#what is Single Nucleotide Polymorphism

[kemetic-dreams]

What is the DNA haplogroup of modern Egyptians?

Haplogroup E1b1b1

Wikipedia (E1b1b): E-M215, also known as E1b1b and formerly E3b, is a major human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. It is a division of the macro-haplogroup E-M96, which is defined by the single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) mutation M215. In other words, it is one of the major patrilineages of humanity, linking from father-to-son back to a common male-line ancestor ("Y-chromosomal Adam"). It is a subject of discussion and study in genetics as well as genetic genealogy, archaeology, and historical linguistics.

The E-M215 haplogroup has two ancient branches that contain all the known modern E-M215, E-M35 and E-M281 subclades. Of the latter two, the only branch that has been confirmed in a native population outside of Ethiopia is E-M35. E-M35 in turn has two known branches, haplogroup E-V68 and haplogroup E-Z827, which contain by far the majority of all modern E-M215 carrying men. E-V68 and E-V257 have been found in highest numbers in North Africa and the Horn of Africa, but also in lower numbers in parts of the Middle East and Europe, and in isolated populations of Southern Africa.

The Study authors consider Mtdna L0 thru L4 exclusively African.

Wikipedia quote: Haplogroup L3 descendants notwithstanding, the designation "haplogroup L" is typically used to designate the family of mtDNA clades that are most frequently found in Sub-Saharan Africa. However, all non-African haplogroups coalesce onto either haplogroup M or haplogroup N, and both these macrohaplogroups are simply sub-branches of haplogroup L3. Consequently, L in its broadest definition is really a paragroup containing all of modern humanity, and all human mitochondrial DNA from around the world are subclades of haplogroup L.

repeat - and all human mitochondrial DNA from around the world are subclades of haplogroup L.

Basal J*(xJ1,J2) is found at its highest frequencies among the Soqotri/Socotra (71.4%).

The people of the Island of Soqotri/Socotra are the genetically PUREST of ALL ARABS.

This is what they look like!

[eurofinsgenomics755]

Enhancing Precision in Quantitative PCR: The Power of TaqMan Probes

In the realm of molecular biology, precise and accurate detection of nucleic acids is essential for research, diagnostics, and therapeutic development. Among the various tools available, TaqMan Probes stand out as a gold standard for quantitative PCR (qPCR) applications. In this blog, we'll explore what makes TaqMan Probes so powerful, their applications, and how they are transforming modern molecular techniques.

What are TaqMan Probes?

TaqMan Probes are a type of hydrolysis probe used in real-time PCR (qPCR) to increase the specificity and sensitivity of the assay. They consist of a short oligonucleotide sequence labeled with a fluorescent reporter dye at one end and a quencher dye at the other. When the probe hybridizes to its target DNA sequence, the proximity of the quencher suppresses the fluorescence of the reporter dye. During PCR amplification, the 5' nuclease activity of Taq polymerase cleaves the probe, separating the reporter from the quencher and resulting in an increase in fluorescence. This fluorescence is directly proportional to the amount of target DNA, allowing for precise quantification.

Key Advantages of TaqMan Probes

High Specificity: TaqMan Probes are designed to hybridize to a specific sequence within the target DNA, ensuring high specificity. This minimizes the risk of non-specific amplification and false-positive results, making them ideal for complex samples.

Sensitivity: The fluorescent signal generated by TaqMan Probes is highly sensitive, enabling the detection of low-abundance targets. This is crucial in applications such as pathogen detection, where the target nucleic acids may be present in minute quantities.

Quantitative Accuracy: TaqMan Probes provide precise quantification of target DNA, as the increase in fluorescence is directly proportional to the number of amplified molecules. This makes them indispensable for applications requiring accurate quantification, such as gene expression analysis and copy number variation studies.

Applications of TaqMan Probes

Clinical Diagnostics: TaqMan Probes are widely used in clinical diagnostics for detecting and quantifying viral and bacterial pathogens. Their high specificity and sensitivity ensure accurate diagnosis, which is essential for effective treatment and management of infectious diseases.

Genetic Research: In genetic research, TaqMan Probes facilitate the study of gene expression, genotyping, and SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) analysis. Researchers rely on TaqMan Probes to measure gene expression levels accurately, helping to elucidate the roles of specific genes in health and disease.

Environmental Testing: Environmental scientists use TaqMan Probes to monitor the presence of pollutants and pathogens in water, soil, and air samples. This helps in assessing environmental health and ensuring compliance with safety standards.

Agricultural Biotechnology: In agriculture, TaqMan Probes are employed to detect genetically modified organisms (GMOs), monitor crop pathogens, and study plant gene expression. This aids in improving crop yield, disease resistance, and overall agricultural productivity.

Optimizing Your qPCR Experiments with TaqMan Probes

To maximize the effectiveness of TaqMan Probes in your qPCR experiments, consider the following tips:

Design: Ensure that your probes are designed with optimal specificity for the target sequence. Use online tools and databases for probe design.

Concentration: Optimize the concentration of your probes to balance sensitivity and specificity. Too high a concentration can lead to non-specific binding, while too low a concentration can reduce sensitivity.

Controls: Include appropriate positive and negative controls to validate your results and detect any potential contamination or non-specific amplification.

Conclusion

TaqMan Probes have revolutionized the field of quantitative PCR by providing unparalleled specificity, sensitivity, and accuracy. Their versatile applications in diagnostics, research, and environmental monitoring make them indispensable tools for scientists and clinicians alike. By incorporating TaqMan Probes into your qPCR assays, you can achieve precise and reliable quantification of nucleic acids, driving forward your research and diagnostic efforts.

Stay updated with the latest advancements in qPCR technology and TaqMan Probes by subscribing to our newsletter. Enhance your molecular biology toolkit with the precision and reliability of TaqMan Probes today.

[123567-9qaaq9]

Informative Report on Personalized Medicine Biomarker  | BIS Research 

Personalized medicine biomarkers are characteristics that can be objectively measured and evaluated to indicate an individual's predisposition to a particular disease, their likelihood of responding to a specific treatment, or their potential for experiencing adverse reactions to certain medications. 

The global clinical biomarkers market was valued at $24.80 billion in 2023 and is expected to reach $53.20 billion by 2033, growing at a CAGR of 7.93% between 2023 and 2033.

Personalized Medicine Biomarker Overview 

Personalized medicine biomarkers encompass various biological characteristics that can predict disease susceptibility, treatment response, and adverse reactions to medications.

Types of biomarkers include 

genetic markers, such as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and gene mutations, as well as molecular markers like protein expression levels and metabolite profiles.

Role of Personalized Medicine Biomarker  

Disease Risk Assessment and Prevention 

Early Disease Detection and Diagnosis 

Treatment Selection and Personalization 

Personalized medicine biomarkers are indispensable assets in modern healthcare, empowering clinicians to deliver individualized, evidence-based care that maximizes patient outcomes and improves quality of life. 

Download the report and get to know the interesting facts Click Here ! 

Market Dynamics 

Market Drivers 

Growing Demand for Clinical Biomarker Products

Increase in Industrial Activity in Clinical Biomarker Landscape

Environment Changes Provoking Swift Care and Diagnosis

Market Restraints 

High Price of Products/Services Limiting Adoption of Clinical Biomarkers in Low-Income Countries

Complex Regulatory Frameworks Delaying Approval of New Clinical Biomarkers Tests

Discovering New Biomarkers Presents Difficulty

Market Opportunities 

Technological Advancement in Biomarker Testing

Increased Research Funding for Executing Research and Development Exercise

Discovery of Novel Biomarkers Expanding Precision Medicine Horizons

Grab a look at our sample page click here! 

Market Segmentation

By Product Type 

By Clinical Area 

By Technology 

By End Users 

Click here to visit our Precision medicine page ! 

China has been able to procure its place as one of the leading contributors to the clinical diagnostics market in the past five years. Major growth was significantly attributed to the increasing adoption of clinical biomarkers in oncology or rare disease space.

Uses of Personalized Medicine Biomarker   

Tailored Treatment Selection 

Enhanced Treatment Efficiency 

Early Disease Detection 

Accelerated Drug Development 

Key Players in Transitional  Biomarker Market 

Abbott Laboratories

Agilent Technologies, Inc.

ALCEN

Recent Developments in the Global Clinical Biomarkers Market

•In August 2023, Quest Diagnostics launched the AD-Detect test for Alzheimer’s disease in the U.S., offering consumers the first opportunity to acquire and evaluate a blood-based biomarker test for assessing the potential risks of developing AD

•In September 2023, Becton, Dickinson and Company partnered with Navigate BioPharma Services, Inc. to develop and commercialize flow cytometry-based companion diagnostics and clinical decision tools. The collaboration combined Navigate BioPharma's expertise in biomarker assay design for clinical trials with BD's extensive portfolio of flow cytometry instruments, reagents, software, and in vitro diagnostics (IVD) development services.

Key Question Answers 

QWhat are the major market drivers, challenges, and opportunities in the global clinical biomarkers market?

Q What are the business development strategies, such as business expansion, acquisitions, and funding, which are implemented by the major players to sustain in the competitive market?

Q Which is the dominant product and service type developed by the leading and emerging players for clinical biomarkers?

QHow is each segment of the market expected to grow during the forecast period from 2023 to 2033?

Conclusion 

In conclusion, personalized medicine, driven by biomarker identification, stands as a transformative approach in healthcare. Through the precise understanding of individual genetic, molecular, and physiological characteristics, tailored treatment strategies can be developed, offering patients more effective therapies with fewer side effects. Biomarkers serve as invaluable tools in this paradigm, enabling clinicians to predict disease risk, diagnose conditions earlier, and monitor treatment responses in real-time.

[denovotech]

What are the different types of IN SITU HYBRIDIZATION PROBES

Denovo technologies , a leading provider of life science products and services in India, offers a wide range of cutting-edge solutions for researchers and scientists. Among their extensive product portfolio, we offers various types of in situ hybridization probes, an essential tool for studying gene expression and localization within cells and tissues. In this article, we will delve into the different types of in situ hybridization probes available under  Denovo technologies under their applications in scientific research.

RNAscope:

Denovo technologies provides RNAscope, a powerful and highly sensitive in situ hybridization technology that enables the detection and visualization of RNA molecules within intact cells and tissues. RNAscope probes are designed to target specific RNA sequences, allowing researchers to identify and study gene expression patterns with single-molecule resolution. This technique has proven invaluable in fields such as cancer research, neuroscience, developmental biology, and infectious disease studies.

BaseScope:

BaseScope is another innovative in situ hybridization assay offered by us. It is specifically designed for the detection of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and point mutations in RNA transcripts. BaseScope probes enable researchers to identify and analyze genetic variations at the RNA level, providing insights into disease mechanisms, drug response, and personalized medicine.

miRNAscope:

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNA molecules that play critical roles in gene regulation. We offers miRNAscope, a specialized in situ hybridization assay designed to detect and visualize miRNA expression patterns within cells and tissues. By studying miRNA localization, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of miRNA function and their involvement in various biological processes, including development, cell differentiation, and disease progression.

Custom In Situ Hybridization Probes:

Denovo technologies understands the unique research requirements of scientists and offers custom in situ hybridization probes tailored to specific gene targets. Researchers can collaborate with our  experts to design and develop custom probes that precisely target the genes of interest. This flexibility allows researchers to explore gene expression patterns and cellular localization in a highly specific and personalized manner.

Applications and Benefits

The availability of diverse in situ hybridization probes from Denovo technologies empowers researchers to investigate gene expression and localization in a wide range of biological samples. These probes enable the identification of specific RNA molecules, SNPs, and miRNAs, providing valuable insights into cellular processes, disease mechanisms, and therapeutic targets. The benefits of using Our in situ hybridization probes include:-

High sensitivity and specificity: The probes are designed with exceptional sensitivity and specificity, ensuring accurate detection and localization of target molecules within the cells and tissues.

Single-molecule resolution: 

The  probes enable the visualization of gene expression at the single-molecule level, allowing researchers to study cellular heterogeneity and rare cell populations.

Versatility: The different types of in situ hybridization probes cater to various research needs, from studying gene expression patterns to identifying genetic variations and miRNA localization.

Customization: Our  custom probe development service offers researchers the flexibility to design probes that precisely target their genes of interest, enhancing the specificity and accuracy of their experiments.

Conclusion

Denovo technologies comprehensive range of in situ hybridization probes, including RNAscope, BaseScope, miRNAscope, and custom probes, provides researchers with powerful tools for investigating gene expression and localization. These probes enable the visualization of RNA molecules, identification of genetic variations, and study of miRNA function, facilitating groundbreaking discoveries in fields such as cancer biology, neuroscience, and personalized medicine. By partnering with Denovo technologies, scientists can access state-of-the-art in situ hybridization technologies and advance their research endeavors with confidence.

[nuadox]

Quick test analyzes DNA to improve crops

- By Roseli Andrion , FAPESP Innovative R&D -

All living beings have cells containing deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that carries genetic information for their development and functioning. In agriculture, DNA can be analyzed in search of biological targets to improve processes and to protect crops and animals from attack by microorganisms. This is what Doroth does.

A biotech startup based in Piracicaba, a city in São Paulo state, Doroth is one of the first companies to produce microfluidic chips for quick tests using onboard loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP). The lab-on-a-chip technology analyzes DNA to detect mutations, single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), transgenes, resistant genes and barcodes (short sequences of base pairs). No laboratories or trained technicians are required, and biological targets for crop treatment are identified directly on-site.

LAMP is a high-performance method used to detect a variety of pathogens, including parasites, fungi, bacteria and viruses. It entails a similar gene amplification technique to polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing, which was widely deployed during the COVID-19 pandemic. 

“A PCR test for COVID-19 can now be more than 99% accurate, reaching 99.6% with the right protocol, but it has to be processed in a laboratory. Our solution takes this level of accuracy out into the field to help farmers,” said Rodrigo Gurdos, a biotech engineer who founded Doroth and is currently its new business director. 

The startup has pioneered this type of monitoring in agriculture and is now focusing on detecting biological targets in grains, leaves and the air, although the method can be applied to any kind of biological sample. 

It is supported by FAPESP’s Innovative Research in Small Business Program (PIPE).

Its clients include Suzano, FMC Agrícola, Corteva and Genesis Group. “Corteva wants to detect transgenes in leaves in order to charge royalties. Suzano aims to detect Ralstonia, the bacterium that causes the main eucalyptus seedling disease [bacterial wilt], before the first symptoms appear,” Gurdos said.

FMC Agrícola wants to detect Phakopsora pachyrhizi, a fungus that attacks soybean plants. “This microorganism disperses aerially, and the company wants to detect it before it contaminates crops,” he explained. In particular, the company aims to avoid the onset of Asian soybean rust, the disease that most affects this crop in Brazil and can wipe out an entire plantation without proper management.

The lab-on-a-chip Doroth uses to conduct these tests has all the reagents required to extract DNA from samples and perform a LAMP analysis. “The chip with the sample is inserted into our device, which resembles a capsule espresso machine. You pop in the sample with the chip, and the machine does all the processing automatically without any human intervention,” Gurdos said, adding that the device is built to withstand the harsh conditions typically encountered in the field, including bumpy transportation and high temperatures, among others. 

Combating Asian soybean rust

The research that led to the firm’s foundation started in 2018. “At that time we wanted to find out which was the biggest crop in Brazil and the worst disease faced by farmers. The biggest crop was soybeans, with about 43 million hectares, and the worst disease was Asian soybean rust,” he recalled. Farmers tend to try to ward off the disease by spraying crops with fungicide once a fortnight. The soybean cycle lasts about 110 days from planting to harvest. “Spraying occurs four or five times in this period, representing exorbitant and unnecessary costs. We wondered whether this behavior would change if they knew the disease had arrived.”

It was no easy task to develop the solution based on this insight. The technology was very new. They had explored LAMP in 2018, but it became widely used only in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic. “The advantage of LAMP is that it requires a single temperature. The reaction is produced in the range of 67 °C. PCR requires thermocycling [cyclical temperature changes], which is very hard to perform outside the laboratory. LAMP testing is quick and highly accurate on site,” Gurdos said. A PCR machine costs as much as BRL 100,000 (now about USD 20,400). “Our product costs a fraction of that amount.”

As time passed, the team discovered other applications for the technology. “An example is identification of resistant genes. Weeds are usually combated with herbicide, but farmers often don’t know which is the best herbicide to use. Our system can determine within one hour whether the species that’s attacking a crop has a gene that’s resistant to a given molecule. The farmer can avoid that active ingredient and choose a more effective herbicide,” he explained.

The startup currently has a staff of 16, most of whom have PhDs, an unusually high proportion in this market, as professionals with doctorates and postdoc qualifications are found mostly in universities. “We have this structure thanks to FAPESP’s support via PIPE. It’s an investment that allows us to make mistakes. Faliure is part for the course in science, but run-of-the-mill investors don’t understand that,” Gurdos said.

The firm is observing other markets, such as cattle breeding and the diseases that disturb this activity. “We can identify the best antibiotic to give cattle for treatment and to stop the disease spreading. We’re not only pioneers but also the only firm that can now perform these tests. We’re in the vanguard of this technology, and we’re very proud of being an entirely Brazilian project,” he said.

Scaling up

The firm aims to industrialize the solution and scale up to mass production within the next two years. “We have to learn how to do this because no such industrial facility exists yet,” Gurdos said. Next, it plans to expand into other segments, such as cattle breeding. “It’s interesting because the companies themselves come to us with their difficulties. We aim to have 30 or 40 professionals in the team by the end of 2025.”

And it does not stop there. Doroth’s technology can be used in extreme situations, such as future pandemics. “Our current focus is agriculture, but there’s nothing to prevent our entirely indigenous technology from being used in other areas in an emergency. That isn’t our focus, but the potential is there if needed,” he said.

Doroth perfected the concept developed by Lucira, the first company in the world to use LAMP for quick COVID-19 testing. “Lucira is our benchmark, but it’s a disposable test kit, whereas in our case only the ‘coffee pod’ is disposable,” he said.

The name Doroth is a Brazilian version of Dorothy, the heroine of the Wizard of Oz and the device used in Twister, the 1996 movie, to release hundreds of sensors into the center of a tornado and send data back to weather scientists on the ground. When the startup was founded, it was called 2-seq, but it soon became evident that this was not a good name. “Twister gave us our first notion of how the Internet of Things [IoT] could be used in agriculture. We liked Dorothy so much that we opted for this name, and everyone likes it,” Gurdos said.

This text was originally published by FAPESP Agency according to Creative Commons license CC-BY-NC-ND. Read the original here.

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Header image: The firm is one of the first to produce microfluidic chips for quick tests using onboard loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP). Credit: Doroth.

Read Also

Technique using light and artificial intelligence is effective in selecting immature soybean seeds

[genahealthx]

The Science Behind DNA Testing for Health and Diet

In the pursuit of better health and well-being, we often look to science for answers. But what if the answers were hidden within us all along, in our very DNA? This is the fascinating world of DNA testing for health and diet, where the secrets to personalized nutrition and optimal wellness are unlocked through the analysis of our genetic code. Here, we delve into the science behind DNA testing for health and diet, exploring the intricate processes that make it all possible.

Understanding the Human Genome:

At the heart of DNA testing for health and diet lies the human genome. This is the complete set of genes present in our DNA, containing all the information necessary for our body's structure and function. Genes are the instructions that determine everything from our eye color to our susceptibility to certain health conditions.

Genetic Variations and Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs):

One of the key principles of DNA testing is the identification of genetic variations known as single nucleotide polymorphisms, or SNPs (pronounced "snips"). SNPs are variations in a single DNA building block (nucleotide) at a specific location in the genome. These variations can influence how our bodies metabolize nutrients, respond to different foods, and even our predisposition to certain health conditions.

Nutrigenetics and Nutrigenomics:

The fields of nutrigenetics and nutrigenomics are at the forefront of DNA testing for health and diet. Nutrigenomics examines how our genes interact with nutrients and how our diet can impact gene expression. Nutrigenetics, on the other hand, focuses on how our genetic makeup influences our response to different foods and nutrients. Together, these fields provide the foundation for personalized nutrition recommendations based on an individual's unique genetic profile.

The DNA Testing Process:

DNA testing for health and diet involves a straightforward process:

Sample Collection: A sample of DNA is collected, typically through a saliva sample or cheek swab. This sample contains the genetic material needed for analysis.

DNA Extraction: The DNA is extracted from the sample and purified to remove any contaminants.

Genotyping: The DNA is then analyzed to identify specific genetic variations (SNPs) related to health and diet.

Data Interpretation: The data is interpreted in the context of scientific research and databases to provide personalized dietary recommendations and insights into potential health risks or advantages.

Personalized Nutrition Recommendations:

The true power of DNA testing for health and diet lies in its ability to offer personalized nutrition recommendations. By understanding how your genes influence your response to certain nutrients, you can tailor your diet to optimize your health. For example, you might discover that you have a genetic predisposition to low vitamin D absorption, prompting you to increase your intake of this vital nutrient.

Beyond Diet: Health Insights:

DNA testing doesn't just stop at diet recommendations. It can also provide insights into your genetic predisposition to various health conditions, such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, or lactose intolerance. Armed with this knowledge, you can take proactive steps to manage and mitigate these risks.

Ethical Considerations and Data Privacy:

As with any advanced technology, DNA testing for health and diet comes with ethical considerations and concerns about data privacy. It's crucial to choose reputable and secure testing providers and to understand how your genetic data will be used and protected.

The Future of Personalized Wellness:

The science behind DNA testing for health and diet is unlocking a new era of personalized wellness. By deciphering the intricate code written within our genes, we gain a deeper understanding of our bodies and how to nourish them optimally. It's a journey that holds the promise of healthier, more tailored lives, where our genes become our allies in the pursuit of well-being.

For more personalized inquiries or to explore our services further, you can also contact us directly:

Email: contact@genahealthx.com

Visit us: genahealthx.com

Phone: +91 93558 70172

Stay connected and embark on your wellness journey with us!

[thebrokencrescent-blog]

📆 Nov 2020 📰 What’s the Role of Epstein-Barr Virus Reactivation in Lupus Development?

EBV is a nearly ubiquitous virus that infects the majority of the world’s population. Following exposure to the virus, it remains in a person’s system, usually dormant except for occasional reactivation of the lytic cycle of viral reproduction. A surrogate for EBV reactivation can be measured by the sero-prevalence of antibodies elicited by the immune system’s response to viral capsid antigen and early antigen.

One of the big questions rheuma­tologists receive from their patients is, “If I have lupus, will other members of my family get it?” says Judith James, MD, PhD, a rheuma­tologist, researcher and vice president of clinical affairs at Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City.

A genetic connection exists, and family members of SLE patients are known to be at greater risk than the general population, she says. “But can we identify which of these family members might be more prone to getting lupus? Could we identify them years before they develop lupus and recruit them for primary prevention trials?”

Dr. James is a co-author of a study, published in Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases, exploring whether reactivation of EBV and single nucleotide polymorphisms in EBV are associated with a transition to SLE.1

“Ours is the first study to try to understand the cause/effect relationship between viral reactivation and SLE—to see if EBV reactivation precedes SLE clinical onset or autoantibody development,” she says.

Her study found that baseline viral capsid antigen and early antigen immunoglobulin levels are higher in those SLE patients’ family members who later transitioned to SLE than in those who did not transition and with healthy controls.

The researchers looked at 436 individuals who were relatives of SLE patients but did not themselves have SLE, gathering detailed demographic, environmental and clinical information and blood samples with ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) tests for antibodies against various viral antigens, including viral capsid antigen and early antigen. The participants had been enrolled in the Lupus Family Registry and Repository and the Systemic Lupus Erythematosus in Gullah Health studies, and gave their consent to be recontacted by researchers. They were approached approximately 6 years after the baseline testing. The aim was to see if they transitioned to SLE over those years. 13% of the relatives, in fact, transitioned to SLE by the time of follow-up contact.

“Our research looked at a specific type of immune response to EBV,” Dr. James says. “The data show that the relatives had increased reactivation of EBV prior to transitioning to SLE and increasing levels of EBV antibodies associated with SLE disease transitioning. If you have antibodies to early antigen, then you’re at highest risk for transitioning to SLE.”

Reactivation of EBV could be used to identify patients who require closer scrutiny for the development of SLE. Rheuma­tologists could ask lupus patients’ family members, especially those who test positive for anti-viral capsid antigen and anti-early antigen, to come back for reevaluations, perhaps annually...

[randive]

Brain Biomarkers Market Top Countries Survey, Company Profiles Review, Key Findings, Analysis by Trends 2021 Size, Share, Future Plans and Forecast 2027

The reports also help in understanding the Brain Biomarkers Market Value dynamic, and structure by analyzing the market segments and projecting the Brain Biomarkers Market Value. Clear representation of competitive analysis of key players by Design, price, financial position, product portfolio, growth strategies, and regional presence in the Brain Biomarkers Market Value makes the report investor's guide.

Brain Biomarkers Market Overview:

This Brain Biomarkers Market industry research provided a comprehensive analysis of the worldwide Brain Biomarkers Market, taking into account all critical variables such as growth factors, limitations, market advancements, top investment pockets, future prospects, and trends. The research begins by emphasizing the important trends and possibilities that may develop in the near future and have a favorable influence on overall industry growth.

The Brain Biomarkers Market size was valued at US$ 6.1 Bn in 2020 and the total revenue is expected to grow at CAGR 12.9% through 2021 to 2027, reaching nearly US$ 14.26B

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Market Scope:

Brain Biomarkers Market Research Report analyzed the current state of the definitions, classifications, applications, and industry chain structure. The analysis provides unbiased professional commentary on the present market scenario, prior market performance, production and consumption rates, demand and supply ratios, and income generation forecasts for the projected period. The Brain Biomarkers Market study also gives information on the leading businesses functioning in the Brain Biomarkers Market industry's strategic ambitions and company growth strategies. Mergers and acquisitions, government and corporate transactions, partnerships and collaborations, joint ventures, brand promotions, and product launches are among the methods evaluated in the research. To summarise what has been said thus far,

The Brain Biomarkers Market report presents insights into each of the leading Brain Biomarkers Market end users along with annual forecasts to 2027. The report provides revenue forecasts with sales and growth rate of the global Brain Biomarkers Market. Forecasts are also provided for the market's product, application, and geographic segments. Forecasts are produced to help people understand the industry's future outlook and potential.

Segmentation:

Based on the Product type, The Brain Biomarkers Market is segmented into the Genomic, Proteomic, Metabolomics, Imaging, Others. Proteomic segment is dominated the Brain Biomarkers Market with highest market share of 37% in the year 2020. Genomic segment is accounted for the second largest segment in the year 2020. Genomic biomarkers present promising opportunities for the development of personalized medicines and diagnostics based on an individual’s specific genetic variations & predisposition to the disease. The method used for the detecting presence and studying genomic biomarker for the identification disease include Comparative Genomic Hybridization (CGH),gene expression profiling Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs), and whole-genome sequencing. 

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Key Players:

The research includes the most recent news and industry developments regarding Brain Biomarkers Market expansions, acquisitions, growth strategies, joint ventures and collaborations, product launches, market expansions, and so on. Among the main companies in the Brain Biomarkers Market, the sector is

• Abbott Laboratories • Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc. • Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc. • Merck & Co., Inc. • Johnson & Johnson Services, Inc. • Banyan Biomarkers, Inc. • Myriad Genetics, Inc. • DiaGenic ASA • Quanterix • Merck KGaA • Enzo Biochem, Inc. • Charles River Laboratories International, • Eurofins Scientific (Luxembourg).

Regional Analysis:

The primary goal of this study is to assist the user in understanding the market in terms of definition, segmentation, market potential, significant trends, and the problems that the industry is experiencing across ten key regions.

COVID-19 Impact Analysis on Brain Biomarkers Market:

The research details the overall impact of COVID-19 on the Health Insurance Market by providing a micro- and macroeconomic analysis. The precise study focuses on market share and size, which clearly depicts the impact that the pandemic has had and is anticipated to have on the global Health Insurance Market in the future years.

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Key Questions answered in the Brain Biomarkers Market Report are:

What is the function of the Brain Biomarkers Market?

What is the predicted revenue generation of the Brain Biomarkers Market?

At what growth rate is the Brain Biomarkers Market evolving?

Who are the major market giants operating in the Brain Biomarkers Market?

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 Brain Biomarkers Market Size, Share, Analysis, Growth, Trends, Drivers, Opportunity

[zombiepineapple]

Hiding Secret Messages in DNA Steganography

Cryptography is protecting data. Steganography is hiding it. There are several methods for hiding messages in DNA sequences. One recent study compared "three DNA-based techniques (substitution, insertion, and complementary) in terms of its capacity, cracking property, Bit Per Nucleotide (BPN), and payload.”

This basically takes a string of DNA and applies it as the variable in an algorithm. Which is best is decided by BPN. They found that substitution was most imperceptible and best for smaller messages. The insertion method was the hardest to crack while the other two eventually have a limit to how complex their BPN can get.

In the insertion technique, the secret message is inserted into the DNA sequence data.

The complementary technique is when one side to the DNA is changed to complement the other side, which is the secret message.

Substitution simply means whole parts of the DNA sequence are replaced by the secret message. Here you can see the translation key. The letter “A” in the secret message, for example, could be written as “GCU”, or any of the other three that equate in the key to the letter “A”.

Another case study of a similar method was “hiding undetectable secret messages within the single nucleotide polymorphisms of a genome and detecting mutation-induced errors.” This is basically hiding a message in a scientifically engineered cell. These secret messages show up as benign mutations so the body doesn’t reject the cells. It should be noted that any engineered cells should be watermarked (like one would an image) for various reasons.

Some are using PCR primers as the secret keys to the messages, because there are too many primers to brute force a DNA sequence. From there, a secondary key can be used in the form of an enzyme. So a scientist gets a cell in a petri dish, runs the enzyme on it, runs the PCR primer on it, writes down the DNA code, then goes to their key to decipher the secret message.

What will they think up next?

Sources

Terkawi, N. S., Berriche, L., Alamar, A. A., Albrahim, M. A., & Alsaffar, W. S. (2021). Comparative Study of Three DNA-based Information Hiding Methods. International Journal of Computer Science and Security [IJCSS], 15(2), 45+. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A687005442/CDB?u=lirn55593&sid=bookmark-CDB&xid=c64214be (Links to an external site.)

Na, D. (2020). DNA steganography: hiding undetectable secret messages within the single nucleotide polymorphisms of a genome and detecting mutation-induced errors. Microbial Cell Factories, 19(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12934-020-01387-0 (Links to an external site.)

‌ Cui, M., & Zhang, Y. (2020). Advancing DNA Steganography with Incorporation of Randomness. ChemBioChem, 21(17), 2503–2511. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbic.202000149

[searchvoidstar]

An amazing error message if you put more than 2^24 items in a JS Map object

One of the fun things about working with big data is that you can often hit weird limits with a system.

I was personally trying to load every "common" single nucleotide polymorphism for the human genome into memory (dbSNP), of which there are over 37 million entries (there are many more uncommon ones)

Turns out, you may run into some hard limits. Note that these are all V8-isms and may not apply to all browsers or engines (I was using node.js for this)

const myObject = new Map(); for (let i = 0; i <= 50_000_000; i++) { myObject.set(i,i); if(i%100000==0) { console.log(i) } }

This will crash after adding approx 16.7M elements and say

0 100000 200000 ... 16400000 16500000 16600000 16700000 Uncaught RangeError: Value undefined out of range for undefined options property undefined

That is a very weird error message. It says "undefined" three times! Much better than your usual "TypeError: Can't find property 'lol' of undefined". See https://bugs.chromium.org/p/v8/issues/detail?id=11852 for a bug filed to help improve the error message perhaps. Now, also interestingly enough, if you use an Object instead of a Map

const myObject = {}; for (let i = 0; i <= 50_000_000; i++) { myObject['myobj_'+i]=i; if(i%100000==0) { console.log(i) } }

Then it will print....

0 100000 200000 ... 8000000 8100000 8200000 8300000

And it will actually just hang there...frozen...no error message though! And it is failing at ~8.3M elements. Weird right? This is roughly half the amount of elements as the 16.7M case

Turns out there is a precise hard limit for the Map case

For the Map: 2^24=16,777,216

For the Object it is around 2^23=8,388,608 HOWEVER, I can actually add more than this, e.g. I can add 8,388,609 or 8,388,610 or even more, but the operations start taking forever to run, e.g. 8,388,999 was taking many minutes

Very weird stuff! If you expected me to dig into this and explain it in deep technical detail, well, you'd be wrong. I am lazy. However, this helpful post on stackoverflow by a V8 js engine developer clarifies the Map case!! https://stackoverflow.com/questions/54452896/maximum-number-of-entries-in-node-js-map

V8 developer here. I can confirm that 2^24 is the maximum number of entries in a Map. That's not a bug, it's just the implementation-defined limit.

The limit is determined by:

The FixedArray backing store of the Map has a maximum size of 1GB (independent of the overall heap size limit)

On a 64-bit system that means 1GB / 8B = 2^30 / 2^3 = 2^27 ~= 134M maximum elements per FixedArray

A Map needs 3 elements per entry (key, value, next bucket link), and has a maximum load factor of 50% (to avoid the slowdown caused by many bucket collisions), and its capacity must be a power of 2. 2^27 / (3 * 2) rounded down to the next power of 2 is 2^24, which is the limit you observe.

FWIW, there are limits to everything: besides the maximum heap size, there's a maximum String length, a maximum Array length, a maximum ArrayBuffer length, a maximum BigInt size, a maximum stack size, etc. Any one of those limits is potentially debatable, and sometimes it makes sense to raise them, but the limits as such will remain. Off the top of my head I don't know what it would take to bump this particular limit by, say, a factor of two -- and I also don't know whether a factor of two would be enough to satisfy your expectations.

Great details there. It would also be good to know what the behavior is for the Object, which has those 100% CPU stalls after ~8.3M, but not the same error message....

Another fun note: if I modify the Object code to use only "integer IDs" the code actually works fine, does not hit any errors, and is "blazingly fast" as the kids call it

const myObject = {}; for (let i = 0; i <= 50_000_000; i++) { myObject[i]=i; if(i%100000==0) { console.log(i) } }

I presume that this code works because it detects that I'm using it like an array and it decides to transform how it is working internally and not use a hash-map-style data structure, so does not hit a limit. There is a slightly higher limit though, e.g. 1 billion elements gives "Uncaught RangeError: Invalid array length"

const myObject = {}; for (let i = 0; i <= 1_000_000_000; i++) { myObject[i]=i; if(i%100000==0) { console.log(i) } }

This has been another episode...of the twilight zone (other episodes catalogued here) https://github.com/cmdcolin/technical_oddities/

[botanyyoke44]

Exploring The Very Best Market Entrance Method For Reagents And Also Strategies Relating To Peptide

What Are Sarms Kinds?

Content

Peptide

Write-up Information.

Bsn Progressed. Strength N O Xplode 2.0

Selective Electrosynthesis For Late Stage Peptide Functionalization: A Green Chemistry Strategy.

Nevertheless, it pays to do your research study when it comes to vitamin C skincare, as formulations on the market differ hugely in regards to concentration, strength as well as stability. ' Vitamin C need to be made use of for skin care in focus of approximately 20 per cent. Higher percentages can possibly trigger even more inflammation,' claims Dr Mahto. What's even more, the item you select demands to be effectively stabilised to make certain maximum absorbency right into the skin.

At what age should you start retinol?

Begin in Your Mid '20s or Early '30s "Your mid-twenties are a great time to start using retinol," says Ellen Marmur, M.D. "Many patients who have used it for years swear by it."

So, leeches evolved a healthy protein called hirudin, which potently hinders thrombin. The total evidence-base connected with collagen supplements is restricted.

Peptide

The peptides have applications in tumor imaging in addition to in cancer cells treatment by means of targeting of payloads and also practical inhibition of ɑvß6. ɑvß6 plays several regulatory features in tumors consisting of TGFß activation, cell proliferation, MMP production, cell intrusion and survival.

Exonucleases, they damage the phosphodiester bond starting from one end of the chain. The ester link is a very high-energy bond releasing an incredible amount of energy upon hydrolysis. Like the rest of the bonds talked about earlier, it is additionally broken down by including a water particle. It is a modified kind of ester linkage in which the oxygen bridge is utilized to attach a carbon atom with a sulfur atom. It is developed as an outcome of the reaction in between the carboxylic group of one particle as well as the thiol group (- SH) of another particle. The carboxylic team sheds the oxygen as well as hydrogen while the thiol group loses its hydrogen and also a thioester bond is formed.

Article Details.

CRPS is a chronic problem connected with joint injuries, which brings about unpleasant and also inflamed joints, as well as adjustments in skin colour. There is additionally sign up now! that collagen supplements might assist in the therapy of rheumatoid joint inflammation; which is an inflammatory type of joint inflammation that brings about swelling as well as discomfort in the joints. But this proof is mixed, and there is much stronger proof to sustain well established clinical therapies for rheumatoid joint inflammation, such as the medicine methotrexate.

A small number of human studies have actually additionally found that taking collagen supplements might assist to maintain and also enhance bone mass. Nevertheless, comparable to the research studies associated with muscle mass, we can't eliminate that the positive influence of collagen in these studies might result from a boost in total protein consumption, instead of a details benefit pertaining to collagen. Consequently, supplementing with vitamin C might be useful for joint wellness in those who have a reduced consumption of this vitamin. There is additionally some evidence which recommends that supplementing with 500mg of vitamin C each day for 50 days may decrease the threat of establishing complex local pain disorder after a wrist crack.

Bsn Progressed. Stamina N O Xplode 2.0

The ability of radiolabelled variations of the peptide to precisely localise to ɑvß6-expressing xenografts in vivo, consisting of bust as well as pancreatic, has actually been demonstrated by PET DOG as well as SPECT. Human MHC class I molecules are encoded by a collection of genes-- HLA-A, HLA-B as well as HLA-C (HLA means 'Human Leukocyte Antigen', which is the human equivalent of MHC particles located in the majority of animals). These genes are extremely polymorphic, which means that each person has his/her very own HLA allele set. The consequences of these polymorphisms are differential sensitivities to infection and also autoimmune diseases that may arise from the high diversity of peptides that can bind to MHC course I in various individuals. Also, MHC class I polymorphisms make it practically impossible to have a best cells suit in between contributor as well as recipient, and hence are in charge of graft denial. The normal procedure of antigen discussion via the MHC I molecule is based on a communication between the T-cell receptor and also a peptide bound to the MHC class I molecule. There is likewise a communication in between the CD8+ molecule on the surface of the T cell and also non-peptide binding areas on the MHC course I molecule.

Cyclolab And EpiPharma Form Joint Venture - Contract Pharma

Cyclolab And EpiPharma Form Joint Venture.

Posted: Mon, 11 Jan 2021 15:43:30 GMT [source]

Hydrogen bond is created as in between a hydrogen atom as well as a very electronegative atom like oxygen or nitrogen. When a hydrogen atom comes within the electron affinity of a very electronegative atom like oxygen or nitrogen, electrostatic pressures of attraction among the proton of hydrogen and the single set of electrons in oxygen or nitrogen. Endonucleases, they can damage the phosphodiester bond even from within the chain of nucleotides.

Careful Electrosynthesis For Late Phase Peptide Functionalization: A Green Chemistry Technique.

It strongly hydrates skin for 24 hr, in addition to visibly restoring and also firming skin. Infused with Olay's Vitamin B3 & Peptides, its moisture-binding formula passes through up to 10 layers deep right into skin surface & assists optimize surface cell revival. It highly moistens skin for 24-hour, visibly restores & companies skin. Especially designed with SPF30 to assist safeguard skin from damaging UVA as well as UVB rays.

How do you make homemade peptides?

The overall process goes like this: 1. Remove the FMOC protecting group from the amine side of the amino acid. 2. Add the next amino acid in the chain and coupling activation reagents. 3. Repeat step's 1 and 2 until the sequence is complete. 4. Cleave the peptide from the resin.

A glycoprotein is a substance consisting of carbohydrate covalently linked to protein. The carbohydrate may remain in the type of a monosaccharide, disaccharide. oligosaccharide, polysaccharide, or their derivatives (e.g. sulfo- or phospho-substituted). Proteoglycans are a subdivision of glycoproteins in which the carbohydrate devices are polysaccharides that contain amino sugars. Infused with Olay's Vitamin B3 & Peptides, its fragrance-free moisture-binding formula permeates as much as 10 layers deep into skin surface & assists optimize surface cell renewal.

A few little researches have actually found that eating collagen, in the type of gelatin, may bring about a decrease in cravings. It is worth keeping in mind that each of these researches included less than 25 individuals, as well as none determined real adjustments in weight.

Bioactive Peptides

Hence, peptide presented in complex with MHC class I can just be recognised by CD8+ T cells. This interaction belongs of so-called 'three-signal activation design', and in fact stands for the initial signal. The next signal is the communication between CD80/86 on the APC as well as CD28 externally of the T cell, followed by a 3rd signal-- the production of cytokines by the APC which totally activates the T cell to provide a details response. In order to can involving the key elements of adaptive immunity (uniqueness, memory, diversity, self/nonself discrimination), antigens have to be refined as well as provided to immune cells. Antigen discussion is mediated by MHC class I molecules, and also the course II particles discovered on the surface of antigen-presenting cells and certain various other cells. The carboxyl team of the muramic acid is frequently replaced by a peptide having residues of both L- and also D-amino acids, whereas that of L-talosaminuronic acid is replaced by a peptide containing L-amino acids only.

The toughest evidence is connected to skin health and decreases in joint pain from workout or osteoarthritis. As one of the most bountiful healthy protein in the body, collagen serves a number of vital architectural features. Dietary collagen is more difficult for our body to absorb, as compared with hydrolysed variations. It is also essential to keep in mind that collagen supplements are usually stemmed from fish-- for that reason any person who has a fish allergic reaction must avoid this sort of supplement. Vegan collagen supplements are readily available, which are made from genetically customized bacteria and yeast.

Retinoids should be your initial port of telephone call, according to the professionals. They're often described as the gold criterion in skin care, many thanks to their capacity to motivate cell turnover at warp speed. In other words, clinical research study showing the results of collagen drinks on skin is lacking, so if you seek a more tried-and-tested means to enhance your skin wellness, you might be better spending your money in other places. Happily, there are a handful of alternatives verified to enhance the skin's collagen degrees when applied topically. Study the research subjects of 'Introducing chemical performance in fmoc-peptide gels for cell culture'. Gelatine is a substance originated from the collagen of pets such as chickens, cattle, pigs and fish.

' Eating a well balanced diet plan with appropriate protein-- either plant based or pet-- will certainly improve collagen manufacturing,' says Griggs. What's more, vitamin C is located in abundance in most fruits and vegetables, so make sure you're obtaining your 10 a day. Of course, rubbing on the skincare isn't the only way to top up your collagen levels.

Kind I collagen is vital for skin flexibility and stamina, and a loss of collagen in the skin, which occurs naturally with aging, can bring about wrinkles. It is also one of the most bountiful protein in the body-- bookkeeping for about 30% of our total protein web content. Collagen is an important part of connective tissues-- which give assistance, framework as well as protection in our body, as well as binding with each other organs or various other tissues. The coiling of RNA chain onto itself occurs by means of hydrogen bonding.

Multi-weight Hyaluronic Acid hydrates as well as plumps, while sophisticated Prebiotics balance skin's microbiome to make sure maximum skin wellness.

provensarms.com from communications in between electrons of the dual bond of the carbonyl team and also those of the C-- N bond such that the latter gets partial (about 40%) double-bond residential properties.

This ultra-hydrating formula integrates the most up to date age-defying technology to proactively deal with the look of expression lines and lessened volume.

This then clears the means for the other Peptides in the facility to permeate the skin, such as Matrixyl 3000 and also Argirelox.

Linus Pauling, in the 1930s, used X-ray diffraction to check out the nature of the peptide bond developed between two amino acids.

He reported that the peptide team (Carbon Monoxide-- NH) has a stiff planar structure.

All kinds of gelatine for use in medications are manufactured under strict hygiene and safety and security guidelines. Hence, venom-based insecticides can assist deal with the 1000 or two insect pests that minimize the world's crop production by an approximated 10-- 14%. The cone snail-- the world's most dangerous snail-- causes hypoglycaemia to sedate fish prior to capture.

One more little study located that taking a day-to-day collagen peptide supplement for 6 months brought about improvements in nail toughness as well as development. However, this only consisted of 25 participants, as well as there was no sugar pill team-- which decreases the stamina of this evidence. There is some emerging evidence which recommends that taking hydrolysed collagen supplements may help to lower creases and improve collagen degrees in the skin, along with skin hydration and also skin elasticity. However, there are issues with several of the researches in this area, for instance some are really tiny, as well as do not use a control team. Additionally, even more studies are needed in connection with the possible use of collagen supplements in skin disease like eczema. In fact, collagen is thought to comprise around 75% of our skin's dry weight.

[thelonesomequeen]

1/2 To the DNA anon: The genealogy DNA tests look for SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms) that are more common in certain populations. A SNP is a change in a single base of your DNA that is different from what we typically see. The way I explain this to patients is that DNA is a recipe for a protein and a SNP is a change in a single letter of the recipe. The only way to establish paternity is to compare the DNA of a child and his/her parents.

2/2 DNA anon: Your father might not carry a lot of the common SNPs seen in the Portuguese population. I would not question paternity or even heritage based on these test results.

————————-

Science is wild! Thanks for the info! 🦎

[epfordhamneuro]

Sex Differences in Schizophrenia: A Quick Review

In the last ten years there has been an increasing push for more tailored patient-specific treatment in what is termed “precision medicine.” However, simultaneously there has been a growing recognition that “precision medicine” is not entirely possible due to a lack of data originating from diverse populations (race, sex, etc.) Biomedical and basic science research have often not included female subjects, and also have not included people of racial backgrounds other than Caucasians. Due to this lack of participation in research, medical treatments can often lack efficacy when used on populations not studied to develop said treatments. As a result, there has been recognition and effort made toward studying and examining the potential roles that race and sex can have in the development, progression, and treatment of different disorders. This blog post will be specifically focused on looking at sex differences in the development and progression of schizophrenia and emerging research describing potential biological mechanisms underlying these differences. 

Schizophrenia is a complex psychiatric disorder affecting nearly 0.25% to 0.64% of the United States population (~800,000 - 2,000,000 people). It is characterized by the presence of three distinct types of symptoms: negative, positive, and cognitive. Negative symptoms typically involve a deficit or loss of a particular psychological function. For example, many schizophrenic patients experience a flattened affect in which there is a blunted response to typically emotion-eliciting stimuli. Positive symptoms or more commonly referred to as “psychotic” symptoms describe a significant break with reality and disorientation (e.g. hallucinations, delusions, etc.). Finally, cognitive dysfunction also occurs with patients having difficulty with learning, memory, attention, and executive function. Schizophrenia is highly heterogeneous with patients often experiencing different combinations of these symptoms with varying degrees of severity. This often makes biochemical study of schizophrenia (among many other psychiatric disorders) difficult because this lack of uniformity of symptoms indicates a high likelihood of diverse pathophysiology in schizophrenic patients.

However, there are some common underlying changes in brain structure and function across the patient population. Consistently, there appears to be subtle (to more extreme) levels of cerebral volume decrease. Often this manifests in increased lateral and third ventricle volume leading to subsequent losses in temporal lobe, amygdala and hippocampus volume. At the tissue-level there is a disorganization of the neurons located within many brain regions resulting in a disorder of function of these particular brain regions. At the level of neurotransmission, there also appears to be alterations in specific neurotransmitter pathways. One of these systems that shows alterations in function is the dopaminergic pathways, particularly, the mesolimbic and mesocortical pathways. For example, amphetamine use (associated with higher dopamine levels in the brain) can induce psychosis in healthy individuals and worsen psychotic symptoms in schizophrenic patients. Finally, some new evidence suggests that the glutamatergic system may also be involved in schizophrenia pathophysiology. Phencyclidine (PCP), which can bind to NMDA (a specific type of glutamate receptor), can induce psychosis in healthy individuals and worsening of symptoms in schizophrenic patients. 

Now that we have all of the background, we can begin to examine how biological sex can impact the development and progression of schizophrenia. Firstly, schizophrenia is more prevalent in males than in females at a ratio of about 1.4:1, male to female. One of the earliest clinical observations about sex differences in schizophrenia was the time of onset (first episode of psychosis). Consistently across patient populations, males presented at an earlier age (21-25 years old) while women present later with two different onset peaks (25-30 years old; after 45 years old). Importantly, this seems to have a connection with the symptoms experienced by males and females. Male schizophrenic patients tend to have significantly more negative symptoms than female patients. Additionally, they are particularly at risk for developing alcohol dependence and a myriad of other substance abuse disorders. On the other hand, while female schizophrenic patients experience significantly less negative symptoms, they do appear to experience more positive symptoms (sensory hallucinations & persecutory delusions). Finally, mood disturbances and depressive symptoms tend to be more common in female patients than in male patients. 

Importantly, there are sex differences in response to pharmacological treatment. In particular, antipsychotics that function to reduce positive symptoms (primarily through the dopaminergic pathways) seem to be more effective in female patients. Additionally, hospitalizations for psychotic episodes in female patients are at least 50% less than that of male patients. This can be accounted for because female patients often suffer less severe symptoms thus requiring smaller antipsychotic dosage (corresponding to less side-effects) which then leads to greater compliance. It is important to note that many of these differences seem to either disappear or decrease in significance if the female onset is at menopause (usually after 45). This has indicated to researchers that estrogen may potentially provide a protective effect in tandem with antipsychotics for female schizophrenia patients. Estrogen’s protective effect in schizophrenia has been shown in patients receiving estrogen therapy in conjunction with antipsychotics in males and females. However, it is very important to understand that this needs more studying because hormone therapies can induce greater risks for breast cancer, feminization of males that can lead to distress, and other unforeseen changes in brain function. 

Finally, with the advent of better molecular biology techniques like next-generation DNA sequencing, there has been research showing potential molecular mechanisms for sex difference in schizophrenia pathology and treatment. Particularly, there are some genes that have SNPs (single-nucleotide polymorphisms) where there is a switch of a single base (A, G, C, or T) with another that is different from the “normal” variant. Some of these SNPs have been identified in sequencing studies of patients with schizophrenia. Particularly for our discussion, some of these SNPs can be sex-specific. For example, a SNP located within a gene encoding transforming growth factor-β (Tgf-β) is particularly prevalent in female schizophrenia patients and not in male patients. Notably, this SNP has been associated with change in the age of onset in females in comparison to males. In addition, there is also significant alterations in glutamatergic system function as mentioned previously. However, GWAS studies have noted some sex-specific SNPs located in key glutamate-related genes. For example, multiple SNPs located within Gria3, coding for a part of a highly important glutamate receptor, are associated with increased schizophrenia risk in females only. Additionally, SNPs in another gene Sap97 have been associated with male-specific risk only and no associated female risk. 

Genomic studies examining differences in DNA sequence are important and have provided a lot of information about the risk of developing schizophrenia, however, it is not the entire story. Increasingly, it has been shown that changes in gene expression of schizophrenia-related genes are paramount in the development of schizophrenia. In this area of study there are clear differences between the sexes. In an analysis of gene expression of male and female schizophrenia patients, there appeared to be around 2327 genes that showed a distinct sex-specific difference in gene expression.  This is a very large portion of the genome (12%) showing sex-specific changes in gene expression. Given this size of sex-specific changes in expression there clearly are differing underlying molecular mechanisms in schizophrenia in males and females. This is still very much so an emerging and actively researched field. In the coming years, more information will be gathered to help us understand the causes of these sex differences. By doing so, we may just be a few steps closer towards getting true precision medicine for ALL people. 

[biologyweeps]

So humans have went thru near extinction events a few times I would assume? That's why our gene pool is so small compared to other animals, right? So what does that mean? We lost like... Abilities? Traits? Could humans have gold eyes or idk some other type of ability if our gene pool was bigger?

I mean, ‘gold’ eyes are still very much part of the gene pool, just rare, if you’re willing to accept the official ‘amber’ for that.  

As for ‘type of ability’ well that…kinda depends on what you mean by that? Because considering the span of the human experience, stuff like ‘echolocation’ is already something we can do, provided we put the training for it. 

The gene pool being ‘bigger’ really just means that there are more different set of genomes out there. Now, if those differences every correspond to something is another story. For example, the things that the genetic fingerprint is based on, SNPs (Single Nucleotide Polymorphism aka ‘a single base is different) often don’t result in anything, or only result in things if a number of the right SNPs interact in the right way. 

Theoretically, a larger selection of genomes carries a larger possibility for mutations that Do Something, but of course again, many mutations do nothing at all, or would only do something under very specific circumstances. Like, say, a mutation that allows you to adapt more quickly to extreme altitudes is only useful if the carrier of said mutation is ever exposed to high altitudes. If they spend their life at sea level, evolution will never ping it. A lot of traits are like that, like skin pigmentation, production of digestive enzymes etc. 

So it’s possible that if humanity’s genetic variance between one another was bigger, we’d get more divergence in traits (though again: humans already have a fairly big range in physical appearance compared to other animals) but I wouldn’t expect anything wild like, prehensile tails or gills or telekinesis because the chances of a random mutation coughing up a complex trait like that is rapidly approaching zero so even if the variance between different human genomes were bigger, you probably won’t be getting the X-Men any time soon. 

[sciencenewsforstudents]

Publication of the largest-ever study of the roles of genes in homosexual behavior is fanning the debate over whether being gay is due to genes or environment.

First reported at a genetics conference in 2018, the study found five genetic variants associated with having a same-sex sexual partner (SN: 10/20/18). But those variants, called SNPs, don’t predict people’s sexual behavior, researchers report in the Aug. 30 Science.

“There is no ‘gay gene’ that determines whether someone has same-sex partners,” says Andrea Ganna, a geneticist at the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard and the University of Helsinki.

Family studies have suggested that genetics account for about 32 percent of heritability of homosexual behavior. But each SNP, or single nucleotide polymorphism, has a very small effect on whether someone has ever had a same-sex sexual partner, the new research found.

Taking into account all the SNPs measured in the study, including those that weren’t statistically significantly associated with same-sex behavior, explained only 8 to 25 percent of heritability of same-sex behavior. When considering just those five statistically significant SNPs, that number drops to much less than 1 percent.

But those variants could point to biological processes that are involved in choosing sex partners, the researchers say. For instance, one variant identified in the study has been linked to male-pattern baldness, and another to the ability to smell certain chemicals, which may affect sexual attraction.

“The study is a big step forward because of its huge size,” says J. Michael Bailey, a psychologist at Northwestern University in Evanston, Ill., who has worked on sexual orientation genetics but was not involved in the work. It included more than 470,000 people, dwarfing previous research.

“This is the first study that we can be pretty sure that they’ve identified genetic variants associated with an aspect of same-sex behavior,” Bailey says. “I’ve been a coauthor on some previous molecular genetic studies that were much more tenuous. I believe these results will replicate.”

But Bailey disagrees with some of the study’s conclusions. For instance, Ganna says that people who have exclusively same-sex or exclusively opposite-sex partners are genetically distinct from people who have partners of both sexes. That means that sexuality may not be a continuum from completely heterosexual to homosexual after all. So the Kinsey scale, which scores people’s sexual behavior along a spectrum with bisexuality in the middle, may need to be rethought, the researchers say.

But the Kinsey scale accurately predicts men’s arousal when shown erotic pictures of either men or women, Bailey says. That makes it a far better tool than the genetic score for predicting sexual preference, he says.

Qazi Rahman, a psychologist and sexual orientation researcher at King’s College London, has bigger quibbles with the study. “I should be really excited about this,” he says. But “despite being an ardent believer in the biological basis of sexuality, I’ve found this study problematic, and I’m not at all sure what was found and whether that holds up.”

Rahman points to what he sees as inconsistencies in the data and possible bias in the people who volunteered to participate in the study. The study drew volunteers from two big genetic databases, the UK Biobank and the consumer DNA testing company 23andMe, and from three smaller studies. Participants answered questionnaires about how many sexual partners of each sex they had ever had. 23andMe customers also responded to questions about attraction, sexual identity and fantasies.

But only 5.5 percent of UK Biobank participants and about 1.5 percent of 23andMe’s customers joined the study. Such low participation rates could skew the results, or point to genetic variants that make people more likely to sign up for a study. “What you’re getting is genetic influences on self-selection into a study, not genetic influences on same-sex behavior,” Rahman says.

It’s legitimate to question where study participants come from, but there’s no way to know whether that bias is affecting the results, says coauthor Benjamin Neale, a geneticist at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston and the Broad Institute.

The study wasn’t designed to address sexual orientation or identity, but the same variants associated with same-sex behavior were also associated in 23andMe participants with attraction, sexual identity and fantasies. The small contribution of genetics to sexual behavior is in line with genetic contributions to other behaviors, such as level of education attainment. “There’s a lot of room for nongenetic effects,” Bailey says.

The authors don’t disagree. The study underscores that elements of both biology and one’s environment may play roles in shaping sexual behavior, Neale says. Environmental influences may include an array of developmental, social and cultural factors that all could affect behavior, he says.

That’s true, says coauthor J. Fah Sathirapongsasuti, a computational biologist at 23andMe in Mountain View, Calif. But, he says, “just because something is not completely genetic or something has an environmental, or what we call nongenetic, component doesn’t mean it’s a choice.”