on belief as a tool, the use of sigils, and the concept of "paradigm shifting," where practitioners adopt different belief systems as needed.

Spread and Evolution:

Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Chaos Magick grew in popularity, particularly in the United Kingdom and the United States. The movement attracted individuals interested in a more personalized and experimental approach to magic, free from the dogmatic constraints of traditional systems. As Chaos Magick evolved, it incorporated influences from psychology, science fiction, pop culture, and postmodern philosophy, reflecting its eclectic and adaptive nature.

Principles of Chaos Magick

Chaos Magick is characterized by several key principles that distinguish it from other forms of magical practice. These principles emphasize flexibility, pragmatism, and the central role of belief in achieving magical outcomes.

Belief as a Tool:

One of the core tenets of Chaos Magick is the idea that belief itself is a powerful tool in magic. Unlike traditional magical systems that require adherence to specific beliefs or deities, Chaos Magick posits that the act of believing—regardless of what is believed—is what makes magic effective. Practitioners are encouraged to adopt and discard beliefs as needed to achieve their desired results, treating belief as a flexible and dynamic tool rather than a fixed truth.

Paradigm Shifting:

Closely related to the use of belief as a tool is the concept of "paradigm shifting." In Chaos Magick, a paradigm is a framework of beliefs, symbols, and practices that a magician temporarily adopts to work a particular spell or ritual. A Chaos Magician might shift between different paradigms—such as using Kabbalistic symbols in one ritual and invoking Lovecraftian deities in another—depending on what they find most effective for their goals. This fluid approach allows practitioners to draw from a wide range of magical and cultural traditions.

Pragmatism and Results-Oriented Practice:

Chaos Magick is inherently pragmatic, focusing on what works rather than adhering to tradition or doctrine. The effectiveness of a magical practice is judged solely by the results it produces. This results-oriented approach encourages experimentation and the development of new techniques, as well as the modification or abandonment of practices that do not yield desired outcomes.

Use of Sigils:

Sigilization, a technique popularized by Austin Osman Spare, is a central practice in Chaos Magick. A sigil is a symbol created by condensing a specific intention or desire into a visual form. The practitioner then uses various methods to "charge" the sigil with energy and launch it into the subconscious mind, where it works to manifest the desired outcome. Sigils are valued for their simplicity and adaptability, making them a popular tool among Chaos Magicians.

The Gnostic State:

Achieving a state of altered consciousness, often referred to as the "Gnostic State" or "gnosis," is a key component of Chaos Magick rituals. This state of mind, in which the practitioner is highly focused and free from distractions, is believed to be crucial for the successful performance of magic. Various methods, such as meditation, chanting, visualization, or sensory deprivation, are used to induce gnosis.

Practices of Chaos Magick

Chaos Magick is known for its eclectic and innovative practices, which can vary widely from one practitioner to another. The following are some of the most common practices associated with Chaos Magick:

Sigil Magic:

As mentioned, sigil magic is a cornerstone of Chaos Magick. The process typically involves creating a sigil by writing out a statement of intent, removing duplicate letters, and arranging the remaining letters into an abstract symbol. The practitioner then enters a Gnostic State, charges the sigil with intent, and either destroys or forgets the sigil to allow it to work subconsciously.

Magical Experimentation:

Chaos Magicians often experiment with a variety of techniques, drawing from different magical traditions, religions, and even pop culture. This might include invoking gods from different pantheons, working with fictional characters as if they were real entities, or incorporating elements of modern technology into rituals. The emphasis is always on what is effective for the individual practitioner.

Deconstructing and Reconstructing Beliefs:

Chaos Magicians regularly engage in the practice of deconstructing and reconstructing their beliefs. By deliberately adopting different belief systems, even those they do not inherently believe in, they explore the effects of belief on reality. This practice often leads to a deeper understanding of the fluid nature of reality and the power of the mind in shaping experience.

Use of Pop Culture and Modern Symbols:

One of the more unique aspects of Chaos Magick is its embrace of contemporary symbols and icons from pop culture. Practitioners might use characters from movies, comic books, or video games as symbols in their rituals, treating these figures as modern-day deities or archetypes. This reflects Chaos Magick's adaptability and its focus on personal relevance over tradition.

Psychological Techniques:

Many Chaos Magicians incorporate psychological techniques into their practice, drawing from fields such as cognitive psychology, NLP (Neuro-Linguistic Programming), and hypnosis. These techniques are used to alter consciousness, influence perception, and reinforce the practitioner’s intent. The integration of psychological methods underscores Chaos Magick's pragmatic and results-driven approach.

Significance and Influence of Chaos Magick

Chaos Magick has had a profound impact on modern occultism, influencing both magical practice and the broader cultural understanding of magic. Its emphasis on flexibility, innovation, and personal empowerment has resonated with a new generation of practitioners who seek a more individualized and adaptive approach to magic.

Democratization of Magic:

One of the most significant contributions of Chaos Magick is the democratization of magical practice. By rejecting rigid hierarchies, dogmas, and the need for formal initiation, Chaos Magick has made occult practices more accessible to a wider audience. Anyone can become a Chaos Magician, regardless of background or experience, as long as they are willing to experiment and learn.

Cultural Impact:

Chaos Magick has also influenced popular culture, particularly in areas related to the occult, science fiction, and the countercultural movements of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Concepts from Chaos Magick, such as paradigm shifting and the use of pop culture symbols, have found their way into literature, movies, and art, reflecting the movement's broad cultural reach.

Challenges to Traditional Magic:

Chaos Magick challenges the conventional understanding of magic by questioning the necessity of belief in any particular system or deity. This has led to debates within the occult community about the nature of magic, the role of belief, and the effectiveness of traditional practices. Chaos Magick's focus on results over tradition has encouraged many practitioners to rethink their approach to magic.

Influence on Postmodern Thought:

Chaos Magick is often associated with postmodernism, particularly its skepticism of grand narratives and its emphasis on individual experience. The movement’s fluid approach to reality, belief, and identity aligns with postmodern ideas about the constructed nature of reality and the multiplicity of truths. This has made Chaos Magick particularly appealing to those who resonate with postmodern philosophy.

Conclusion

Chaos Magick represents a radical departure from traditional magical systems, offering a flexible, pragmatic, and highly individualized approach to occult practice. By emphasizing the power of belief, the importance of personal experience, and the value of experimentation, Chaos Magick has redefined what it means to practice magic in the modern world. Its influence extends beyond the occult community, challenging cultural and philosophical assumptions about reality, belief, and the nature of power. As a living, evolving tradition, Chaos Magick continues to inspire and empower those who seek to explore the mysteries of existence on their own terms.

[pmamtraveller]

THE APPARITION /c. 1876/ by GUSTAVE MOREAU

The painting is a representation of the biblical figure Salome, she danced before King Herod and, as a reward, asked for the beheading of John the Baptist. In "The Apparition," Salome assumes a mystic and sensual posture with the ghostly image of John the Baptist's head suddenly appearing in the foreground.

Symbolic elements, such as the glowing head of John the Baptist and Salome's reaching bare arm, speak volumes about complicated ideas on lust, death, and the interplay between beauty and horror. This layering of meaning is characteristic of symbolism, where objects go deeper than the surface.

Moreau used a series of creative techniques in the painting, such as highlighting, grattage (scraping the surface of the paint), and even incisions to the surface of the paint, to obtain texture and depth. These techniques add to the ethereal quality and really contribute to the dream-like atmosphere that Moreau has attempted to invoke in this painting.

Created in a period when interest in the Orient and in exoticism was at its peak. In fact, this painting represents late 19th-century European fascination with Eastern themes and aesthetics. The attention to detail and the use of jewel-like colors create a captivating composition. The long, sinuous lines create a sense of fluency and movement throughout the composition.