#american public university

[thevoidscreamer]

Stop Talking About "Proportional Responses" and Read This.

Okay. So as an Intelligence Studies student who has had a longstanding special interest in the Middle East, I feel a little bit compelled to talk about the Israel-Hamas-Palestine situation going on right now.

First off, there are tons of great resources to learn about the history that pertains to this conflict. I highly recommend the book The Contemporary Middle East, 3rd edition, for a good start, but for those of you who don't learn well through reading, Warographics has a great short video that can help you get the bare minimum bit of context necessary to understanding what's going on.

Secondly, it is paramount to note that there are no good guys in this situation aside from the civilians and non-combatants whose lives are being horrendously upended (again) by this conflict. Anyone who tells you that either Israel or Hamas is the sole hero or the sole victim in this story is not looking at the full picture. The world is made up of shades of gray, and there is no truthful black-and-white view of this situation. I caution anyone against listening to those who make statements that glorify the actions of either party or who refuse to accept that both have committed atrocities over the past decades preceding this particular event and the days containing it or who equivocate Palestine with Hamas.

Third, my personal bias is against the use of egregious violence, shock tactics, and ethnic cleansing in any efforts to effect lasting change. I am also against the apartheid state model, the definition of which can be found at this hyperlink. I stand against any form of extremism and terrorism, be they enacted on behalf of an individual, a group, or a recognized state. If you are a proponent of these things, you will not like my analysis. I also assert that LOAC should be staunchly adhered to, not just in letter but also in intent. If you think that exceptions to LOAC should be made to religious or ethnic groups, you will not like my analysis. I do not believe in making exceptions for "divinely inspired" behaviors and I harshly disagree with the assertion of some Christians that Israel reserves the right to reign unfettered damage on any and all others because they are the "apple of G-d's eye."

Fourth, I don't believe in the principle of "reciprocal action" for nations that are actually seeking peace. Responses to terrorist behavior should not be met with equal terrorist behavior. War should not be an avenging action, it should be an procedure that seeks to end the conflict with as little collateral damage as possible. Counter to what most US Americans seem to believe, war is not just bombs and guns. It is ISR, agreements, support, appeals to other countries for aid, international propaganda campaigns, cybersecurity efforts, counterintelligence, economic shifts, and a lot more, all of which has become tremendously more accessible (and impactful) thanks to technological advances. Throwing bodies at the problem and throwing bombs at the bodies until enough people die that it slows down or stops is not our only option anymore, and it hasn't been for a long time.

Finally, I strongly believe in the responsibility that journalists and reporters bear to inform their viewers. Does the average US American news viewer understand Israel's defense capabilities? No, and I wouldn't expect them to. But it's helpful for them to know, when forming their opinions about the conflict. Instead of only showing the tragic final moments of Palestinian and Israeli civilians on loop for the entire 24 hour news cycle, why not dedicate some of that time to discussing the armaments and capabilities of each side of the conflict? What missiles are being used in the air strikes? What about the aircraft? What is the method that the IDF is using to decide where to strike? It's not sensational, but it is important.

Okay so now that that's all out of the way, let's talk specifically about Israel's response to Hamas' coordinated attack on its citizens on 7 October 2023.

My thesis statement here is this: Israel has the knowledge and means to locate and deal with the most important/influential members of Hamas who reside in Gaza while sustaining minimal collateral damage to buildings and civilians, but they have chosen instead to inflict a moderate amount of collateral damage -- more than they have in the past, but less than they are capable of. To what end? That is yet to be seen, though inferences can be made.

In my opinion, this is reckless and will only serve to stoke the flames of anti-Israel sentiment in Palestine and around the world while appealing to the radicalized far-right fringe groups Netanyahu is beholden to, as well as radical Christians, Messianics, and Zionists in the United States. It will not result in peace and will further divide the Middle East and the US along archaic religious extremist lines.

The following post will provide the puzzle pieces that support this hypothesis, and bring them all together in a conclusion.

Let's start by talking about Israel's intelligence apparatus, Mossad. Background on Mossad here for those who need it.

Why is everyone upset with Mossad? Mossad is actually one of the most effective intelligence agencies in the world. The fact that they didn't catch this before it happened comes as such a shock to me as an analyst-in-training that I actually think they may have allowed it to happen in order to enact a war on Palestine. That's simply my impression, but we have yet to see evidence of why this attack was not caught and stopped. The IDF's actions seem to back my hypothesis, but we won't know for sure until the dust settles years from now. At this point, I don't feel speculation is particularly useful.

What benefit does Mossad have to offer now that the conflict has popped off? Hamas is a large organization, estimated at around 20,000 individuals. However, Mossad likely has profiles (and possibly even patterns-of-life) on the high ranking and influential members of Hamas who reside in Gaza. This is because Mossad is a highly adept, globally notable intelligence service, and Hamas is a well-known enemy. Even if Mossad does not have profiles on those individuals, it would only take some patience on Israel's part to locate and identify them and their patterns of life, especially given Israel’s UAV capabilities.

What are Israel's UAV capabilities?

Israel's use of UAVs is not publicly acknowledged, but it is well known that they not only use but manufacture three specific UAVs. In fact, they are one of the world's foremost suppliers of UAV technology.

Of these, the Hermes 900 and Heron TP most resemble the MQ-9 Reaper. Why is this important? Comparison. The MQ-9 Reaper has hella capabilities I won't go into here, but follow this link if you'd like to learn more about the technological marvel that is General Atomics' MQ-9B. What you need to know for this comparison is that the MQ-9 can surveil and destroy a target without that target even knowing the MQ-9 was there. It's stealthy and incredibly precise. The US DOD version has a suite of sensors for all kinds of tasks, and it can carry a decent payload, which is addressed in the next bullet.

The missile we'll be talking about today is the November-class Hellfire. These 104 lb missiles have a unique capability. They are often called a zero-collateral weapon, because they eliminate their target(s) and nothing else. The short of how this missile works is by pressurizing an enclosed space and liquifying what's inside it. This missile does not explode because it has no explosive material. That means no shrapnel, no molten metal, nothing. And, its effects are confined to the four walls, floor, and ceiling of the room it "detonates" in. People in the next room? Unharmed. And it will not pressurize an open space. Which means, by using the laser guided air-to-ground missile system mounted on an aircraft like the MQ-9 or similar, this missile can be deployed to hit one target in an open space and impact no one else. Once deployed, the missile will make impact with the target, destroying it via sheer velocity, bury itself in the ground, and detonate without harming any other people or structures.

So how would Israel get their hands on something like that?

Prior to the Hamas attacks, the Biden administration requested Israel receive $3.3 billion in foreign military financing for the upcoming fiscal year -- the same as the past three years. For comparison, $2.8 billion is going to Europe and Eurasia aid, with an additional $1 billion earmarked specifically for Ukraine. The DOD version of the MQ-9 Reaper costs about $32 million, and Hellfire missiles cost around $120,000 per, including costs for technical support and training -- and its many variants are compatible with multiple platforms, not just the MQ-9.

For context, the Hellfire missile was initially developed in the late 70's. Its newer iterations are much more elegant and efficient, but the point still stands that Israel has had access to the same technology for just as long as everyone else. So even if they were not receiving funding from the US, Israel likely already has figured out an equivalent tool.

Now that we know what the most effective, least damaging option is... what kinds of missiles is Israel using?

Right now, since explosives are still flying, we won't have that information. But we do have information about the last big barrage of missiles and bombs used by Israel on Gaza, back in 2021.

Gravity bombs (mark 82, 83, and 84) fitted with JDAM guidance kits (GBU-38, GBU-32, and GBU-31 respectively) giving the weapon the capability to hit a designated GPS coordinate. These are general purpose bombs built to penetrate concrete and then explode, spreading lethal shrapnel. Lethal area: 2,400 m2

2,000 lb GBU-31 (V)4/B (bunker-buster subvariant), used to level high-rise buildings in Gaza.

500 lb GBU-54 'laser-guided JDAM.'

Semi-active laser-guided Mikholit missile (ATGM). These small missiles can be carried by the smallest of the UAV, but are often deployed by helicopter.

"Spike" or Tammuz NLOS anti-tank missile, which in some models has a staggering range of 16 miles, features a built-in video feed, and can be controlled like a drone.

So... they don't seem to have a track record for using precision missiles that cause minimal collateral damage. Okay, well maybe they have a reason.

So where is Israel sending its explosives?

Gaza is the world's third most densely populated polity, with a population of over 2 million Palestinians -- 70% of those being refugees from other parts of Israel. Below are two maps. The first one shows the population density using dots to depict the general clustering of humans in Gaza. The second one shows the IDF airstrike locations. There is a citation in the image itself, but the hyperlinks in this paragraph take you to the same places. I will let you draw your own conclusions regarding the impact the bombs will have on the Gaza Strip populous, based on the impact locations and population clustering.

From here, it is important to address the considerations that go into what missile to use on a target.

There is generally a three-point system that helps determine which munition is necessitated by which mission and which targets.

Value of target

Missile capability

Estimated collateral deaths

These are all important because of the Law of Armed Combat, sometimes called the International Humanitarian Law, or the Law of War, which is backed by both the Geneva Convention and the Hague Convention. The intention of the LOAC is to minimize collateral damage and unnecessary death, especially to that of non-combatants. And yes, it does apply to "non-international conflict" i.e. engaging in conflict with non-State armed groups -- but it offers a unique exception. "Leaders of non-State armed groups are also subject to attack on the same basis as other members of the group." See subsection 5.7.4 of the DOD Law of War Manual. But that's a rabbit hole for a different day.

How effective was the 2021 bombardment on damaging or destroying Hamas assets?

This is important because the current bombardment is on trajectory to be much more deadly and costly than any IDF bombardment in the past. If the goal of Israel's bombardments is to stop Hamas, then the damage to Hamas should outweigh the damage to the civil Palestinian population. When reading these records, remember that Hamas has controversial political control over Gaza -- many Palestinians do not want Hamas as their governing body, but Hamas enacts legal power there anyway.

Most of the boats and many of the personnel of Hamas' naval cammando force were destroyed

10 Hamas government buildings, including its Interior Ministry, were destroyed

11 military buildings, including one housing Hamas' cyber branch, were destroyed

Five banks that were allegedly linked to Hamas were destroyed

"Nearly 30" (yes, that's the quote) senior commanders and one rocket engineer expert were allegedly killed

The family homes of at least 15 Hamas leaders were destroyed, some including the families inside

Over 60 miles or roughly 20-25% of Hamas' estimated 250-310 mile "Metro," which is an underground tunnel system -- the demolished area included 15 cross-border strike tunnels

Let's compare that to the impact of those same strikes on Gazan infrastructure and non-combatants.

Gaza's only COVID testing and vaccination center was destroyed

Gaza's largest bookstore was destroyed

A critical desalinization plant was disabled

The sewer system was rendered unusable -- reportedly 50% of the water pipeline network was destroyed

53 school buildings were damaged

11 health centers and 6 hospitals were damaged

17,000 residential and commercial units were damaged, including 5 residential towers

An estimated 72,000 Palestinians were rendered homeless

800,000 Gazans lacked access to clean drinking water and were receiving 5 hours of electricity per day, down from 12

At least 243 Gazans were killed, including over 100 women and children

So how is this current conflict shaping up, just five days after it's begun?

Let's look only at total reported deaths so far, because the damage and bombings are still happening and it is not easy to project the impact of something like this.

Gaza: 680, plus 1500 militants reported found dead by Israel

Israel: 900

Hamas Leaders: 3

US: 11

Note: this data is from 10 October, because I could not find a reliable source for reported deaths more recently. However for the curious reader, of the many projected death counts available, I felt AlJazeera would be most accurate.

So what does this all mean?

The current scenario unfolding showcases Israel's prowess in defense and the capabilities they hold, with potential access to precision weapons that minimize collateral damage. However, their choice to utilize munitions that cause significant collateral harm raises pertinent questions about their objectives. Israel's historical actions, while crippling to some of Hamas's assets, have also disproportionately affected Palestinian civilians, disrupting their infrastructure and causing substantial loss of life. It's evident that conflict responses shouldn't be retaliatory actions but must aim for lasting peace.

Israel's approach to the conflict manifests a concerning disregard for the safety of Palestinian civilians residing in Gaza. The destruction of essential infrastructure in 2021, show a pattern of excessive force that suggests a stubbornness against employing more efficient, precise methods of eliminating targets. Instead, their recent actions in the 2023 conflict will inevitably lead to devastating collateral damage that affects non-combatants more than the intended targets. Moreover, these tactics will serve to further tarnish Israel's international image. The global community is increasingly conscious of human rights and the usefulness of discrimination in warfare. Israel’s actions, therefore, risk isolating them in the global theater and could potentially invite international sanctions or legal action, as well as continued aggression from Palestine and its sympathizers. These factors all combine to indicate a blatant disregard for Palestinian civilian lives and a lack of foresight in their strategic actions and international relations.

With technological advancements, nations no longer have to resort to conventional warfare tactics. As the current conflict unfolds, it becomes even more critical to highlight the importance of a balanced approach and the dire need for solutions that prioritize humanity over political or religious objectives. However, Israel and Hamas have both made their positions clear, and neither of those positions reflects the idea of regional security.

Tl;dr ... Israel could have chosen to do better, but they didn't. And that's not okay.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Note about the author: I grew up in a radicalized far right evangelical household, and at least one of my parents is still radicalized. I did a brief foray into the radicalized far left side of US politics before settling into my current moderate position. As a white, atheist, transgender individual who has experienced homelessness and chronic illness, and who has been a victim of sex trafficking, but who now lives a stable and solidly middle class life with a bachelor's level education and a partner in the military, I recognize that my moderate political position is a privileged one.

I acknowledge that the unfortunate truth is that often the only option left to oppressed groups seeking change is violence, especially provided there is no substantial humanitarian intervention available to them. I believe that Israel's actions will further that sense of no-other-way-out for Palestinians, especially those not affiliated with Hamas.

[frankensteinofficial]

my university having the dracula daily guy as a guest speaker is so funny

[reasonsforhope]

"In a historic move Friday [November 8, 2024], Sacramento State announced its new Native American College, a first of its kind in the California State university system. 

The college, a co-curricular institution housed at Sacramento State, will support Native-based education with a focus on leadership and career building. It will offer a diverse range of programs that integrate "tribal values, traditions and community engagement," according to a press release. 

This marks Sacramento State's second ethnic-based institution. The university launched the the nation's first Black Honors college earlier this year. 

The announcement was made at the California State Capitol by President Luke Wood and Dr. Annette Reed, an enrolled member and citizen of the Tolowa Dee-ni' Nation, who will be the first dean of the Native American College. 

Reed said students will have access to faculty mentors, advisors, outreach coordinators and more who have the expertise to work closely with Native American students and can support them holistically. 

She hopes this historic initiative will address low enrollment of Native students pursuing higher education across the state and in the country. Native American students face significant barriers to enrolling in higher education, such as financial constraints, feelings of isolation, historical trauma and lack of culturally relevant curriculum. 

"And so I'm hoping this impacts the students where they go through as a cohort. They can create networks, they can be able to have more of a support system going through and beginning together and hopefully graduating at the end together," Reed said.

Reed recalled taking her first class on Native American studies in 1980. She would later on serve as the director of Native American studies at Sacramento State and chair of the Department of Ethnic Studies. For her, advocating for Native American education was a natural top priority. 

"People always ask me, 'What is Native American studies?' It is history. It is looking at culture. It's looking at teaching sovereignty, federal Indian law. It's teaching social work, art. It's teaching about Native cultural expression, it can be literature," Reed said. 

The Native American College will introduce two new courses, according to Reed, which will be focused on Native American leadership. 

"It means that maybe some of the ones that start in Fall 2025 will end up here at the Capitol. Maybe they'll end up being the future senators or assembly people or the future of people in business. They might be leading our nation as tribal chairs, they might be going into the medical field," Reed said. "But whatever field they go into, leadership is really key." 

Students who want to be in the Native American College can apply after being accepted into the university's general application process. All students will be required to minor in Native American Studies, with an emphasis on Native American leadership."

-via ABC 10, November 8, 2024

[queeratlast]

New episode out today! Listen here or wherever you get your podcasts 🎧

Have YOU ever died and been reincarnated as a nonbinary spirit of God? If so, you might be the subject of today's episode - the Publick Universal Friend, a fascinating figure from 1700s America (or, as Katherine calls it, Hamilton times).

The object we're discussing this week is a beaver felted and moulded hat worn by the Friend c. 1790, used by kind permission of Yates County History Museum.

Content warnings can be found in the episode description

[uwmspeccoll]

A Crow-Attack Winter’s Feathursday

On this last #Feathursday of 2022 we present a scene of winter conflict with American Crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos) mobbing a predator Great Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus) from the 1963 book Birds of Wisconsin by the Wisconsin nature artist Owen J. Gromme (1896-1991), published for the Milwaukee Public Museum, where Gromme was curator of birds and mammals, by the University of Wisconsin Press. The original painting is oil on canvas from 1956 and measures 24″ by 30″. Gromme writes:

The familiar feud between owls and crows is portrayed in this study of a Great Horned Owl and it assailants. Powerful and well armed though it may be, many a battered and befuddled owl has been temporarily bested by these persistent tormentors, until nightfall reverses the advantage.

He goes on to state that hunters often take advantage of this natural enmity and use owl decoys to lure crows to their death. Gromme states: “Sometimes hundreds of crows are shot in a few hours by the use of such a decoy.”

Why anyone would want to slaughter hundreds of these majestic animals is beyond our comprehension. Appalling!!

Read more about Gromme and his book.

View more posts from Gromme’s Birds of Wisconsin.

View more Feathursday posts.

[weidli]

would be very funny to me to introduce a bunch of americans who are used to the constitution being treated as a gift from god that's very hard to change and is holy Because it's almost never changed and has been in operation in nearly the same form since 1789 to the way the swiss constitution (last total revision in 1999, there have been several hundred direct democratic votes on possible changes to it since 1848, all you need to suggest a change is hundred thousand people with voting power who'll sign the suggestion) works

[despertara]

Irene bro if you see this I want you to know I've been podcasting (talking loudly and emphatically to myself) abt that Grammy Gun post for Hours. I started ranting in the rb tags and then I got so mad I started a spreadsheet on my phone Yes I have the Excel app. No I did not finish my tags

[sudaca-swag]

cant believe we actually made it full circle to the early middle ages and popular anti intellectualist takes are all "reading and researching is bad for u bc it puts the devil ideas into your brain" and also they think that somehow only the church (powerful elite group) is the one creating knowledge lol

[nickysfacts]

The Public Universal Friend, a preachers that was both true to their word and their name!✝️

⛪️🏳️‍🌈

[argaman01]

Jerusalems in the United States - New York State

I reposted a blog earlier today about how Jewish Voice for Peace had at some point had people recite "Next Year in Al-Quds" instead of "Next Year in Jerusalem" during a Passover seder. Someone then commented that they could have said "Next Year in Jerusalem New York," and in fact, there is a Jerusalem, New York, and it's not very far from me. (I live in Ithaca)

The New York Jerusalem is in Yates County, right on Keuka Lake. (In the map below, it's enclosed by the dotted red line).

From a history of the town published in 1892:

"Jerusalem is practically and substantially the mother of towns in Yates County.  The district, sometimes called township, of Jerusalem, was organized in 1789 as one of the subdivisions of Ontario County, and included with its limits all that is now Milo, Benton and Torrey, as well as its own original territory.  On the erection of Stueben County in 1796, the region or district called Bluff Point, or so much of it as lies south of the south line of township seven, was made a part of the new formation; but in 1814 an act of the Legislature annexed Bluff Point to Jerusalem, and to which it has since belonged.   

"In 1803 the town of Jerusalem was definitely erected, embracing township seven, second range, and so much of township seven, first range, as lay westward of Lake Keuka and lot No. 37.  At or about the same time the other territory that had previously formed a part of the district of Jerusalem was organized into a town and called Vernon, after Snell and finally Benton."

The Public Universal Friend

Portrait of the Public Universal Friend, from 1812, unknown painter. Source: Yates County Historical Society

A famous resident of the town (famous then, not now), was the Public Universal Friend:

"The Public Universal Friend, Jemima WILKINSON, was of course a pioneer of this town, the same as she had been in the locality and settlement on Seneca Lake.  In 1790 she first came to the Genesee country and four years later she established herself permanently in the town of Jerusalem."

The Public Universal Friend was born as Jemima Wilkinson in 1752 to a Quaker family in Rhode Island. Jemima was transformed into the Public Universal Friend after "a night of fevered dreams" on October 10, 1776.

Jemima took on a new identity after the fever. "'Reborn' in their place was the Public Universal Friend, neither male nor female. According to the Friend, Jemima’s soul had passed into heaven, and God had reanimated their body with the spirit of the Friend sent to spread the Quaker gospel. From then on, the Friend began to gather followers and travel as a preacher."

The Friend lived as nonbinary person: "The Public Universal Friend dressed in a way that blended masculinity and femininity, and this drew much attention. Their clothing included a cravat and robe like traditional ministers and clergymen wore, as well as the kind of hat typically worn by Quaker men. They also didn’t wear the traditional bonnet or head covering women were expected to wear. The Public Universal Friend’s gender presentation caused curiosity and anger, and it was a radical challenge to the status quo that the Friend was not willing to be bound by the customs of the community." 

How did the Friend come to settle in Jerusalem, New York? After their transformation, the Friend gathered a following, and they decided to create a settlement in western New York, called Jerusalem.

The Friend's house, where they lived until dying in 1819. (Photo from the National Park Service).

Sources

Yates County, New York, History of the Town of Jerusalem: https://web.archive.org/web/20050125071905/http://www.usgennet.org/usa/ny/county/yates/jerusalem/jeruhistory.htm

New York Public Library, January 13, 2023: https://www.nypl.org/blog/2023/02/16/who-was-public-universal-friend-living-outside-gender-binary-revolutionary-times

Washington Post, January 5, 2020: https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2020/01/05/long-before-theythem-pronouns-genderless-prophet-drew-hundreds-followers/

National Park Service: https://www.nps.gov/places/the-friend-s-home-jemima-wilkinson-house.htm

Life Story: The Public Universal Friend: https://wams.nyhistory.org/settler-colonialism-and-revolution/settler-colonialism/public-universal-friend/

Jerusalem and the Society of Universal Friends: http://upstatehistorical.org/items/show/75

More information about the Friend

The Public Universal Friend: Jemima Wilkinson and Religious Enthusiasm in Revolutionary America, by Paul B. Moyer (Cornell University Press, 2015).

"'Indescribable Being': Theological Performances of Genderlessness in the Society of the Publick Universal Friend, 1776–1819," by Scott Larson, Early American Studies 12:3 (2014) 576-600. (Special issue: Beyond the Boundaries: Critical Approaches to Sex and Gender in Early America). JSTOR link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/24474871

[thevoidscreamer]

My capstone course final / senior thesis thingie (it's a bachelor's degree but they called it a senior thesis idk) has officially been turned in and I feel hollow inside 🫠

My subject was GEOINT for space exploration. It's something I'm super passionate about but also final projects are not my strong suit, especially when the professor says "choose your own topic," so I hated almost every minute of the writing process for this thing.

Also my friend helped me run it through an AI checker because my school checks for AI now and I didn’t use any AI but my conclusion paragraph flagged as almost 100% AI because I suck at conclusions

And my other friend said: “So you’re telling me you’re a robot? I had to study a while to pass the Turing test myself.”

and that was the single best part of working of this long-ass paper.

thanks for coming to my TED talk. Don't stay in school kids they make you write a big paper at the end and you feel like you're making this shit up on the fly despite literal years of reading and effort put into learning about it.

[californianedgeworth]

sometimes I think maybe californianedgeworth was a bad choice for a tumblr url because I'm gonna be stuck with a fandom/character specific name for a blog that doesn't post only that fandom/character until I change it. also even more confusing branding bcus it doesn't match with my youtube and insta handles

but also who cares. it's kind of funny. sometimes my friend who i've known for years irl will use my full tumblr handle when talking about what i post. it's part of my identity now

[lepidopterium]

-

[makingdonalddrumpfagain]

[ausetkmt]

Columbia University's Mailman School of Public Health: Lets Talk About Racism | Columbia Public

Our researchers are shining a light on discrimination’s effect on the public’s health and taking steps to stop it.

In March of 2020, when then-Mayor Bill DeBlasio announced that the New York City Police Department would be responsible for enforcing mandates related to the raging COVID-19 pandemic, Seth J. Prins, MPH ’10, PhD ’16, had a bad feeling. “We saw anecdotal reports in the media that most of the people being arrested or given summonses were Black,” says Prins, assistant professor of Epidemiology and Sociomedical Sciences.

Sure enough, once data became available, Prins and his research team found that ZIP codes with a higher percentage of Black residents had significantly higher rates of COVID-19–specific court summonses and arrests, even after researchers took into account what percentage of people in each area were following social distancing rules. The team’s findings suggested that tasking police with enforcing mandates may have contributed to overpolicing of Black communities and the harms that result. Living in a neighborhood with a high rate of police stops has been associated with elevated rates of anxiety, post-traumatic stress, and even asthma. Prins and his colleagues found that pandemic policing mirrored the discretionary nature of the city’s stop-and-frisk program, which was deemed unconstitutional in 2013 due to racially discriminatory practices.

“It was a sick irony,” he says. “Not only did the policy increase close contact with police, who had incredibly low vaccination rates and often weren’t wearing masks, but also the people arrested were taken to crowded jails, where transmission rates were extremely high, and then sent back to their communities, which were already experiencing disproportionately high rates of coronavirus.”

His team’s report is one of several highlighting the ways in which the COVID-19 pandemic brought to the fore the long-standing effects of racism on public health, with findings of far higher death rates in this country among people of color. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention declared racism a serious public health threat in 2021, following decades of research supporting the idea that structural racism is a significant driver of the social determinants of health, impacting everything from where people live and where their children go to school to the quality of the air they breathe, the food they eat, and the healthcare they receive. In recent years, Columbia Mailman School researchers have published numerous studies that underscore the persistent and devastating effects of racism on public health and illustrate the ways in which historically marginalized groups experience deep-seated health inequities that lead to higher rates of diabetes, hypertension, obesity, asthma, and heart disease, as well as a shorter life expectancy.

In her course titled The Untold Stories in U.S. Health Policy History, Heather Butts, JD, MPH, assistant professor of Health Policy and Management, guides students through an examination of policies that have embedded structural racism in healthcare over several decades. Among them is redlining, a racially biased mortgage-appraisal policy dating to the 1930s that led to food deserts (and the adverse health impacts that result) and other environmental adversities. More recently, research has shown that pulse oximeters are less effective on people with darker pigmentation. Throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, “You had Black and brown people going to their doctors and saying, ‘I’m having trouble breathing,’” she notes. “The doctor says, ‘The oximeter says your oxygen level is 96, you’re good to go.’ Meanwhile, that’s not an accurate reading.”

By continuing to probe the less obvious ways in which these historic mindsets continue to affect society, the researchers hope to contribute to a conversation whose ultimate goal is true health equity. Ami Zota, ScD, MS, who recently joined the School, has published research linking elevated levels of endocrine-disrupting chemicals in the bodies of Black, Asian, and Latinx women to products, such as skin lighteners, hair straighteners, and fragranced feminine care products, that reinforce Eurocentric beauty norms. Discrimination based on hair style and texture has been directly traced to a lack of access to economic opportunity.

She also noted a subtle racism in some of the responses she got from the media covering the work. Some reporters asked her why, if the OB-GYN community had discouraged douching, Black women were still engaging in the practice. “They took the approach of vilifying the user,” she says.

So pervasive is structural racism that it affects the temperature of the air circulating within our homes. Diana Hernández, PhD, associate professor of Sociomedical Sciences, has documented how racism has resulted in both segregation and a lack of investment in housing among certain populations, with enduring implications for physical and mental health. Hernández is a sociologist who conducts much of her research in the South Bronx, where she grew up in Section 8 housing. She has found that people living in poverty and people of color are more likely to live in energy-inefficient homes (such as those with poor insulation), despite consuming less energy overall. Energy insecurity—the inability to meet basic household energy needs—is associated with poor sleep, mental strain, and respiratory illness. Affected households might cope with the lack of heat by using ovens, stoves, or space heaters to warm their homes (exacerbating the risk of fire and contributing to respiratory problems), and by wearing coats and extra layers of clothing indoors. They might spend their days in bed, tucked under blankets and quilts, and forgo food, medicines, and other necessities. Hernández tells the story of one woman who sent her kids to school with holes in their shoes so that she could afford to keep the lights on at home.

Though the energy crisis of the 1970s and ’80s led to the implementation of some programs that address home-energy insecurity, only about 1 in 5 eligible Americans actually obtain benefits. In addition to a lack of awareness about where and how to access help, people with limited incomes face administrative burdens, from having to take time off work and pay for transit to submitting documents verifying identity and need. Energy insecurity also tends to be internalized in a way that other issues aren’t, says Hernández, and is often interpreted as a personal failure. “There are ways people navigate the food landscape—by visiting food pantries or accessing Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program benefits, for example—that are not available when it comes to energy,” she says, a situation that can affect social relations. In managing the shame and stigma associated with a lack of heat or power, many will keep friends and relatives at a distance.

Prins, whose early-career work in the policy realm spurred him to ask bigger-picture questions about racism and our country’s drug policy, has written extensively about the school-to-prison pipeline, a set of practices that make it more likely for some adolescents to be criminalized and ensnared in the legal system than to receive a quality education. The phenomenon gathered steam in the 1990s, part of a trend that saw the government cut spending in welfare, education, and housing while investing in systems of surveillance, punishment, and incarceration. “There are over 10 million students in the United States who go to a school that has a police officer but no nurse, counselor, social worker, or guidance counselor,” Prins says. Out-of-school suspensions have more than doubled over the past 40 years, and these policies have been borne disproportionately by adolescents of color, which is directly related to the preponderance of Black people in the nation’s criminal legal system.

Many Columbia Mailman School researchers have had the satisfaction of watching their work translate into real-world change. Zota testified before policymakers in California, Washington, and elsewhere as they considered regulations on beauty and personal care products, for instance, and saw the Toxic-Free Cosmetics Act, which bans the use of 24 hazardous ingredients from personal care products, passed in 2020. (Eighteen states, including California and New York, have also passed laws banning discrimination based on hair style and texture in the workplace and in schools.) A write-up in The Washington Post about Zota’s research into the presence of harmful chemicals in fast food led Sen. Dianne Feinstein of California to take the issue on and spurred Rep. Raja Krishnamoorthi of Illinois to petition the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) about it.

The wins can be gratifying, but Zota and the others acknowledge that, like racism, entrenched interests including Big Pharma, Big Food, and other industries can obstruct the work getting done. For example, thanks in part to the trailblazing research of the Columbia Center for Children’s Environmental Health, Congress instituted a federal ban on seven phthalates in levels exceeding 0.1 percent in toys and children’s products. But the dangerous chemicals can still be found in clothing, shower curtains, detergents, shampoos, and other products. Zota points to a lack of enforcement mechanisms for various consumer protection laws and to a dearth of funding for implementation. Last year, she published a paper looking at the effects of phthalates on learning and attention among children and recommending their elimination from food contact substances, only to see the FDA rule soon after that the petrochemical industry could continue using the most common phthalates—and leaving out any mention of health concerns in its decision. Facing challenges related to climate change, she noted, the industry appears to be digging in when it comes to the production of plastic.

Some progress is being made where the school-to-prison pipeline is concerned. Prins points to pilot programs in New York City that use restorative justice practices in schools to deal more holistically with disciplinary issues and that train teachers to be less discriminatory when applying discipline. But such measures can only go so far. Truly addressing the structural issues behind the school-to-prison pipeline, Prins says, will require a fundamental shift, one where social services are redirected from punishment to prevention. Similarly, he says, addressing mental health and substance use issues related to exploitation in the workplace shouldn’t be about offering underpaid and overworked people seminars on work-life balance. Policymakers should be looking at things like enforcing overtime laws and making it easier for people to unionize.

Systemic change will likely come about only once different questions start getting asked—and different people ask them. In 2019, Zota, whose parents hail from rural India, created Agents of Change in Environmental Justice, a fellowship aimed at amplifying the voices of environmental health scientists from marginalized backgrounds. The program’s move to Columbia with Zota’s arrival complements the work of RISE (Resilience,  Inclusion, Solidarity, and Empowerment), a peer mentor program launched at the School in 2018. These days, Zota says, most of the people shaping public perspectives in the environmental health field are older, male, and white, but the members of her program—which works with the nonprofit Environmental Health News to amplify research and engage with the public—offer different lived experiences. “Whether you’re talking about climate justice or environmental justice, if you’ve grown up in one of the communities that is hardest hit, that is going to shape how you view the problem and how you view solutions.” Participants in Agents of Change write essays and produce podcasts and videos. Graduates, including at least four Columbia Mailman School alumni, already have been invited to give talks at the National Institutes of Health and the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine.

A new initiative capitalizing on the expertise of Epidemiology professor Mary Beth Terry, PhD ’99, will tackle systemic health problems among historically marginalized groups in a revolutionarily holistic way. In January, Terry was named director of the Center to Improve Chronic Disease Outcomes through Multi-level and Multi-generational Approaches Unifying Novel Interventions and Training for Health Equity  (known as COMMUNITY). While the citywide center has roots in public health, it incorporates representatives from cardiology, oncology, neurology, nursing, and general medicine and draws expertise from across Columbia University. The goal is for the Columbia researchers, working with colleagues from Cornell, NewYork-Presbyterian, Hunter College, and the City University of New York, to engage with the communities Columbia Mailman School serves, particularly the Black and Latinx communities, across several diseases at once. Whereas most research programs get their funding through a connection to individual diseases, the aim here is to break down silos and focus on more comprehensive interventions.

Terry calls this new initiative the realization of a 20-year dream shared by the entire team, whose members have wanted to work together, given the common antecedents to many chronic diseases. “This new funding focuses on developing and validating interventions as we have so much descriptive epidemiology already,” she says. “These data have existed for decades. We need scalable, successful interventions.”

Terry notes that community health workers, who tend to have large networks and inspire trust, will be central to achieving health equity. They are already part of a program focused on improving outcomes for people juggling multiple chronic diseases, including a sleep program recently launched in the Latinx community in Washington Heights. A Harlem project will rely on community health workers engaging with churches to identify candidates for colorectal cancer screening, as the guidelines recently changed in response to a surge in diagnoses among young Black men. Terry expects the combined initiatives, which are led by her Columbia colleagues, to improve health and help build the evidence for the cost-effectiveness of community health workers, and ultimately to fund them better.

Hernández, too, sees leveraging community networks—in her case, within reimagined multiple-unit housing—as a way to bridge gaps in public health. Practitioners have long worked in gathering places such as churches, particularly in Black communities, to get public health messages across. “In some ways,” she says, “sharing an address can be more of a connection point than sharing faith. There are so many things that can be done to think about meeting people where they are, reducing barriers, and reaching populations that are quote-unquote hard to reach.”

Researchers affiliated with the COMMUNITY Center will continue the work that Columbia Mailman School has long undertaken with community organizations such as the Harlem-based WE ACT for Environmental Justice—work that centers the concerns of people of color. Like Zota’s fellowship, COMMUNITY involves an educational element, including training the next generation of new investigators who are interested in combating the health inequities of chronic diseases. This deliberate passing on of knowledge is critical. “To me, structural racism is not having the mentors you need to move up the ranks,” says Butts. As an African American with degrees from three Ivy League universities, Butts stands as a living example of the change she and her colleagues all believe is possible.