#east frankish

[illustratus]

The Battle of Lechfeld 955 by Michael Echter

The Battle of Lechfeld in which the Kingdom of Germany, led by King Otto I the Great, annihilated the Hungarian army led by Harka Bulcsú and the chieftains Lél and Súr. With the German victory, further invasions by the Magyars into Latin Europe (Western Europe) were ended. During these military campaigns (Hungarian invasions of Europe), the Magyars had threatened much of Western Europe; therefore a common saying at that time was "A sagittis Hungarorum, libera nos Domine" (Lord, save us from the arrows of the Hungarians")

[dreamconsumer]

Louis the German (806/10-876). Illustration from "Die Deutschen Kaiser" by Max Barack (Julius Hoffmann, Stuttgart, c.1873).

[mapsontheweb]

Map of the Warini Migrations

The Warini are a Germanic people group first documented by Ptolemy in 77 AD. He Locates the tribe as settling in Jutland. Tacticus mentions them as a Suebic tribe east of the Langobards and North of the Semnones. Until the 500s, the History of the Warini is largely unknown. The Warini probably split into 3 Distinct groups. One group would settle in the Thuringian basin, between the Saale and the Weile Elster, aswell as the Harz Mountains. Toponyms that end in the suffix -leben are a indicator of Warini settlement. Another group settled in Lower Silesia. They were virtually indistinguishable from the Quadi, but until the Crossing of the Rhine in 406 should still be considered as a distinct tribe. The Third group were the Warini that stayed behind in Mecklenburg. In 454 AD, the Thuringians, together with other Germanic Tribes, would rise up against the Huns and regain their Independence. The Thuringians would expand their Influence throughout Central Europe. 

One of the tribes that fell under Thuringian Influence were the Warini. In 500 AD, the Thuringian Kingdom would split after numerous Frankish, Saxon and Slavic Incursions. The Eastern Half would become the Warini Kingdom. A Group of the Warini possibly settled on the mouth of the Rhine. This Warini Group is obscure largely unknown. According to a story, the Warinis compelled Hermegisclus's son Radigis to marry his stepmother Theudechild. The maiden, who is not named in the story, did not accept this, and crossed the North Sea with an army of 400 ships and 100,000 men, seeking retaliation. 

After a battle won by the Anglians, Radigis was caught hiding in a wood not far from the mouth of the Rhine and had no other choice than to marry his fiancée. In 594 AD, the Remnants of the Warini Kingdom along the Saale and Weifle Elster would fall to the Franks and be divided up by the Franks and Slavs. These would later intermix with the Slavs and be known as the Serimuntici/Zhyrmuntici. The Name Serimunt is of Germanic Origin, and indicates that these people's were the descendants of the Warini. In Mecklenburg, the Warini would be assimilated to the Slavs and end up as the Warnabi Tribe, continuing the History of the Warini as a slavic group. The Warini which eventually crossed the Rhine in 406 would be assimilated to the Quadi within the Suebi in Gallaecia.

[genillustrate]

The House of Capet. 987-1328

The Capetian dinasty was the first French dinasty resulting after the death of Louis V (c.967-987) last Frankish king of the Carolingian Empire. In my HC, this Frankish personification is father of both France and HRE, and also Austria. After the colapse of the Carolingian empire, the Kingdom of Francia disappeared and the empire was partitioned in three big territories; West Francia (France), East Francia (HRE) and Middle Francia (the territories that the both of them will be fighting for in the centuries to come, the Benelux spawned from those territorial wars in between them, as well and Switzerland and everything in between).

France and the Holy Roman Empire would become natural enemies, then, as Franco's inheritance would be the same as that of the Carolingian Empire; to become the next Roman Empire. And both kingdoms would spend the rest of the centuries until the World Wars trying to achieve that inherited goal. It has a name, in fact; Franco-German enmity.

Hence, then, the name Holy Roman Empire, from the intentions to become the next great empire uniting the three continents. France is the older son, by the way. The Frank had... a little favoritism towards the youngest, because it was identical to him. And more visibly German, of course. This fueled the competition between the two and the hereditary and historic animosity between the two "princes". It was the Franks that started the monarchical rule, feudalism and the hereditary rule for the sons in Europe. So France, HRE and Austria would be the first princes, haha.

[whencyclopedia]

Vikings: Jewelry, Weapons & Social Change at The VIKINGR Exhibition

In April 2019 The Museum of Cultural History in Oslo, Norway opened its doors to the new exhibition VÍKINGR containing rich treasures and unique archaeological finds from the Viking Age (c. 750 - 1050 CE). The Viking age is considered Norway's and the rest of Scandinavia's “golden age”, and the tales of violent warrior seafarers have fascinated people all over the world for centuries. The Vikings are famous for their plundering of monasteries on the British Isles and the Viking helmet (wrongly depicted with horns in popular culture), but by visiting the VÍKINGR exhibition you will also learn that the Vikings were international traders, and that the Viking Age (c. 750 - 1050 CE) was an important period of transition in the northernmost part of Europe. This period saw the opening of new trade routes, the unification of Norway and the conversion to Christianity. The artifacts exhibited, including the world's best-preserved Viking helmet, the sword from Langeid and the largest Viking treasure ever found in Norway, are not only worth admiring for their beauty but also for what they can tell us about the Vikings' lives and values in a time of transition and change.

Walking into the exhibition, which is on the third floor of the museum, feels a bit like walking into a fancy jewelry store as it is beautifully curated with open spaces, complimentary colors and glass displays - very fitting for an exhibition consisting of invaluable jewelry, weapons, coins and other treasures. There are 20 items or collections of items on display, almost all inside the glass display cabinets, each telling their own story.

Trade & International Treasures

The first glass cabinets showcase jewelry and other items that are a testimony to the many different trade routes and international networks of the Vikings. The first Vikings of the 7th century CE were pirates in small ships, but by the 10th century CE they had built larger ships that traveled further and they established larger armies and contact points in Europe and beyond.

The items in the first display tell the story of the establishment of the silver route connecting Scandinavia with the distant east. The treasure, consisting of several silver pieces and rings, as well as Arabian and Persian coins, was originally from areas in today's Iraq and Iran. The silver treasure traveled the long way to Norway in the 10th century CE, when the Vikings who were engaged in international trade brought large amounts of silver back to Scandinavia. Further proof of the Vikings distant and exotic trade and international contact network can be seen in the next display, where the largest Norwegian Viking treasure ever found to date is showcased. The Hon Hoard was found in 1843 CE in Buskerud, Norway and consists of large gold rings, Frankish gold jewelry, Arabian coins, colorful beads, a Roman antique gemstone, and an English ring. Admiring this beautiful treasure makes you wonder what stories the items would tell of their long journeys and their Viking owners.

Especially eye-catching are some of the gold objects, originally made in the Carolingian Empire (800 - 888 CE). A large gold brooch is the most impressive piece, and it is believed to have adorned a warrior's belt at the Carolingian court before it was transformed into a brooch after coming to Norway. Other brooches are also showcased in the exhibition as they tell the story of objects that originally were used as decorative mounts on sacred objects used in churches in the British Isles. The objects were often refashioned into brooches after the Vikings raided many of these churches and brought the items back to Norway.

Continue reading...

[wonder-worker]

Gerberga of Saxony, Queen of West Francia, Duchess of Lotharingia

"Gerberga was unquestionably one of the pivotal figures in the dynastic politics of her age. Born around 913, she was a daughter of the east Frankish/Saxon king Henry I and sister of his celebrated successor Otto I “the Great”. She was not only a daughter and sister of rulers, but also a wife and mother. Her first marriage, probably contracted in 928, was to Giselbert, dux of Lotharingia, who died in 939 whilst rebelling against [her brother] Otto; and her second husband, acquired in the same year she lost her first, was the young Carolingian king Louis IV of West Francia, her junior by some six or seven years. Their son Lothar became West Frankish king in 954.

Gerberga’s royal upbringing and connections made her a potent figure throughout her career. While we have to be wary of an eleventh-century source which claims that she was the driving force behind Giselbert’s rebellion of 939 [by claiming that she was equal to her brother Otto and just as suited for the throne as he was], contemporary witnesses do confirm that she was at the duke’s side at key moments in his reign. Marriage to Louis, who was often at loggerheads with Otto, and consecration as West Frankish queen, created potential for divided loyalties (that they named their son Lothar hints at an ambition to take Lotharingia, which was part of the eastern kingdom), but Gerberga was instrumental in effecting an eventual rapprochement between the two rulers and enlisting her brother’s help against her husband’s internal enemies in the late 940s. [She was active in the defense of Laon and Reims, accompanied Louis IV on military expeditions to Aquitaine and Burgundy, and served as the effective head of state when the king was captured by the Normans in 945-946, with Duke Hugh the Great attempting to ensure that he would never be released. Gerberga refused to give up the West Frankish heir to Hugh and negotiated with her brother, Otto, who ravaged her enemies’ territories until they were forced to come to terms with Louis IV. When hostilities broke out again in 948 and Hugh attacked Laon, she led its defense. During the conclusion of the conflict in 953, it was Gerberga who renegotiated peace between Louis and Hugh, the latter of whom specifically requested for a meeting with her in order to set the diplomatic process in motion].

The high point of her role as a bridge between the eastern and western dynasties came during her widowhood, which saw her acting as a kind of regent for her young son Lothar. Lothar’s marriage in 966 to Otto's step-daughter Emma was planned with Gerberga’s active involvement and joined together the various branches of her family tree, placing her together with her brother at the apex of an extended European family of dynasties."

— Simon MacLean, "Reform, Queenship and the End of the World in Tenth-Century France: Adso’s “Letter on the Origin and Time of the Antichrist” Reconsidered" / Depiction in the Ottonian family tree in the Chronica St. Pantaleonis

[incorrect-koh-posts]

"[Raymond III of Tripoli] never recovered from the day of Hattin. His life dragged on for a few more months in which he was literally consumed by remorse and regret and too discouraged even to join in some movement toward armed resistance. This time the bridges between him and what still remained or the kingdom were well and truly down. He survived the fall of all the Frankish cities in the kingdom and the fall of Jerusalem, and it is not difficult to imagine the nature of the 'fearful dreams' which al-Imad says troubled him. He succumbed to an attack of pleurisy at the end of 1187, at the age of forty-eight. Raymond had never had any children. He was succeeded by the second son of Prince Bohemond III of Antioch, young Bohemond [...].

With the death of Raymond III the direct line of Raymond of Saint-Gilles died out in the East. This unhappy prince who, in the almost unanimous opinion or Franks and Moslems alike, had been the obvious master of all Frankish Syria, a man 'intelligent and perceptive above all', 'worthy of the throne for which he seemed to have been born', ended his life disgraced and dishonored by the accusation of treachery, disappointed in his hopes - which were undoubtedly sincere - of possible Franco-Moslem friendship, utterly defeated in everything for which he had striven."

- Zoé Oldenbourg, The Crusades (1966)

[officiallordvetinari]

Below are 10 Wikipedia featured articles. Links and descriptions are below the cut.

The American paddlefish (Polyodon spathula), also known as a Mississippi paddlefish, spoon-billed cat, or spoonbill, is a species of ray-finned fish. It is the last living species of paddlefish (Polyodontidae). This family is most closely related to the sturgeons; together they make up the order Acipenseriformes, which are one of the most primitive living groups of ray-finned fish. Fossil records of other paddlefish species date back 125 million years to the Early Cretaceous, with records of Polyodon extending back 65 million years to the early Paleocene. The American paddlefish is a smooth-skinned freshwater fish with an almost entirely cartilaginous skeleton and a paddle-shaped rostrum (snout), which extends nearly one-third its body length. It has been referred to as a freshwater shark because of its heterocercal tail or caudal fin resembling that of sharks, though it is not closely related. The American paddlefish is a highly derived fish because it has evolved specialised adaptations such as filter feeding. Its rostrum and cranium are covered with tens of thousands of sensory receptors for locating swarms of zooplankton, its primary food source.

The fauna of Scotland is generally typical of the northwest European part of the Palearctic realm, although several of the country's larger mammals were hunted to extinction in historic times and human activity has also led to various species of wildlife being introduced. Scotland's diverse temperate environments support 62 species of wild mammals, including a population of wild cats, important numbers of grey and harbour seals and the most northerly colony of bottlenose dolphins in the world. Many populations of moorland birds, including the black and red grouse, live here, and the country has internationally significant nesting grounds for seabirds such as the northern gannet. The Scottish crossbill is the only endemic vertebrate species in the UK. Scotland's seas are among the most biologically productive in the world; it is estimated that the total number of Scottish marine species exceeds 40,000. The Darwin Mounds are an important area of deep sea cold water coral reefs discovered in 1998. Only six amphibians and four land reptiles are native to Scotland, but many species of invertebrates live there that are otherwise rare in the United Kingdom.

Several attempts at a Franco-Mongol alliance against the Islamic caliphates, their common enemy, were made by various leaders among the Frankish Crusaders and the Mongol Empire in the 13th century. Such an alliance might have seemed an obvious choice: the Mongols were already sympathetic to Christianity, given the presence of many influential Nestorian Christians in the Mongol court. The Franks—Western Europeans, and those in the Levantine Crusader states—were open to the idea of support from the East, in part owing to the long-running legend of the mythical Prester John, an Eastern king in an Eastern kingdom who many believed would one day come to the assistance of the Crusaders in the Holy Land. The Franks and Mongols also shared a common enemy in the Muslims. However, despite many messages, gifts, and emissaries over the course of several decades, the often-proposed alliance never came to fruition.

The Free State of Galveston (sometimes referred to as the Republic of Galveston Island) was a satirical name given to the coastal city of Galveston in the U.S. state of Texas during the early-to-mid-20th century. Today, the term is sometimes used to describe the culture and history of that era. During the Roaring Twenties, Galveston Island emerged as a popular resort town, attracting celebrities from around the country. Gambling, illegal liquor, and other vice-oriented businesses were a major part of tourism. The "Free State" moniker embodied a belief held by many locals that Galveston was beyond what they perceived were repressive mores and laws of Texas and the United States. In one of the more famous examples of this, a state committee, investigating gambling at the fabled Balinese Room, was told by the local sheriff that he had not raided the establishment because it was a "private club" and because he was not a "member".

The Kylfings (Old Norse Kylfingar; Estonian Kalevid; Hungarian Kölpények; Old East Slavic Колбяги, Kolbiagi; Byzantine Greek Κουλπίγγοι, Koulpingoi; Arabic al-Kilabiyya) were a people of uncertain origin active in Northern Europe during the Viking Age, roughly from the late ninth century to the early twelfth century. They could be found in areas of Lapland, Russia, and the Byzantine Empire that were frequented by Scandinavian traders, raiders and mercenaries. Scholars differ on whether the Kylfings were ethnically Finnic or Norse. Also disputed is their geographic origin, with Denmark, Sweden and the Eastern Baltic all put forward as candidates. Whether the name Kylfing denotes a particular tribal, socio-political, or economic grouping is also a matter of much debate.

Mosasaurus (/ˌmoʊzəˈsɔːrəs/; "lizard of the Meuse River") is the type genus (defining example) of the mosasaurs, an extinct group of aquatic squamate reptiles. It lived from about 82 to 66 million years ago during the Campanian and Maastrichtian stages of the Late Cretaceous. The genus was one of the first Mesozoic marine reptiles known to science—the first fossils of Mosasaurus were found as skulls in a chalk quarry near the Dutch city of Maastricht in the late 18th century, and were initially thought to be crocodiles or whales. One skull discovered around 1780 was famously nicknamed the "great animal of Maastricht". In 1808, naturalist Georges Cuvier concluded that it belonged to a giant marine lizard with similarities to monitor lizards but otherwise unlike any known living animal. This concept was revolutionary at the time and helped support the then-developing ideas of extinction.

Several organisms are capable of rolling locomotion. However, true wheels and propellers—despite their utility in human vehicles—do not play a significant role in the movement of living things (with the exception of certain flagella, which work like corkscrews). Biologists have offered several explanations for the apparent absence of biological wheels, and wheeled creatures have appeared often in speculative fiction.

The existence of a slate industry in Wales is attested since the Roman period, when slate was used to roof the fort at Segontium, now Caernarfon. The slate industry grew slowly until the early 18th century, then rapidly during the Industrial Revolution in Wales until the late 19th century, at which time the most important slate producing areas were in northwest Wales. These sites included the Penrhyn Quarry near Bethesda, the Dinorwic Quarry near Llanberis, the Nantlle Valley quarries, and Blaenau Ffestiniog, where the slate was mined rather than quarried. Penrhyn and Dinorwig were the two largest slate quarries in the world, and the Oakeley mine at Blaenau Ffestiniog was the largest slate mine in the world.

The social history of viruses describes the influence of viruses and viral infections on human history. Epidemics caused by viruses began when human behaviour changed during the Neolithic period, around 12,000 years ago, when humans developed more densely populated agricultural communities. This allowed viruses to spread rapidly and subsequently to become endemic. Viruses of plants and livestock also increased, and as humans became dependent on agriculture and farming, diseases such as potyviruses of potatoes and rinderpest of cattle had devastating consequences.

The High Middle Ages of Scotland encompass Scotland in the era between the death of Domnall II in 900 AD and the death of King Alexander III in 1286, which was an indirect cause of the Wars of Scottish Independence. At the close of the ninth century, various competing kingdoms occupied the territory of modern Scotland. Scandinavian influence was dominant in the northern and western islands, Brythonic culture in the southwest, the Anglo-Saxon or English Kingdom of Northumbria in the southeast and the Pictish and Gaelic Kingdom of Alba in the east, north of the River Forth. By the tenth and eleventh centuries, northern Great Britain was increasingly dominated by Gaelic culture, and by the Gaelic regal lordship of Alba, known in Latin as either Albania or Scotia, and in English as "Scotland".

[rlyehtaxidermist]

On the topic of fantasy pet peeves, or rather fantasy criticism pet peeves, I see a lot of people make a big deal about "lazy worldbuilding" when a kingdom shares the name of either its ruling dynasty. This isn't exclusively a charge levied against media of East Asian origin, but it certainly shows up there a lot.

Now this was very unusual in medieval Europe. Most European countries are derived from tribal names: the Franks became France, the Danes became Denmark, the Angles became England, the Poles became Poland, et cetera. (Though often with a fair bit of migration.) Many others come from their provincial designations under the rule of larger states: Roman Hispania became España; Habsburg-era "pays d'embas", "lands down there", was translated literally into Dutch as Nederlanden.

Pre-medieval kingdoms - most notably the Merovingian and Carolingian Empires - were referred to by their ruling dynasties, but this came to a pretty significant end because of the Germanic tradition of partitive succession. Lands were divided between the heirs instead of passed to a singular successor, leading to a single dynasty ruling multiple different realms - most notably for Carolingians, who in two generations went from controlling most of Western Europe as a unified Frankish Empire to five kingdoms who were often at war with each other.

Needless to say, the rule of several hostile kingdoms by the same nominal dynasty quickly put the kibosh on any sense of dynastic naming in Europe, and tribal names came to dominate as things were formalised in the medieval period. Not so for much of the rest of the world. (Or Liechtenstein.)

Almost every major Arab state took its name from the ruling dynasty, which spread to many non-Arab Muslim realms such as the Ottoman Empire (named for the ruling House of Osman, also called the Ottomans), the Ghaznavid Empire (ruled by the Ghaznavid dynasty), the Timurid Empire (ruled by, surprising no one, the Timurid dynasty)...

Likewise, China is pretty much exclusively described historically in terms of its dynasties, who traditionally picked a new name for their state and government when they came to power. While there was a general idea of a territorial "China" (Chinese Zhongguo, often translated as "Middle Kingdom"), it was only rarely used compared to the dynastic titles. (As far as I'm aware, only the Qing ever really used it in an official context to refer to themselves, and even then the official name was still "(Great) Qing".)

Indian historiography is a bit split; the Maurya and Gupta Empires are referred to by their dynasty, but also as dynasties of a territorial/tribal Magadha Kingdom. The Pala Empire is solely named for its dynasty, but was the successor state of the Gauda Kingdom, named for its territory.

The Aztecs were primarily defined in terms of their city-states, but the Mayans were split between city names and dynastic ones at the time of the Spanish invasion. (Or at least they seem to be; it's hard to find good sources on the etymology of Mayan principalities in English.)

(I'd put in a note about the Incan Empire as well; "Inca" in Quechua essentially means "king" or "nobleman", so a literal English interpretation of "Incan Empire" would be "Emperor's Empire". The endonym for the Incan Empire translates to something like "union of four provinces", with two of the provinces being ethnonyms and two being directional. One of the directional ones might be both, and it's unclear which came first. Honestly, you could do another post about this just for directional names...)

So yes, "King X of the Kingdom of X" is a completely normal thing. Hell, we have two countries that do it today - Liechtenstein (ruled by the House of Liechtenstein) and Saudi Arabia (ruled by the House of Saud). (Both of them are absolute monarchies.)

[nanshe-of-nina]

Women’s History Meme || Empresses (3/5) ↬ Shirin شیرین (d. 628)

The connection between eros and power has long held a great fascination for people. In literature, history, and art, archetypal (in C. G. Jung’s sense) presentations of this theme have been widely disseminated. The story of the Christian Shirin, who rose to become wife of the Persian shah Khosrow II (590-628), is a fascinating example of the link between eros and power. Over the centuries, historians, poets, and artists have taken an interest in her, and she has retained a presence in both East and West until the present day. Byzantine and Syriac writers among her contemporaries, such as the church historian Evagrios, the monk Strategios of St. Saba near Jerusalem, the Byzantine imperial secretary Theophylaktes Simokates, the author of the anonymous Syriac Chronicle, and the Armenian Pseudo-Sebeos, referred to the Christian queen in their works, which represent the first stage of the history of the Shirin theme. Around the year 800, the Byzantine historian Theophanes Confessor attempted to place these events in his chronicle of world history. Only vague reports of Shirin, preserved for us in the Frankish Chronicle of Fredegar, reached the West in the seventh century, but in the Orient, she remained a presence, especially in her faith community, the Apostolic Church of the East, which is usually referred to in the West by the incorrect name “Nestorian.” The East Syriac Chronicle of Seert in Kurdistan and the twelfth-century patriarchal biographies of the Syrian Mari ibn Sulaiman represent the second stage, as it were, of the reception and reworking of this theme in a time which no longer had any immediate connection to the events, since political circumstances had changed dramatically. — Shirin: Christian Queen Myth of Love: A Woman Of Late Antiquity: Historical Reality and Literary Effect by Wilhelm Baum

[paganimagevault]

Map of Campaigns of the Magyars in the 10th C. CE

"This chapter attempts to explain the Hungarian conquest of the central Danubian basin. From the outset, the reader should be aware that this task is far from an easy one for at least two reasons. First of all, the Magyars, as nomads from the Pontic steppe, were extremely mobile. As we shall see, during the period 892-907, elements of their confederation attacked Moravia on several different occasions, Bulgaria, as the army of the khan was besieging Constantinople, Italy, at least twice in alliance with various western leaders, and Bavaria, under the pretext of making peace. As a consequence of their mobility, Hungarian armies appear and disappear in a bewildering, but hardly large, variety of laconic sources, leaving one with a confusing picture of their activities. Second, one of our best sources, the Annales Fuldenses, ends abruptly in 901, six years before the decisive battle of Brezalauspurc finally terminated East Frankish attempts to dominate the central Danubian basin. Subsequent annals have left us only scraps of information until the sixteenth century, when humanist historian Aventinus compiled a rather complete account of the final battle, but one that was based on sources that have long since disappeared, if they ever existed at all."

-Charles R. Bowlus. Franks, Moravians, and Magyars: The struggle for the Middle Danube

[fumblingmusings]

Can anyone recall where Himaruya stated there was a Frankish kingdom representative? Did he say it was just Francia (i.e. Charlemagne) or did he say West/East Francia were a thing too (distinct from France and HRE)?

I'm trying to make sense of France's lifespan in my head but I cannot recall where he specified what France's predecessor was!

[ask-dogday-and-catnap]

The Kingdom of Germany or German Kingdom (Latin: regnum Teutonicorum 'kingdom of the Germans', regnum Teutonicum 'German kingdom',[1] regnum Alamanie "kingdom of Germany"[2]) was the mostly Germanic-speaking East Frankish kingdom, which was formed by the Treaty of Verdun in 843, especially after the kingship passed from Frankish kings to the Saxon Ottonian dynasty in 919. The king was elected, initially by the rulers of the stem duchies, who generally chose one of their own. After 962, when Otto I was crowned emperor, East Francia formed the bulk of the Holy Roman Empire, which also included the Kingdom of Italy and, after 1032, the Kingdom of Burgundy.

Like medieval England and medieval France, medieval Germany consolidated from a conglomerate of smaller tribes, nations or polities by the High Middle Ages.[3] The term rex teutonicorum ('king of the Germans') first came into use in Italy around the year 1000.[4] It was popularized by the chancery of Pope Gregory VII during the Investiture Controversy (late 11th century), perhaps as a polemical tool against Emperor Henry IV.[5] In the 12th century, in order to stress the imperial and transnational character of their office, the emperors began to employ the title rex Romanorum (king of the Romans) on their election.

The Archbishop of Mainz was ex officio arch-chancellor of Germany, as his colleagues the Archbishop of Cologne and Archbishop of Trier were, respectively, arch-chancellors of Italy and Burgundy. These titles continued in use until the end of the empire, but only the German chancery actually existed.[6]

Distinct titulature for Germany, Italy and Burgundy, which traditionally had their own courts, laws, and chanceries,[7] gradually dropped from use as the King/Emperor's influence outside of Germany waned and the German kingdom came to be identified with the Holy Roman Empire.[8]

Reigns were either dated from the day a ruler was elected king (Philip of Swabia, Rudolf of Habsburg) or crowned king (Otto IV, Henry VII, Louis IV, Charles IV). The election day became the starting date permanently with Sigismund. Throughout the Middle Ages, the King of Germany was known as "King of the Romans" from his election as king until the Pope crowned him Emperor in Rome.

What the fuck-

[mapsontheweb]

German Colonisation in the East to c. 1400

Beginning in the eleventh century, new arable land was made available in the German kingdom through the clearing of forests and use of irrigation. The new three-field system (originating in northern France) was introduced, by which peasants alternated between winter crops, summer crops and fallow, resulting in increased agricultural productivity. Moreover, several agricultural techniques and equipment were improved: harrows and ploughs were made of iron, the scythe was further developed, the horse replaced the ox as draught animal, there was increased use of the threshing flail, and grains were processed with water mills (and wind mills from the twelfth century onward). Together with the generally favourable conditions of the so-called Medieval Warm Period, this intensification of agriculture led to people having a better and more stable diet and thereby an increase in birth rate. While sparsely populated during the ninth century, the East Frankish (German) kingdom came to rival the population of France sometime during the twelfth century. Farmland was divided and older villages were replaced by so-called Hufen villages and the size and number of cities increased, in turn causing a rise in the price of agricultural goods. Germanic peasants were invited to settle in the lands of German princes in the imperial border marches, as well as Slavic lands such as Bohemia, Moravia, Pomerania, Poland, Mecklenburg and Silesia. From around 1125, a combination of political motives and missionary urge caused the Holy Roman emperor Lothair of Supplinburg to call for increased settlement of lands in the east.

Germanic settlement in the east happened in three general ways: (a) creation of uniformly planned large villages, where settlers received equal land grants and could pass on their holdings as hereditary possessions (b) settlement in cities built by Slavic princes in hitherto Slavic lands where settlers received judicial and administrative autonomy – including the right to build fortifications – and German Law received a privileged position, based on that of an already well-established city in the German heartlands (cf. Magdeburg) (c) settlement in already well-established Slavic communities where settlers could keep their German Law, which was often extended to include the non-Germanic population. By the end of the fourteenth century, the eastward settlement of Germanic people largely ended and much of the agrarian population went to live in the cities, causing many smaller villages to be abandoned. According to the recommendation of St. Bernard of Clairvaux, Slavic populations were generally left undisturbed by settlers, and economic communities where Germanic and Slavic populations lived together were often the rule. Nevertheless, many territories east of the Elbe and later the Oder came to be Germanised over time and crusading campaigns against pagan Slavic and Baltic peoples throughout the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries resulted in much bloodshed. Moreover, the introduction of a new ship, the cog (Kogge), allowed Germans to take part in the lucrative Baltic trade, which they soon came to dominate at the cost of Slavs and Scandinavians through the Hanseatic League (founded in Lübeck, 1356).

by undevicesimus/deviantart

[renaissancefailmarriage]

random name thoughts+headcanons

"françois bonnefoy" is something that he came up with when he was the nation equivalent of 10-12, because it really sounds more like a medievalbrained Cool Title than a real name.....hello i am a frenchman of the good faith. d'accord jeunehomme! people might have already been calling him something like The Frank or the frankish child (in their various dialects) so he really just....took this to the logical conclusion. (side note: i like the idea of his roman cognomen having been flavius/flaviulus, "yellow" for his hair)

"veneziano" is pretty self-explanatory, just a place-of-origin name, in fact iirc there were some people historically who having no last name, just used this one, like the painter bartolomeo veneziano. "feliciano" is apparently not a real italian name(?correct me if this is wrong?) but could have come through any number of vulgar latin takes on "felix" ("happy") i'm very attached to feliciano as a name of his even though its linguistically questionable, because i think it makes so much sense for this name to have stuck with him...sometimes it's happily accurate and sometimes its darkly ironic.

"romano" is another one that probably rose from a nickname given to him by others. i'm not sure if the italybros ever even met their "father" and romano's primary childhood memories would probably be of east rome/byzantium (who imo is a separate character from rome) and an aging mama graecia, if she's still around. (southern italy had been greek-influenced for awhile and was controlled by east rome for a time after the fall of west rome) but these older nations would have known who this new nation-child is, and perhaps called him romulus ("little roman" basically) in remembrance of his father.

"antonio" is a pretty obvious descendent of "antonius" or "antoninus" in latin. i hc antonio to be one of the characters who remembers rome the best, so it makes sense his name would be relatively unchanged. ive toyed with the idea that "fernandez" is from one of his kings (there were a LOT of iberian kings called fernando) but its just as likely thats a story he tells to justify the name after picking it up randomly.

for my florence OC i was considering something like simonetta or clarice after famous florentine women, but eventually i was like....why fight it. her name is fiora/flora, depending on inconsistent medieval spelling. fiorella if she's being babied or teased. i think it would have grown naturally out of the name of her city, with people calling her "the florentine girl" or "the little florentine" before it slowly became less of a title and more of a name.

imo rome is lucius (taken from @absolvtely-barbaric who is so so smart) but he could have any number of cognomen (in roman naming conventions, thats the name you're more likely to be identified by) from the ever popular romulus (little roman. little rome man. little guy from rome. lmao) to marius (for mars, his patron god/probably dad) to my favorite, crispinus ("curly-top", basically, which is funny and also connects him to the italies with their special curls)

[teta-veleta]

@emitea89 reminded me that there's a line in Dante's Purgatorio that mentions falconry, and the common practice of sewing shut the eyes of birds of prey (cruel and gross) to calm them down during their 'training'. While this was common in the West during the Middle Ages, in the Middle East, where falconry was a much more ancient practice, the use of the hood with the same function was introduced and became the norm right around the same time.

This led us down a rabbit hole because can you imagine the face of one Yusuf Al-Kaysani when the Frankish dumpster cat of a man that has been following him around eyes down their newly acquired hunting bird and just deadpans 'We should sew its eyes shut'.