#gaulish deities

[paganpillar]

Creative journal entry inspired by Cernunnos!

[blackcrowing]

So as far as I'm aware in the Celtic umbrella of deities we don't have any deities SPECIFICALLY related to weaving/textiles or pottery. Which in the grand pattern of Indo-European branches (or even humanity as a whole) seems.... very odd...

What are the community's thoughts on these acts falling under the purview of Brigit or her other language counter parts? Are there other deities that would make more sense for these activities? What are our thoughts?

[that-cunning-witch]

Know any good sources on Celtic (specifically Gaulish practices)? I know it’s not your area, but you seem like someone who might know some people who dabble in that sort of stuff. The area I live in has some celtic archeological sites, but sadly not much is known about the local religion or culture. I am trying to put together a Romano-Celtic hearth cult, but it’s difficult finding practices and deities that feel right.

Gaul is a larger Celtic area of Western Europe (modern-day France and parts of modern-day Belgium, Germany, and Northern Italy). I say this because the Celts, when invaded by Rome, took in a lot of Roman religion including Hellenic and (rarely) Kemetic beliefs as well. When the Celts did this, so did the Gauls.

If it helps at all, the specifics you're looking into is called Gallo-Roman, which is part of the larger Romano-Celtic area.

This selective acculturation manifested in several ways. One of the main ways we see this is with the melding of Greco-Roman deities with Gaulish (Celtic) deities. Gaulish epithets for Roman gods (Jupiter Poeninus) and Roman epithets for Gaulish gods (Lenus Mars). Roman gods were given Gaulish god partners (Mercury and Rosmerta & Apollo and Sirona). Towards the east of the Gauls, many mysteries were formed, including one for the Greek hero Orpheus, the Iranian (or Persian) god Mithras, and the Egyptian goddess Isis. In other words, a whole lot of syncretism.

When it came to the Gauls (and the Celts overall) a main part of their belief system was the heavy use of animal imagery. More specifically, zoomorphic deities. However, we see a lot more human-looking representations of the gods because the Romans (and Greeks) weren't too keen on the idea (see Greco-Egyptian).

As for specifically Gallo-Roman hearth religious beliefs, the Lares (Lar singular) is a good place to start. They're the equivalent of Agathos Daimon in Greek religion (Hellenism). Essentially, they're personal household deities that are connected to the hearth.

A majority of the information we have about the Gaelic culture and the eventual melding of the Gallo-Roman culture stems from two sources: artifacts and Julius Ceasar, who wrote all about in what we now call the "Commentarii de Bello Gallico". The gods that he mentions the Gauls worship (like Jupiter, Mercury, Mars, and Minerva) aren't really the Roman gods that the Gauls are worshipping at that time but rather the closest thing Ceasar can connect. For example, Caesar may say that the Gauls worshipped Mars, when in reality they were worshipping Lenus, a healing god that quickly became associated with Mars because of Caesar and the Roman Empire. However, not all of them were caught. Gobannus is the most well-known example we have, with him being the equivalent to the Roman god Vulcan or the Greek god Hephaestus and yet Caesar makes no comment on the Gaulish god.

One other thing, the specific time we are taking a look at was prior to the overtaking by the Anglos, Saxons, and Jutes (aka pre-Anglo-Saxon times). Because of this, Germanic (Norse) gods weren't known to these people yet. Odin, Thor, and Freyja were unknown to them at this point in time.

Other than that, the last thing I can give to you are articles and books that I stumbled upon that may pique your interest. I do recommend a couple of Wikipedia links, but just know that I recommend using Wikipedia as a jumping-off point. Hope this helps! :^)

Becoming Roman: the origins of provincial civilization in Gaul -- Greg Woolf https://archive.org/details/becomingromanori0000wool

The gods of the Celts -- Miranda Green https://archive.org/details/godsofceltsar00mira

Gallo-Roman Religious Sculptures -- A.N. Newell https://www.jstor.org/stable/640758

Fifth-Century Gaul: A Crisis of Identity? -- John Drinkwater & Elton Hugh https://www.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam031/91018375.pdf

Caesar's Commentaries on the Gallic War: literally translated -- Frederick Holland Dewey, A.B. https://archive.org/details/caesarscommentar07caes

Category:Gaulish gods -- Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Gaulish_gods

Category:Gaulish goddesses -- Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Gaulish_goddesses

sources: https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/1999/1999.10.34/ http://www.deomercurio.be/en/dii.html https://www.britannica.com/topic/Celtic-religion/The-Celtic-gods https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lares https://www.britannica.com/topic/Lar-Roman-deities https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallo-Roman_religion

[nemetonian-brainworm]

hallo pagan tumblr, i'm new here!

currently researching:

DEITIES

Nemetona

the Morrígan

Rhiannon

possibly also interested in:

Artemis

Loki

Sirona

PRACTICES

Reconstructionist polytheistic paganism

naturalism-focused Appalachian folk magic

Herbal medicine

Celtic druidry

Irish, Gaulish, and Appalachian spirituality in general

[blackcrowing]

Open, unequivocally open.

Anyone who explicitly says, or otherwise implies, that you must be X to participate are participating in nationalist thinking. You don't need to have 'celtic' blood (which trying to define that would be a whole task honestly), you don't need to live in the land of the gods (despite what some say, the gods seem perfectly capable of and happy to travel), and the gods will not see you as 'less than' if you don't check these boxes.

The strongest encouragement among the community is to strive to educate yourself. Learn the actual history of the deities, not the Wiccanisms. Learn about the living cultures of your area of interest and the struggles they have faced in keeping that culture preserved. Learn the language (or at least a few words if you're not talented in that department) of your interest group, help keep it alive and thriving.

Quick question, is Celtic Paganism open, closed, or partially both? Because I've heard all different angles and honestly I'm so confused now.

I am not Welsh by blood but have citizenship and have lived here for the majority of my life since I was a child so does it count if I practice? I do consider myself Welsh as I've lived here for so long.

[cloveconifer]

Art by Rituhell

[childofflamesandmoonlight]

Which deities do you personally associate with change/transformation?

[oh-my-little-hearth]

Calling all pagans and practitioners!

I have been wanting to do more devotional poetry so if you’d like a poem or prayer about your specific’s deity or practice, send me your request in asks or the comments of this post!

All practices and paths are welcome to request <3

REQUESTS ARE OPEN

[fernthewhimsical]

Fern's Cernunnos Deep Dive pt. 3

Correspondences:

🦌 Animals: stag, dog, bull, horned serpent, wolf, all animals 🦌 Crystals/rocks: adder stone, green goldstone, moss agate, petrified wood, golden pyrite 🦌 Flowers/plants: the oak, trees in general, moss, ferns, briars 🦌 Food/drink: game meat, whisky, dark red wine, mushrooms, decadent chocolate, blackberries 🦌 Colours: greens, bronzes, golds, dark browns 🦌 Moon phases: new and dark moon 🦌 Festivals: Beltane and the autumn equinox 🦌 Magics: cycles, hunting, protection, liminality, journeying, fae magic, wealth, success in business, release, ancestor work, connecting with nature, re-wilding 🦌 Nature: the forests, cattle, trees, animals, decay 🦌 Other: bow and arrow, furs, bonfires, torcs, coins, antlers

How to honour:

🏹 Go on a forest walk (or run) 🏹 Make a donation to forest preservation 🏹 Clean the natural spaces around you 🏹 Go on a spirit journey to visit him or his realm 🏹 Build a bonfire 🏹 Dance 🏹 Practice witchcraft

Prayers:

Praise be to you, oh, Horned One Lord of the crackling flame, and sun swept meadow Father to all those who hunt and run King of the wildest nights and deepest woods I honour you.

Cernunnos Lord of the liminal, the in-between The place between life and death, man and woman, hunter and hunted Lord of the cycles of life, of both ancient moss covered forests, and hallowed burial mounds King to all who live in your realms, plant and animal, witch and Fae, and all that lies in between. I honour you

[Masterpost]

[faith-of-the-wheel]

Paxuson Part 1: Introduction and Comparison of Cognates

A god of bidirectionality, of liminanlity, paths, doorways, travelers, wealth, shepherds, animals, and fertility. His name means "protector" and his direct linguistic cognates are Pan and Pushan.

Pan, Lord of the Wilds

Pan is the god of the wild, shepherds and flocks, rustic music and impromptus, and companion of the nymphs. He is also recognized as the god of fields, groves, wooded glens, and often affiliated with sex; because of this, Pan is connected to fertility and the season of spring. His origin and source of worship was in Arcadia, an isolated mountainous region of the Peloponnese whose culture is . It is believed that Hermes was originally an epithet of Pan who split off early on and becomes a separate deity associated with boundaries, roads, travelers, merchants, thieves, athletes, shepherds, commerce, cunning, and messages.

Both Hermes and Pan have myths putting in them in relation to Apollon. Hermes is characterized as being nurtured by Apollon who acts as a sort of patron to the young god. Pan and Apollon had a famed music competition in the myth of Midas. Given that we have established Apollon as a cognate of Rudlos, lets keep this in mind.

Pushan by OverlySarcasticProductions

Pushan, The Far-Roaming Shepherd

God of meetings, marriages, journeys, roads, fertility, sheep, and cattle. He is called to stir sexual desire in the bride on her wedding day. He is often seen as a solar deity, although this is connected to his shepherd aspect pretty explicitly.

He was a psychopomp, conducting souls to the other world. He protects travelers from bandits and wild beasts, and protects men from being exploited by other men. He is a supportive guide, a "good" god, leading his adherents towards rich pastures and wealth. His chariot is pulled by goats.

While there are multiple versions of the tale, it is commonly said that Rudra knocks out Pushan's teeth at the Daksha yajna, although he doesn't seem to be the target of his rage.

Cernunnos, The Horned Lord

Cernunnos, A Gaulic deity, whose name is probably more accurately rendered as *Karnonos, meaning "Horned Lord". Through the Pillar of the Boatmen, the name "Cernunnos" has been used to identify the members of an iconographic cluster, consisting of depictions of an antlered god (often aged and with crossed legs) associated with torcs, ram-horned (or ram-headed) serpents, symbols of fertility, and wild beasts (especially deer).

Ceisiwr Serith has an excellent dissection of symbols and character in his Youtube video essay, Cernunnos: Looking Every Which Way. Cernunnos has been variously interpreted as a god of fertility, of the underworld, wealth and trade, and of bi-directionality. Cernunnos has been tentatively linked with Conall Cernach, a hero of medieval Irish mythology, and some later depictions of cross-legged and horned figures in medieval art.

Kurunta, The Deer Hunter

His name seems to be cognate with Hittite Kurunta. His sacred animal is the stag, although this was not exclusive to him. He is commonly depicted standing on a stag, and Hittite texts identify the god standing on the stag as the god of the countryside. In Yazilikaya, a tutelary god of nature (likely Kurunta as the god is accompanied by the antler sign) is depicted with only a crook. There are also parallels with Kurunta following behind a storm god, as seen in a sea of Mursili III and a relief from Aleppo. There are also depictions of Kurunta holding a bow and arrows, which outside of due to him being a tutelary god also connects him to hunting. The hunting aspect was also emphasized by Tudhaliya IV.

Pashupati, Shiva of the Animals

Over in India, particularly in the east, another cognate of Rudlos, The mighty Rudra, is widely known by his epithet and avatar, Pashupati, who may be related to Paxuson. The name means "Lord of the Animals". While he may be related to the pre-Indo-Aryan deity depicted on the eponymous Pashupati seal of the Indus Valley Civilization discovered in modern day Pakistan, I believe he may be a reflex, or at least influenced by, the PIE deity in question.

In the Atharvaveda, the fourth Veda and one of the later additions to Vedic literature, Rudra is described to be the lord of the bipeds and the quadrupeds, including creatures that inhabited the earth, woods, the waters, and the skies. His lordship over cattle and other beasts denoted both a benevolent and destructive role; he slew animals that incurred his wrath, but was also kind to those who propitiated him, blessing them with health and prosperity. He is also seen a tutelary deity, of the nation of Nepal in particular.

[jasper-pagan-witch]

Here's a funny story:

Before I worshiped Cernunnos proper, I was fairly certain he was hanging around, but I didn't know if I was ready to work with him on account of...well, his whole thing being incredibly research-intensive.

So what did my ass do? I created secular altars for money magic and death magic. You know, two of the big things that Cernunnos does. Anyway, Cernunnos moved in shortly afterwards, because like...goddamn, man, I was not fucking paying attention.

[paganpillar]

Taking a moment to relax before finals week. I want to create another deity moodboard. I'm open to suggestions! Lmk who you want to see! Send some of their aspects as well!

[hogwash-deli]

Celtic deities associated with boars and pigs: Arduinna and Moccus

Arduinna is a captivating figure in Celtic mythology, deeply tied to the natural world and specifically associated with boars. As a Gaulish goddess, she embodies the wild, protective spirit of the Ardennes Forest, and her connection to boars highlights her role as a huntress and guardian of the wilderness.

Key Points

Who is Arduinna? She’s a Celtic goddess of the Ardennes Forest in what’s now Belgium, Luxembourg, and northern France, known as a protector of the wild and its creatures.

Boar Connection: Arduinna is often depicted riding a boar, symbolizing her mastery over nature and her role as a huntress.

Pigs or Boars? Her primary link is to boars—wild, fierce animals tied to hunting and war—rather than domesticated pigs, though both share cultural significance in Celtic lore.

Personality: Think of her as a fierce, independent deity, blending nurturing protection with the untamed energy of the forest.

Overview

Arduinna’s name itself hints at her essence—it’s linked to the Gaulish word arduo, meaning "height" or "high," reflecting her dominion over the rugged, forested highlands of the Ardennes. She’s most famously known through Roman interpretations, where she’s equated with Diana, the huntress goddess, suggesting a strong, sovereign figure who commands the wild. Her relationship with boars is central to her identity, painting her as both a companion to these animals and a symbol of their untamed power.

Boars in Arduinna’s World

The boar was a big deal in Celtic culture—think strength, courage, and a bit of ferocity. Arduinna riding a boar (as depicted in a bronze statuette from the region) isn’t just a cool image; it shows her as a goddess who harnesses that wild energy. She likely protected hunters who pursued boars in her forest, ensuring they respected her domain. Unlike Moccus, who’s tied to both pigs and boars with a focus on fertility and abundance, Arduinna’s link is more about the hunt and the raw, natural order. Boars, with their bristly hides and warrior vibes, fit her perfectly—no tame pigs here, just the wild cousins.

Cultural Role

Arduinna was worshipped by the local Gaulish tribes, like the Treveri, who saw her as a guardian of the Ardennes’ bounty—its game, woods, and rivers. Offerings to her might’ve included boar-related items (tusks, hides) or even small sacrifices to keep her favor. Her Roman connection to Diana adds a layer of prestige, suggesting her cult had staying power even as Gaul became Romanized.

Why Boars, Not Pigs?

While pigs were sacred in Celtic mythology (think magical swine from the Other World), Arduinna’s focus on boars aligns with her wild, forested realm. Boars were hunted for food and prestige, their pursuit a test of skill and bravery—qualities Arduinna embodies. Pigs, more tied to settled life and abundance, don’t quite match her untamed vibe, though the broader pig/boar family ties her to Celtic animal reverence.

Detailed Exploration: Arduinna and Her Boar Connection

Historical and Mythological Identity

Arduinna is a Gaulish goddess named after the Ardennes Forest (Arduenna Silva in Latin), a vast woodland spanning modern-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and parts of France. Her name likely stems from arduo ("height"), tying her to the elevated, rugged terrain she ruled (Wikipedia: Arduinna). Roman writers equated her with Diana, the goddess of the hunt, moon, and wilderness, as seen in interpretatio romana—the practice of syncing local deities with Roman ones (Mythology.net: Arduinna). This suggests Arduinna was a significant figure, revered for her sovereignty over nature.

A key artifact is a bronze statuette from the Ardennes, showing a female figure—presumed to be Arduinna—riding a boar (Wikipedia: Arduinna). This image encapsulates her as a huntress and protector, astride a creature synonymous with the wild.

Boars: Symbolism and Role

In Celtic culture, the boar was a powerhouse symbol:

War and Courage: Boar motifs adorned helmets, shields, and standards (e.g., the Gundestrup cauldron), marking it as a warrior’s emblem (Mythology.net: Arduinna).

The Hunt: Boar hunting was a prestigious, dangerous pursuit, often featured in myths like the tales of Arthur or Fionn mac Cumhaill chasing magical boars (Deity Spotlight: Arduinna).

Nature’s Might: As a forest dweller, the boar embodied the untamed strength Arduinna championed.

Arduinna’s boar-riding imagery suggests she didn’t just oversee these animals—she partnered with them. She might’ve guided hunters, ensuring they honored her forest’s balance, or protected the boars themselves as sacred denizens of her realm.

Pigs: A Lesser Connection?

Unlike Moccus, whose domain includes both pigs and boars with ties to fertility, Arduinna’s focus is narrower. Domestic pigs, linked to abundance and Otherworldly gifts in Celtic tales (e.g., swine from Annwn), don’t appear in her iconography or lore. Her wilderness setting favors the boar’s wildness over the pig’s domesticity, though both animals share a cultural thread of reverence in Gaulish spirituality.

Cult and Worship

Arduinna was likely venerated by tribes like the Treveri, who lived near the Ardennes. Her worship might’ve involved:

Offerings: Boar tusks, hides, or meat left at forest shrines.

Rituals: Hunts dedicated to her, with hunters seeking her blessing for success and safety.

Sites: Natural spots like groves or springs, though no specific temples are confirmed (Old World Gods: Arduinna).

A Roman tale claims Emperor Vespasian’s troops cut down parts of her forest, angering Arduinna—a story that reinforces her as a fierce defender of her domain (Mythology.net: Arduinna).

Comparison to Moccus

While Moccus and Arduinna both connect to boars, their roles diverge:

Moccus: Male, tied to pigs/boars, fertility, and protection; possibly linked to feasts and prosperity.

Arduinna: Female, boar-focused, emphasizing hunting and wilderness; less about abundance, more about nature’s raw power.

This contrast highlights the diversity of Celtic animal deities—Moccus nurtures, Arduinna guards.

Moccus appears to be a male deity. The name itself, derived from the Celtic word for "pig" or "boar," does not inherently indicate gender, but the linguistic and cultural context suggests a masculine identity. Additionally, Moccus was syncretized with the Roman god Mercury, who was male, further reinforcing this interpretation.

However, despite being male, Moccus embodies traits that are often associated with fertility and abundance, which are frequently linked to goddesses in many traditions. This could be why some people might wonder if Moccus had a more fluid or ambiguous divine role. In Celtic religion, gender roles in deities were not always rigid—many gods and goddesses shared overlapping domains, and boars and pigs were linked to both male warriors (as symbols of strength) and female deities (as symbols of fertility and provision).

Despite the suppression of her cult, Arduinna’s memory endures through various forms. Today, one can find a beer named after her, which pays homage to her association with the forests and nature.

Furthermore, an asteroid bears her name, reflecting her celestial presence. Additionally, Arduinna’s existence sheds light on the existence of other lesser-known Celtic goddesses who embodied the spirit of the woodlands and were revered alongside Arduinna by ancient Gaulish communities.

Key Citations

Wikipedia: Arduinna, Gaulish goddess of the Ardennes

Mythology.net: Arduinna, goddess of forest and hunt

Old World Gods: Arduinna, Celtic wilderness deity

Deity Spotlight: Arduinna, Tumblr post

[sillysybilsden]

Ehilà, viaggiatore

Hey there, traveller

Dedicated to my twin Lares.

Foreword

Hello there! It's me, the Silly Sybil (fka Clever Crow). I've been wanting to do this post for months, but life got in the way and I eventually forgot about it. But hey: better late than never, right?

Now, to the post.

In this foreword, I do want to address the nature of my resources. In fact, I am not writing all of this off of articles or academic works, but off of a questionnaire I had published back in July 2023. The answers given by fellow pagans are the main resources for this blog, whose objective is that of determining the main characteristics of two different approaches to lost practices: reconstructionism and revivalism.

Why choose such a peculiar approach to resources? Reconstructionism and revivalism are part of a spectrum, which can be intended and defined differently by different practitioners. Every pagan will have a slightly different idea of these terms. That means that these labels do not have a universal meaning - there is no institution recognised worldwide that gives us the requirements to be a revivalist or a reconstructionist: it is up to the practitioner and their understanding of the term. This is the reason why I've decided to opt for a form rather than articles as a resource. After all, who, better than a pagan who lives and practices paganism daily, can instruct us about paganism-related terms?

One last important thing I want to do is introduce you to our “cast”* - the wonderful pagans who took the time to compile the form, that is:

➳ anonymous contibutor (revivalist)

➳ Dead (revivalist)

➳ Guenevere (reconstructionist)

➳ Magpie (reconstructionist)

I do feel like thanking the people above is the least I can do. For this reason, I thank all of those who participated from the bottom of my heart: this post wouldn't exist without you.

*The "cast" is formed by aquaintances from a closed Amino community.

On paganism

In order to understand the definition of paganism-related labels, we must first define paganism. My personal research led me to two definitions I will provide you with:

An umbrella-term that indicates non-Abrahamic religions*;

An umbrella-term that indicates religions that are not main world religions**.

The options above might seem similar - if not identical. However, the subtle difference between them is extremely important.

According to Dr. Angela Puca¹, pagan beliefs/religions show the following characteristics:

A polytheistic and animistic approach to spirituality;

A direct relationship with the divine - which sometimes translates with little interest to scriptures and interactions in a non-institutionalised way;

The belief of immanence - the belief that the divine is everywhere and, thus, is not external to the natural world but within the same;

As a consequence of (3.), the reverence for everything as everything holds divine power.

For the reasons above, pagans are very likely to believe in magick - if not practice it. Quoting Dr. Puca, one could say that some of the most popular beliefs that fall under paganism are “Wicca/Witchcraft, Druidry, Heathernry, Asatrù, Goddess worship, ethnic reconstructions and other animist earth-based traditions”.

Now that we have defined, very broadly, what paganism is, let us get to reconstructionism and revivalism.

*Abrahamic religions include Judaism, Christianity and Islam.

**Main world religions include, among the others, Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism.

On reconstructionism

“Reconstructionism is about recreating an ancient or dead religion as closely as possible to the original source. This means learning about, understanding, and incorporating historical traditions. Being a Reconstructionist involves a lot of time and research.” - Magpie

“A reconstructionist seeks to find the historic pieces of practice and remain true to that as best they can.” - Guevevere

As the two members of the cast above already said ever-so-clearly, reconstructionism puts a lot of emphasis on historical accuracy - which revivalism also does but to a lesser extent, as we will see later on. The key characteristic of this approach to pagan traditions is the will to practice a dead religion as it was by ancient peoples.

For example: a modern Hellenic polytheist who considers themselves a reconstructionist will do a ritual as a 3rd century BCE Hellenic polytheist would have - if that is indeed the era they mean to reconstruct: the same pagan religion can show different characteristics depending on the century.

The modern reconstructionist practitioner will not alter the rituals and, sometimes, nor will they attempt to fill the gaps with their own UPG*². For this reason, many reconstructionists affirm that it takes a lot of time and research for them to add new practices to their own, as they must research thoroughly the subject and reconstruct it exclusively thanks to historical accounts - for this reason, they rely on academical and primary resources**. Sometimes, if gaps make it impossible to reconstruct a, say, ritual, reconstructionists might decide not to include it in its entirety - in place of, as said before, use any UPG to fill said gaps.

*Unverified Personal Gnosis: a belief that is not backed up by mythos and is exclusively theorized/recognised by the single practitioner.

**Primary resources: texts that were written in the historical period that one is researching. Eg: Saint Augustine of Hippo's texts are a primary resource to those who are researching 4th/5th century Christianity.

On revivalism

“Revivalism is a sort of subcategory of Reconstruction. It has the same goals and also has an emphasis on historical accuracy but tends to be on the less strict side and not as culturally focused*. While Recon. as a whole would include people that expect near-total adherence to historically or culturally attested practices, Revivalism is more theologically focused and has more room for adaptation to one's existing culture and environment. *cultural context is still important, revivalism just doesn't expect participation/membership to a specific culture.” - Dead

“Revivalists keep a sense of tradition within their practice but still allow room for UPG/SPG* and modern practices while still keeping it within the religion.” - anonymous contributor

As we anticipated before, revivalism, too, heavily focuses on historical accuracy. However, there is more room to add one's personal beliefs and/or alter some parts of the practice. This is the very big - and very important - difference between the two approaches: while reconstructionism hardly accepts UPG or SPG to fill the gaps - and, so, adjust part of a practice to one's needs/beliefs -, revivalism is much more flexible on that bit.

For example: a modern Gaulish polytheist who considers themselves a revivalist might decide to fill the gaps given by the little - and biased - resources on their practice by adding their own UPG to what is already historically attested.

Just because revivalism accepts UPG and SPG, it doesn't mean that it is a less-demanding approach than reconstructionism. In fact, it does require the same amount of research and of digging into academic and primary texts. Revivalism is about *adapting* an historical practice; it is not about eradicating it from its original historical and/or cultural context, which has to be researched nonetheless. One could say that revivalists want to reconstruct ancient practices as if they were never destroyed in the first place, taking into account the evolutions such practices would have gone through in the contemporary world. Thus, using one of the examples above, if I am a revivalist I am not practicing Hellenic polytheism as a 3rd century BCE polytheist would have, but I am practicing it as a potential 2024 Hellenic polytheist would have after all of the probable changes religion could have gone through.

To better explain the difference between reconstructionism and revivalism: Roman deities used to be offered incense and wine. If I were to use a reconstructionist approach, I might want to stick to these offerings as they are two of the few offerings that are historically attested. If I were to use a revivalist approach, I might prefer using incense or wine, but I could opt for a strawberry beverage from time to time.

*Shared Personal Gnosis: a belief that is not backed up by mythos and is exclusively theorized/recognised by a group of practitioners.

Conclusion

I personally, to this day, do not know whether to consider myself a reconstructionist or a revivalist. That is because, depending on the pagan community you're interacting with, the "requirements" to label yourself as reconstructionist or revivalist might change - and this is something I already mentioned in the foreword. What I - and the other contributors - tried to do is give you some very broad guidelines in order to let you establish whether you fall under one or the other category.

If you do not find any of these two approaches fitting for you, there is no need to worry: as I stated in the foreword, we are talking about a spectrum. Some people lean towards one of the two extremes of this spectrum and there might be people who find themselves outside of it, which is valid nonetheless.

This being said, I thank you all for reading this blog. Let me know in the comments whether you describe yourself as a reconstructionist, a revivalist or something else entirely!

Wish you a pleasant day/evening/night.

The Silly Sybil

Resources

Informative

¹ Dr. Angela Puca's video on paganism

² Dead's post on UPG and SPG

Paintings

¹ "Priestess of Delphi" by John Collier

² "Magic Circle" by John William Waterhouse

³ "Roman Woman Lighing a Lamp at the Home Altar" by Stephan Wladilawowitsch Bakalowicz

[flowersandfigtrees]

Epithets, Explained

Introduction

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I’m just making this post to help explain exactly what epithets are, how they’re used, and the different types. I know that for beginners, getting a hold of all the terms used in relation to deity worship and/or work can be tough, and I’ve seen this subject trip people up in the past when they read about certain deities or translations of ancient texts.

For a quick definition, epithets are “an adjective or descriptive phrase expressing a quality characteristic of the person or thing mentioned”. In relation to epithets of deities, you might also see them called ‘surnames’ and they're basically nicknames or bynames to refer to specific aspects or forms of a deity. Typically, they’re used alongside the actual name of the deity but there’s also plenty of times where only the epithet is used, such as calling Apollo by simply “Phoebus” and not “Phoebus Apollo” or calling Athena by only saying “Pallas”. This happens a lot in texts like the Iliad or the Aeneid where using the full name paired with the epithet every time would eventually end up sounding too repetitive but also, to ancient people, certain epithets would have been easily recognizable on their own and they wouldn’t need to have the actual name given. They can come before or after a deity’s actual name, order doesn’t really matter, it’s just whatever grammar rules you’re following.

Types & Examples

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Generally speaking, there are four main types of epithets used in polytheistic religions: regional, functional, syncretic/fusion, and poetic. And just as a note; most of my religious experience is with Greek, Roman, and Gaulish religions so that’s where I’m gonna be getting most, if not all, of the examples used below.

The categories are, for the most part, arbirtrary but can be helpful when understanding epithets in a general sense when you come across them. Some types overlap with each other, for example, Dionysos Melanaigis (lit. Dionysos of the black goatskin) refers jointly to a functional/cultic role his worship played in a ritual during the Apaturia festival in Athens AND to a story in myth where he wears a black goat skin and comes to the aid of a guy named Melanthus (which is the mythic explanation for why he’s worshipped during Apaturia) but it makes Melanaigis a regional epithet (only used in Athens), a functional cult epithet (was only during rites to him for a specific event) and a mythic epithet (as it refers to a specific mythic event). Similarly, there's examples with Apollo; Delphios Apollo refers to both the form of Apollo specifically in Delphi (regional epithet) AND to Apollo in his function as an oracular deity of prophecy (functional), and Pythian Apollo refers to Apollo around the area where he slayed the mythical Python (so both a reference to myth as well as regional, in this case referring to the area around Delphi) and also functional, since it can refer to his oracular function.

Additionally, epithets can be shared by multiple deities, “Phoebus” was used to refer to both Apollo and Helios, “Antheia” was both the name of a standalone deity as well as an epithet to Hera and Aphrodite, “Bacchus” was an epithet for the Etruscan god Fufluns and to Dionysus and would eventually become to go-to byname for Dionysos in Rome. There are also epithets such as “Aetnaeus” which refers to any number of deities associated with Mount Etna, including Zeus and Hephaestus, and “Eleutherios” which could refer to Dionysos, Zeus, or Eros.

i. Regional Epithets

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The first type is regional or locative/toponymic epithets. These are used when referencing a form of a deity that is unique to a certain place for whatever reason or originated there. Sometimes deities will have unique local forms because of the inevitable variations of religion in any given culture (no religion is or was a monolith) and there may or may not be pseudo-historical/mythical reasons for the specific local variation. But it's pretty much just saying “the form of this deity that resides in Town A” or “the form of this deity representing a specific thing they did at this site”, examples include:

➻ Diana Nemorensis — literally: “Diana of Nemi”, used specifically to refer to her cult at Lake Nemi and was the form of Diana celebrated there during Nemoralia.

➻ Apollo Palatinus and Apollo Delphios — literally: “Apollo on the Palatine” referring to the temple built to him on the Palatine Hill in Rome by Augustus, this form of Apollo was also Augustus’ personal protector. Apollo Delphios was mentioned earlier but it refers to the oracular-centric form of Apollo in Delphi.

➻ Artemis Ephesus — literally: “Artemis of Ephesus”, refers to a form of Artemis unique to the city of Ephesus who had a very different representation to the other forms of Artemis. This manifestation of her was transported to multiple other cities such as Massalia and it was a form that was a sort of mother-goddess.

➻ Zeus & Hephaestus Aetnaeus — literally: “of Mount Etna”, for Zeus it refers to the form of him which has a small shrine and festival there and for Hephaestus, it refers to where he has his workshop.

ii. Functional Epithets

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These epithets are ones that reference a specific (often cultic) function of the god. Many deities have multiple roles or concepts they embody and have domain over, so epithets can be used to zero-in on just the side of a deity relevant to why you’re praying to them or giving offerings. There are also festival-specific epithets which can be used on specific festivals in honor of that aspect of the given deity. Some examples include:

➻ Hercules Olivarius & Hercules Augusti — literally: “Hercules of the Olive Merchants”, referring specifically to his ability to guard the olive industry in Rome and also “Hercules of the Emperor” which was used to refer to the aspect of Hercules that guarded Roman emperors. (Gotta say, if I had to choose, it's Olive-Merchant Hercules every time for me)

➻ Hermes & Apollo Theoxenios — literally: “of the Theoxenia festival” and was the name used to invoke both Hermes and Apollo during that specific festival.

➻ Aphrodite Areia — literally: “Warlike Aphrodite” or “Aphrodite of War”, used to call specifically on Aphrodite’s war function.

➻ Apollo Acestor & Apollo Kataibates — literally: “Apollo the Healer”, was used when calling on Apollo to aid in healing, and Apollo Kataibatês literally meant “Apollo, Protector of Travelers” (also used for for Hermes) and was used by people to thank him for a safe journey or to ask for protection on a journey they were about to take.

➻ Poseidon Isthmia — literally: “Poseidon of the Isthmian Games” which was used only to call on him during this athletic festival.

➻ Ceres Legifera — literally: “Ceres, Keeper of the Laws (of marriage)”, was used to invoke her in marriage processions and during the confarreatio (a type of Roman marriage ritual where the couple eats a cake made with sacred wheat)

iii. Syncretic Epithets

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Another form of epithets are those that serve to equate or combine deities. Oftentimes, foreign deities from one culture may transform into epithets of deities from other cultures or two deities within a single culture might be combined into one. This was especially common with Iron-Age Celtic deities in places that adopted aspects of Roman and Greek religion due to being governed by or just from existing in close proximity to them. Within Greek religion, it was common for more “archaic” or minor deities to become epithets of deities that held more cultural prominence. Some examples include:

➻ Apollo Grannus, Apollo Maponos, & Apollo Belenos — Grannus, Maponos, and Belenos were all standalone deities in Gaulish culture that became associated with Apollo once Roman religious influence spread. Each has their own unique nuance but all seem to be related to Apollo’s healing function

➻ Mars Condatis & Mars Toutatis — Both Condatis and Toutatis are also independently attested Celtic gods and both were interpreted to be a form of Mars. Through some of his Celtic epithets, Mars gained a traditionally uncharacteristic healing function.

➻ Sulis Minerva — Sulis is a Brythonic healing goddess and through her identification with Minerva, enjoyed a pretty large cult in Roman Britain.

➻ Poseidon Erechtheus — a fusion of Poseidon and a mythical king of Athens who was most likely a minor deity at some point. It would go on to be used as a name for Poseidon when in relation to Athens.

➻ Dionysos Zagreus — This is an equation that happened mostly in Orphism and other mystic cults but the earliest evidence suggests that Zagreus was originally a standalone deity or an aspect of Hades which later became an aspect of Dionysos.

➻ Mars Quirinus — Quirinus simultaneously became an epithet to Mars and also maintained an independent presence in Roman religion. It’s partly through his identification with Mars that the latter started to be more warlike as opposed to an agricultural deity.

➻ Pallas Athena — In some tellings, notably in pseudo-Apollodorus’ “Bibliotheca”, this name is the result of Athena taking the name of a Titaness named Pallas, daughter of Triton. Could also be a fusion of Athena and the giant named Pallas.

➻ Serapis/Osorapis/Userhapi — Userhapi and Oserapis are transliterations of the coptic name for Osiris-Apis which became Hellenized as “Serapis” under the Ptolemaic dynasty. It is the result of identifying Apis (a sacred bull turned deity during the Second Dynasty) and the Egyptian god Osiris.

iv. Poetic Epithets

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Poetic (or literary) epithets are, well, epithets just used poetically in ancient literature. They don’t refer to cult or ritual functions and usually either are physical descriptors, compliments, or mythic achievements. It can also include any epithets used to describe mythic standing in relation to other gods, such Ovid calling Aurora “Pallantias” to signify that in his telling, she’s the daughter of the titan Pallas. They can be used in a devotional sense and in a more solely creative one to evoke a certain feeling from the reader and set a scene and they may be referred to as “Homeric epithets” as well since many come from Homeric works. Another function of Homeric epithets can be to help a line of poetry satisfy the line/format requirements of dactylic hexameter. Here's a nifty overview of the grammatical and descriptive purposes for various epithets in the Iliad and Odyssey. If you’ve ever read ancient epic poetry then you’ve encountered loads of poetic epithets, examples including:

➻ Eos Rhododactylos: literally “Rosy-Fingered Eos”, Eos Erigenia: literally “Early-Born Eos”

➻ Aphrodite Philommeides: literally “Laughter-Loving Aphrodite”, Aphrodite Eustephanos: literally “Richly-Crowned Aphrodite”

➻ Artemis Khrysenios: literally “Artemis Who Holds Golden Reins”, Artemis Keladeinos: literally “Strong-Voiced Artemis”

➻ Hermes Argeiphontes: literally “Hermes, Slayer of Argos” (a shepherd he killed in myth), Hermes Kharidotes: literally “Hermes, Giver of Joy”

➻ Hades Polysemantor: literally “Hades, Ruler of Many”, Hades Nekron Soter: literally “Hades, the Savior of the Dead"

Using Epithets

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When it comes to using epithets in your practice, it's largely a personal choice. By no means is it something that you MUST do but, it's also not something that doesn't have a place in modern polytheism. I, for one, tend to find that it can connect my worship to a certain form/aspect of a deity (for instance, Apollo) more quickly or serve to "set the mood" more effectively. I tend to pray to epithets of him for his healing/protective/oracular roles, however, I'm not as personally connected to his musical/artistic roles so on the relatively rare occasions that I find myself wanting to invoke those aspects, using epithets related to that makes me feel closer to them. They can also be used to enhance prayers if you're someone who enjoys having very artistic wording or just wants to glorify the deity you're praying to.

Another way I like to use epithets is to create my own to use in prayers or as a devotional activity. This could mean creating new poetic epithets as compliments to a deity, creating an epithet to invoke them at a local place, or even making an epithet for a role they have in your UPG but do not traditionally have. I usually try to make them in various forms of Ancient Greek, Latin, Gaulish, or in English but you could utilize any language you feel like, it doesn't need to be the language of the ancient culture(s) where the deity was worshipped. And importantly, it doesn't need to perfect. I am certainly not fluent in any form of Ancient Greek or in Latin so it can take a while to get the correct (or even just loosely acceptable) grammatical set-up and lots of comparison with actual ancient epithets. Just for some examples, here's some epithets I've created for various deities:

➻ Dionysos Tautoteus: literally "Dionysus of Identity" but I made it to refer to him as a protector/affirmer of self-identification in relation to sexuality and/or gender.

➻ Eos Dendrokhoria & Eos Anthestephanos: literally "Eos who Dances in the Trees" to refer to when the sunrise is barely visible above the tree line (I usually pray to her at dawn and there's a forest in that direction from my house lol) and the second is literally "Flower-Crowned Eos", just a reference to her being traditionally described as wearing flowers.

➻ Sirona Lindaia: literally "Sirona of the Lake" which I made to use when praying or giving offering to her at lakes, pretty self-explanatory but I also have made a bunch of others for her such as Sirona Nantaia (Sirona of the Stream), Sirona Natrix (Sirona of the Snake), and Sirona Dumnorigana (Sirona, the Queen of the Depths).

Some Useful Resources for Epithets

For most Greek deities, you can find lists of epithets to them online on places such as Theoi.com, within classical texts such as various Homeric Hymns, epics, histories, etc. Theoi is a great site in general, however it can occasionally lack further explanation and context for epithets so if you find that one isn't clarified enough, try searching it up independently.

Wiktionary.com is actually a really great free resource for looking up etymology and the ways different words are/were used in various languages.

For other languages, check things such as epigraphy [for example, CIL databases (Latin) or this EDH CIL database (across the Roman sphere), RIB databases (Roman Britain), IG databases (Greek)], curse tablets, papyri, etymological dictionaries or regular dictionaries. These can be really useful for obvious reasons. For non-Latin Italic languages and ancient Celtic languages, I tend to use etymological/reconstructed dictionaries this for Celtic languages and this for Etruscan. But again, you can make epithets just in the language you already speak, there's no need for them to be in some ancient or reconstructed one. Its literally whatever you want.

This was originally a blogpost of mine on the P&W Amino but has been reformatted for (and reshared) here since amino is heading towards its inevitable end... rip

[divine-crows]

Connecting with a lesser-known deity was something I never expected to feel so special.

Like don't get me wrong, my bonds with other deities are just as special and I cherish them deeply--

but there was something about having to dig endlessly to find information on Belisama after she reached out to me. There was something about having to intensely look and search and discern until I was 100% certain it was her. There was something about the fact that I've been drawn to thematic light/sunlight since I was a child and there was something about how I always felt a calling whenever I visited large bodies of water.

Especially because she was the first goddess to reach out to me in a very long time, it felt holy in a weird way? Like... after years of wondering why I never seemed to connect with goddesses... after years of worrying that I somehow offended them or caused them to hate me... she found me and she helped me learn how to connect with other goddesses.