#gamma nucleon

[ask-lethalmon]

>Opening communications >Connecting with Company Cruiser: Eon Voyager

As the screen blinks on an eevee stands at the front typing on the keyboard. With their eyes focused on the keyboard they begin to speak.

“Recording data log. Crewmate Nova. Date; July 3rd, 2532. I and my team have just returned from the Company after successfully meeting our weekly quota. As such we are now entering our rest period before we receive our next job.

“As recorded in my previous logs our last job was, thankfully, rather uneventful. At least compared to some other job runs. There were minimal injuries as we stuck to calmer moons and worked quickly.

“Visiting the Company went about the same as it usually does. Honestly that place unnerves me, sometimes more than the moons. The sounds behind that wall… I shouldn’t say too much else Data might revoke my log privileges. Or start editing them. rude.”

It seems they haven’t noticed that they opened communications. Will you speak to them?

[todays-xkcd]

Unlike an Iron Age collapse, a Bronze Age collapse releases energy, since copper and tin are past the iron peak on the curve of binding energy.

Decay Modes [Expained]

Transcript Under the Cut

Radioactive Decay Modes

[A chart of labelled drawings of various radioactive decay modes, some real and some ficticious.]

[An unstable nucleus emits an alpha particle.] Alpha Decay

[A neutron-rich neucleus emits a W- boson. Underneath is a drawing of a neutron turnt into electron.] Beta Decay

[An unstable nucleus emits a gamma ray.] Gamma Decay

[A proton-rich atom absorbs an electron from an electron shell and emits an electron neutrino. Underneath is a drawing of a proton converted into a neutron.] Electron Capture

[A proton-rich nucleus emits a W+ boson. Underneath is a drawing of a neutron turnt into a positron.] Positron Emission

[A neutron-rich/proton-deficient unstable nucleus emits a neutron.] Neutron Emission

[All the subatomic particles burst from the atom simultaneously.] Baryon Panic

[The atom is imploded by a skull, cracking the surrounding area and sending neutrons and protons flying off.] Omega Decay

[Electrons around the atom fall to the ground.] Electron Wilt

[Protons and nuetrons combine to make a single huge baryon.] One Big Nucleon

[The nucleus rots with mushrooms growing out from it.] Fungal Decay

[The atom floats on water, with boats on either side full of tiny people shooting arrows at it.] Collapse Due to Invasion by the Sea Peoples

[thirdchoiceurl]

tell me more about francium and other elements PLEASE

I've been reading about light isotopes, so now you get to hear about them too! In particular, Helium-3 is a great isotope for studying the interaction of the nuclear and Coulomb forces in the nucleus, since its composition presents a (relatively) simple environment where both proton repulsion and neutron binding are present. helium-3 is stable, but due to the small number of nucleons it has, it has some really interesting properties. First, considering how stable its neighbor helium-4 is, one might expect that helium-3 readily absorbs neutrons. And it does...but it doesn't form helium-4. Instead, when a neutron is absorbed by helium-3 it kicks out a proton with 764 keV of energy, forming tritium...which then decays back into helium-3 via an 18 keV beta decay. This 3He(n,p)3H interaction has a massive 5,330 barn cross section at thermal energy, drastically higher than the 55 microbarn cross section of the 3He(n,γ)4He reaction that's expected, and it all has to do with the second strange property of helium-3. Unlike heavier nuclei, helium-3 has no bound, excited states. For light nuclei, the effects of spin coupling on nuclear binding are tremendous, and the helium-3 nucleus becomes unbound in every spin state except for 1/2+. This means that the decay of deuterium into helium-3 can never emit a gamma ray, since it can only ever decay to the ground state, a fact that also explains the uncommonly long half-life for its tiny decay energy. Helium-4, with its intensely bound nucleus, has several observable excited states, as can be seen in this level scheme:

Keen-eyed observers may note the Sn and Sp lines on this chart; these are the neutron and proton separation energies of helium-4, and show that even though long-lived excited states exist, they are still ultimately unbound. Additionally, even the lowest excited state has an excitation energy of 20.2 MeV, and represents a spin-forbidden 0+ to 0+ transition that requires the emission of a proton in addition to a gamma ray.

This is the reason why 3He(n,p)3H is so favored - at neutron energies below that colossal 20.2 MeV excitation energy, there's simply no nuclear state that can accommodate the extra particle. But 3He and 3H have identical ground state spin, nearly equal masses, and no forbidden transitions standing between them. this means that when faced with the 20.2 MeV barrier on the path to 4He and the gentle descent into tritium, the compound 3He+n system will nearly always kick out a proton and settle into a new, unstable configuration rather than coalesce into the legendarily stable 4He nucleus.

You can actually test this in the lab if you have access to a thermal neutron beam, a proportional counter, and some 3He. By capturing the ejected protons from the (n,p) reaction, you'll see a very narrow solitary energy peak at 764 keV. If you then capture the beta particles emitted by a tritium source and add their maximum energy to the proton emission energy, you can get a highly accurate measure of the mass difference between the neutron and the proton, since that is the only possible place that total energy could come from. One last trick you can do with helium-3 is quickly separate it isotopically from helium-4 using cryogenic cooling. Because helium-4 has integer spin, it forms a superfluid of microscopic Bose-Einstein condensates at temperatures of about 2 K. However, helium-3 has spin 1/2+, so it cannot condense, and instead forms a fermi gas at the same temperature. While the natural abundance of helium-3 is very low, it can be flowed off of superfluid helium-4 to obtain extremely pure isotopic samples regardless.

[tofupunx]

Something we've all heard is that we are "made of star dust" - which is true, but I think it might be cool to see someone talk about what that really means in a Tumblr rant.

Would you have any interest in infodumping about stellar nucleosynthesis, the different classes of stars and their limits of element production, and how we get the naturally occuring elements heavier than iron and nickel?

Yes I absolutely would! I have tried to make this as coherent as possible, but I’m a rambler and I like talking about stars!

So the statement that we’re all star dust is factually correct - I love to remind people that we all came from violent explosions and reactions in the cosmos, and we will all return to that one day too. Very comforting.

So “nucleosynthesis” refers to the creation of atomic nuclei from less complex nucleons, such as hydrogen-1 (literally just a single proton). It started with primordial nucleosynthesis, also known as “Big Bang” nucleosynthesis. This, obviously, happened very early on in the Universe, as in literally minutes after the Big Bang [is theorised to have] happened. Basically, just like in the cores of stars, stuff was really hot and dense. And so from the plasma came neutrons and protons. The hot, dense conditions allowed for your boy Hydrogen-1 to fuse to form heavier elements, such as deuterium (“heavy” hydrogen), helium and lithium. Then everything started to chill out a bit, literally.

Stellar nucleosynthesis is an important part of the evolution of stars. Stars are formed when clouds of gas and dust collapse in on themselves due to their own gravity, becoming very hot and dense in the very centre of what will soon be called a “protostar”.

Now, not all stars are created equal. For those protostars that are pretty small, with a mass typically less than 0.1 times that of our Sun (this is known as solar mass, with 1 solar mass = the mass of our Sun), no nuclear fusion happens in their cores because they are simply not hot enough (although some are able to fuse deuterium and even lithium). These types of stars are known as brown dwarfs.

The next class of star are stellar-mass main sequence stars. As you can probably guess, our Sun is a perfect example of one of these bad boys. They’re pretty average, and relatively common in the Universe. These stars are massive enough to allow for P-P chain (proton-proton chain) reactions, fusing hydrogen into deuterium and helium. For stars on the slightly larger side of this, the CNO cycle can take place (carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle). The CNO cycle uses particles such as (surprise surprise) carbon, nitrogen and oxygen as catalysts for nuclear fusion, and in turn releases an enormous amount of energy, usually in the form of gamma rays.

“Main sequence” refers to any star in its prime, where it reaches a state of hydrostatic equilibrium - i.e. the outwards force from the reactions in the core balance out with the inwards gravitational force and keep the star from collapsing. The hotter and more dense a star, the heavier elements can be produced by the nuclear fusion in its core. As temperatures and pressures rise, more complex reactions such as the triple-alpha process (to create carbon from helium) and the alpha process (to create heavier elements from helium) can occur.

Stars around 8 solar masses or more can burn carbon, neon, oxygen and silicon. In short, the more massive the star, the more hot and dense it is, which means it can burn and fuse heavier and heavier elements. That is, as you’ve mentioned, until iron. Iron is an incredibly stable atom, which is why stars have difficulty producing anything heavier or more complex.

So, stars on the main sequence will eventually run out of hydrogen fuel, and this means they won’t be able to balance the inwards force of gravity anymore. Stars of different masses will react to this situation differently, with more massive stars ending their main sequence lifetime with violent supernovae, and low-mass stars gradually fading. Stars like our Sun will eventually collapse and cool, leaving just the dense core known as a white dwarf.

For heavier elements to form, there needs to be suitable conditions for neutron and/or proton capture. There are several methods of these: rapid neutron capture (r-process), slow neutron capture (s-process), proton capture (p-process), and rapid proton capture (rp-process). Saving the details, these processes are pretty mental. A massive star collapsing into supernova provides the conditions for these reactions to occur, and thus for elements heavier than iron to form and be scattered throughout the Universe, potentially going on to form more stars, planets or nebulae. The remnants of these massive stars will become neutron stars or even black holes, but that’s a whole other story.

TLDR: dying stars make heavy shit.

[daulaires]

CHAPTER 2.1-2.4 NOTES 2.1 atom: the smallest quantity of matter that retains the properties of matter element: substance that cannot be broken down further into simpler substances

atoms were first proposed as an idea by Democritus (philosopher) in fifth century BC * originally thought to be indivisible but can actually be further divided into subatomic particles * number of each subatomic particles as well as their arrangements and individual natures are what determine the properties of atoms and therefore the properties of the matter they form

2.2 like charges repel and opposite charges attract (Coulomb's law)

cathode ray: negatively charged plate, electrical current sent through, cathode ray goes out from the negative plate to the positive plate, then to specific points on the screen at the end of the cathode based on if there is an electrical or magnetic field around it or the two fields cancel each other out or there is no field at all. electrons discovered using this because the negatively charged plate repelled the cathode ray, indicating the presence of negatively charged particles that were repelled by the negative charge of the first plate.

Millikan used charged oil particles to determine the mass of an electron based on the amount of electric field needed to suspend a particle between two charged plates. He used the charge to mass ratio, already calculated by another scientist, and the charge of just one individual electron to determine the mass of an electron. He deduced the charge of an individual electron based off the fact that every charge he measured was a multiple of -1.6022 x 10^-19 C(coulomb), which we now know is the charge of an individual electron.

radioactivity: spontaneous emission of particles or radiation from unstable nuclei

three types of radiation: *alpha rays: made of positively charged particles (alpha particles). repelled by positively charged plate and attracted to negative. *beta rays: made of negatively charged particles (beta particles). repelled by negatively charged plate and attracted to positive. *gamma rays: no charge, higher energy, unaffected by magnetic or electrical fields.

protons(positively charged subatomic particles) are contained in the nucleus in a concentrated core. atoms are mostly empty space, so most alpha particles can pass through with out being repelled by the positively charged nucleus. however, when the alpha particles do get close to the nucleus they experience a repulsive force, making them not able to pass straight through and are thrown off course. if they travel directly at the nucleus they may be repelled so much their direction is completely reversed.

protons have same magnitude of charge as electrons, just in the opposite direction (positive not negative), and almost 2000x the mass of electrons. nucleus is very tiny but tons of mass- occupies very little volume (atom = stadium, nucleus = marble).

use picometers (1 x 10^-12 m) for most atomic dimensions

2.3 all atoms except most common form of hydrogen (has one proton no neutrons) have both protons and neutrons (nucleons).

isotope: atoms of an element that have the same atomic number (number of protons) but a different mass number (protons and neutrons). therefore isotope is determined by number of neutrons and identified by the element's mass number.

chemical properties of an element are determined mostly by number of protons and electrons, not neutrons, so what isotope an element is doesn't have very much impact on its chemical properties.

2.4

density: mass/volume (use g/cm^3 as units) volume of the nucleus can be calculated from known radius using formula for volume of a sphere(V = 4/3 π r^3). use g/cm^3 in calculations; convert other units to cm and g beforehand.

Atomic mass unit (amu) is equivalent to 1.67 x 10^-27 kg

all those protons in one tightly packed nucleus should repel each other. great force is required to maintain a stable nucleus. short-range attraction (proton-proton, neutron-neutron, proton-neutron) accomplishes this (in this case, strong nuclear force specifically). if the short-range attraction is stronger, the nucleus remains stable; if the coulombic repulsion is stronger, the nucleus deteriorates and emits particles or radiation. the electrons are kept from flying out of the orbit of the atom by their attraction to the positive protons. the electron's velocity and attraction towards the nucleus help it maintain its orbit.

nuclear stability determined by neutron to proton ratio. the higher the atomic number, the more neutrons needed to counteract the protons' repulsion.

2, 8, 20, 50, 82, and 126 neutrons or protons are most likely to be stable (contain the most stable isotopes compared to other elements). also more stable nuclei with even number of both protons and neutrons. atomic number higher than 82 are always radioactive (unstable). technetium and promethium are ALL radioactive, every isotope. ion: atom that gains or loses electrons, giving it a net charge. anion: negatively charged ion cation: positively charged ion

atomic mass isn't a whole number because it's the weighted average of the masses of each of the element's isotopes (remember each isotope has a different mass) in the percentages they were found in in the sample used (each isotope's mass is multiplied by the percentage in which it was found in the sample). ex. sample is 99% Carbon-12 and 1% Carbon-13; C-12(0.99) is added to C-13(0.01). average atomic mass which would be shown where the decimal is in the figure above = 12.01. *the isotope whose mass is closest to the average atomic mass is the most abundant. FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES

[a-nuclear-adventure]

A flash

With a flash Echo shines a bright white as a massive pulse of gamma ray energy bursts forth in all directions bathing everything in intense radiation, lethal amounts in close proximity. After the pulse passed Echo lay still his glow near enough non-existent, the water gurgling by him as it flowed to sea no longer hissing and bubbling.

Elsewhere Nicholas was still scanning around for Echo when he detected a large burst of radiation coming from Echo’s direction. Relaying to Jac about what happened he picks up the pace having found Echo’s trail again

[ Echo is Unconscious and Nicholas is on his way ]

[nucleon-artistry]

Continuing my Quest to shove Nucleons in other franchises, Nuclear Throne!

I can really imagine them fitting here tbh, Nuclear throne has a lot of, well, Nuclear sh!t and glowy bits

Anyways, the idea with the Acolyte is that they constantly have a aura around them dealing damage to enemies, (functioning like a long-arms range gamma guts) but all of their ammo reserves are halved. (pushing the player into getting up close and personal with the aura)

Their TB mutation causes enemies killed by the aura to drop more rads.

Their two Ultra mutations are;

Piety - Doubles the size of their aura field, and doubles its damage.

Heresy - All projectiles fired by the player gain a small damage dealing aura, The player loses the melee-aura, and ammo reserves return to normal.

They come from a cult that worships radiation and the Nuclear Throne and they want to find out for themselves if its real or not.

As this is Nuclear throne, of course they'd have a B skin, based on the Necromancer/Technomancer enemies in Labs

[angel-bazethiel]

What, How, Why is Flame Alchemy?

--or how Roy Mustang can potentially bottle up a star. --or I’m sleep-deprived and writing this fic that relies on a deeper understanding of how Flame Alchemy works and I’m posting what I thought of bc why the hell not? and if I read another post saying it’s plain ole combustion and how easy it is, I will probably lose my mind --or goddammit, where is Flame Alchemy?????

Content:

I. Introduction II. Mass-Energy Equivalence and Nuclear Energy III. Flame Alchemy? More like Nuclear Alchemy (and Other Myth Debunking) IV. Why would someone study such a research topic? V. Summary

Note: Long post and a lot of Science ahead.

I. Introduction

First we establish that whatever we know of Flame Alchemy is utterly bogus. Solely because of the fact that if Roy and Riza really wanted for the knowledge of it to die, no one will ever know of it. No one. So that explanation by Havoc about aligning oxygen molecules and then snapping to ignite them is not true. I mean, “reactive cloth?” What is that even made of? For a show that was extensively researched, that seems a bit lazy.

Also, this explanation makes Flame Alchemy sound so easy. So why isn’t everyone doing it? For a military-run country, one would think that something easy and can be weaponized would be mass-produced, right?

Another fact, fire feeds on oxygen, yes. But fire is a combustion reaction of oxygen and a C-H compound. Something I hope that the air in a 1900s FMA-Earth isn’t abundant of.

Although, I haven’t thought about what if the fuel Roy uses is H2 compounds instead of Hydrocarbons. That would be funny. Roy deconstructs H2O molecules only to create them again. But if you still want to see whether or not I’m crazy, by all means, do read on. I will still use Flame Alchemy = Nuclear Fusion for my fic. So ¯\_(ツ)_/¯

Now, it got me thinking how does Flame Alchemy actually work? And my highly convoluted train of thought started while I was writing this fic where I based Riza’s mother on Marie Curie. (Which I may expand on but now is not the time.)

I thought then, so how about Berthold? Is he Pierre? Naw, man. Who else has had his research mishandled during a war? Who else was a brilliant thinker but is also such a shitty dude to the women in his life? Yeah you guessed it. And what is one of his greatest works?

II. Mass-Energy Equivalence and Nuclear Energy

Albert Einstein’s Mass-Energy Equivalence is such a simple and very elegant equation saying that mass is interchangeable with energy. This postulate led to this branch of physics (or chemistry, whatever) called Nuclear Physics/Chemistry. Bear with me.

Did you know that when you add up the masses of an atom’s nucleons (the collective protons and neutrons) the actual mass is not equal to the calculated? Where did that mass go? As it turns out, that mass defect takes in the form of energy that holds the nucleons together. And when we substitute that missing mass on Eq. 1, we have a specific number for that binding energy.

So what do we mean by nuclear energy?

Nuclear energy is the binding energy released when a nucleon is taken out of its nucleus. And that can happen by either of two reactions: nuclear fission or nuclear fusion.

Now I didn’t think much about nuclear fission because that’s shit’s nasty. And I’m sure that Roy doesn’t have Uranium just lying about. So let’s talk about nuclear fusion. Specifically, the fusion of Hydrogen atoms:

When you fuse two Hydrogen-1 atoms it has three products: deuterium, a positron, and energy. Fuse that deuterium with another Hydrogen-1, we get Helium-3 and energy in the form of gamma radiation. Fuse two Helium-3 atoms, we get helium-4 and hydrogen and more energy. Then start the process again if you want more more energy.

So what has that got to do with Flame Alchemy?

III. Flame Alchemy? More like Nuclear Alchemy (and Other Myth Debunking)

I firmly believe that the “Flame Alchemy” we see in FMA is just the H-H fusion reaction (Eq. 2).

And like an idiot, I only did my research after I thought of all that shit and found this interpretation of Riza’s tattoo.

I don’t know how how much of the tattoo is canon, I tried looking for it in the manga and the anime is too small to see. But I see it everywhere so-- it must be canon?

But in that post, in the upper left part of Riza’s tattoo, we see the fusion reaction of deuterium. And of deuterium and tritium. To which I say, why? Those Hydrogen isotopes are rare. I mean, fine, a D-T fusion reaction gives 40 times the net energy from an H-H fusion reaction.

And, sure, Roy can create deuterium and tritium himself, but it’s just not efficient. I don’t know how alchemy works but I do know that to do that (by which I mean an H-H fusion, then a D-D fusion, then a D-T fusion) would require more energy than just stopping at the H-H fusion.

So I stand by my statement that the “Flame Alchemy” we see in FMA is just the first part of the H-H reaction (Eq. 2).

a. So how does it work as seen in the manga?

Roy would line up the atoms to where he wants the reaction to happen. And here’s the kicker, he can use other light atoms just no heavier than Iron-56.

But I think he uses Hydrogen-1 because that shit is everywhere. Again, not the heavier isotopes. So we’re sticking to that.

How do we know that that’s what’s happening and not Roy doing whatever the hell Havoc said? Because we see this:

I don’t know about you, but I think the sparks we see when someone is doing a transmutation aren’t just there because it’s cool.  

Atoms require energy in order to stay bonded as a molecule. So when alchemists transmute, they break the bonds and release that energy. In this case, the energy released is in the form of light. (I also have some thoughts about why we see red and blue sparks but, again, now is not the time.)

If Roy is just controlling the O2 molecules in the air, we shouldn’t see any sparks because there is no deconstructing happening.

Hydrogen-1 is usually present as part of the many water molecules in the air. So, I think, what we see is Roy deconstructing the H2O molecules and pulling the Hydrogen-1 atoms to where he wants them to be. The Oxygen-16 atoms bond with each other and form O2 molecules but we don’t care about them.

Unless Roy fuses Oxygen-16 instead of Hydrogen-1. In that case, we will see an even bigger release of energy. OH! Maybe that’s why he uses his left hand for smaller and more controlled explosions and the other for bigger ones. Because the gloves are different! One is for H-H fusion and the other is for O-O fusion.

Anyways. Hydrogen-1 atoms, by themselves are positively charged. So to fuse two together we have to overcome the repelling force by those same-charged atoms. To do that, they must meet either at high velocity or at high pressure. In the manga, they do the former.

Remember the sound whenever Roy does his thing? That isn’t actually caused by his snapping. After all he is wearing gloves. The sound when you snap is made by the pad of your middle finger striking your palm. If your hand is clothed, you won’t produce any sound when you snap.

No. That sound is the sonic boom of Hydrogen atoms going faster than the speed of sound. Also, I don’t think his gloves is made up of some special material. He just snaps to cover up the sound. Everything is just nuclear fusion.

b. How about those “flames” that we see, then?

That is how we perceive the energy released by the reaction. When the energy is transferred into the surroundings, it gives off heat. Not only that, but the other atoms in the air get excited (this is a technical term btw) and glow. For all intents and purposes, I guess they are flames? Just not caused by a combustion reaction.

c. But if that’s how the Flame Alchemy works, then what is up with the useless when wet schtick?

That is a misconception. Sort of.

Roy’s alchemy will still be useless in the rain because there is just too much macromolecules in the air. He can’t align the atoms properly and the Hydrogen atoms may collide with the water molecules. That would decrease speed which he maybe can take account of. But the time to calculate then recalculate for each atoms can be too long. So he just lets Riza take care of the imminent threat when it’s raining.

As for when it isn’t raining, but he’s wet… I think he can still do his Alchemy, he just doesn’t. Because in doing so, it would deconstruct all the lies Roy and Riza have built around “Flame Alchemy.” Like that fight with Lust with Havoc. He manipulated Hydrogen atoms and I think he could have just fused them. Instead he let Havoc throw his lighter. Good thing Hydrogen is flammable. And this:

This is just Roy Mustang being the drama queen that he is.

d. Why would Roy and Riza lie about the Alchemy?

They feed false information surrounding Nuclear Alchemy because there can never be another Nuclear Alchemist. They created a version of the Alchemy and make up some magic cloth that supposedly becomes useless when wet. All of that so that no one can learn the actual secret. Maybe even discourage other alchemists, seeing as “it has such a huge weakness.”

IV. But why would someone want to study such a research topic?

Now, I don’t claim to know how Berthold Hawkeye’s brain works. But have you ever looked up to the sun and think, “Woah. That big ball gives life on this piece of rock? How does that even work?” I hope you haven’t because you will hurt your eyes. Please use protective eye-gear if you’re going to look directly to the sun.

All joking aside. It all comes down to energy. The sources of energy we have today have their pros and cons. Our main source, which is burning fossil fuels, is very much harming the environment.

So we look up. The sun has millions of Hydrogen atoms that undergo nuclear fusion. And the energy from that keeps all of us 7 billion little shits alive. What if we bottle up a star?

If we could ever recreate even the smallest fraction of that reaction, we can power hundreds of cities. And with Helium to spare, which we can use to blow out the balloons for our party in celebration of the fact we can finally stop killing our planet.

If nuclear fusion is so clean, then why aren’t we using it?

Because we still don’t know how to contain and control it. Today, there are two designs of fusion reactors and there are research facilities that conduct experiments. But so far they are still developing the technology.

And get this, this is a very hard and expensive thing to do. Whatever Berthold did, it’s genius. Way ahead of his time. He’s still an ass of a father though.

To add salt to the wound, like with what happened to Flame Alchemy in FMA, governments have used this research to create weapons instead. Because why try to contain that energy and use it for technological advancement when we can let it loose on a city, right? Hah. We are such dumbfucks.

V. Summary

So in conclusion, human beings suck. Kidding! Well, not really. But yeah. So. Flame Alchemy is a nuclear fusion reaction of Hydrogen-1 atoms. And it’s very hard to control and contain that even in 2020 Primary-Earth, we haven’t figured that shit out.

It could have been used for the people if the Amestrian government actually cared about the people. And after the trauma Roy and Riza experienced in Ishval, we may only see Nuclear Alchemy in the distant future when humans are kinder – not just to the world they live in – but to other humans they are living with as well.

Thank you for coming to my TED Talk.

[metastablephysicist]

Sorry if you've talked about this before but I'm really curious to know what your is research on? :)

thank you so much for asking, I haven’t really. I'm not sure how much familiarity you have with low-energy nuclear physics, so I'm going to try to avoid jargon. let me know if I should clarify anything.

for background, atomic nuclei with different numbers of protons and neutrons have different structure. one way to imagine its structure is the nuclear shell model (akin to electron shell model, but for nucleons, aka protons/neutrons), where each individual nucleon occupies a certain orbit/shell around the center of the nucleus. nucleons are fermions, meaning that multiples cannot occupy the same state (known as the Pauli exclusion principle). so for large nuclei, there are many different occupied orbits. each orbit has a distinct energy associated with it.  

we can figure out the structure from making really energized nuclei (ie smashing things together in an accelerator), so that some nucleons have enough energy to jump up to an empty, higher-energy orbit. then these decay (lose their energy and return to their original state, the ground state), often by emitting photons. the photons (I will also call them gamma rays) that they emit have distinct energies corresponding to the change in the nucleon's orbit. we detect and measure the energy of those gamma rays and then reconstruct the energy levels/orbits.

the shell model that I mentioned above only accurately describes nuclei near stability, which means there is plenty of room for improvement. the main reason for my work--collecting data on the behavior of exotic, unstable nuclei--is to develop better models.

the nuclei that I have been working with are super interesting. stable nuclei are spherical and boring, but my nuclei are deformed and rotate!!

I'm taking giant data sets of measured gamma ray energies (from an experiment my group did last year) and running my code on them. gotta ID different nuclei in my data set, account for background noise, look at gammas that were detected in coincidence with one another, etc. eventually i can confirm the energy levels, which I use to calculate the deformation/shape and compare to current models. 

I hope I explained this well enough! I see the nucleus as the heart of all matter, and it’s so exciting to learn about it. my work is just science for science’s sake, but historically the applications of that science have been both monstrous (such as the creation and use of nuclear weapons) and mundane (like the humble smoke detector).

[moontours]

Bestieee I know we are on Tim Drake lockdown and like so fair!!💕💕 but I am once again thinking about the Implications of random shit in comics.

Specifically I wanna see a big battle with a lot of characters where somehow most or all of the heroes get heavily irradiated. Radiation in comics almost always leads to new powers and if I'm being honest that's so, so boring given what radiation actually is. Hulk was created from gamma radiation, but gamma isn't the only type, the other most relevant here being alpha and beta. I want to see how heroes who got their powers from radiation react to different kinds, because I know a couple things about nuclear science and lemme tell you: it wouldn't be new powers. You can't be immune to radiation, the particles are simply so much smaller than your organelles that your cells can't do shit against them, no mutation can do shit against them (I can suspend my disbelief for the wolverines but that's my limit.) They change you and break you apart at an atomic level. Previous exposure doesn't make you immune either. The only thing I can see working is if they have some miracle medicine that stitches your cells back into working order, and I frankly believe they have that or have the technology to develop it in the present canon (they've probably even talked about it before, I just haven't read every comic ever.) Then there's how it would effect all the other heroes, which I think is just infinitely more interesting. There's so many characters whose powers physically manifest as light that emits from their eyes, hands, and sometimes more. And, surprise! Light is radiation! With people who have different kinds of energy, stuff that could look like light but isn't, I think it could be strong enough to knock some more nucleons off, especially the electrons (that's beta radiation). Light energy is already strong enough to temporarily knock electrons into higher orbitals, who's to say that fictional magic and telekinesis doesn't physically manifest as some bigger, heavier, stronger kind of particle? I think intense full-body radiation poisoning would be way worse for a lot of magic users and telekinetics, as well as some others, who'd have to resort to conventional fighting styles in order to survive as long as everyone else. It'd really mess with their strategy and that's what I really want to see. Plus, if there's a character like Johnny Storm but fire all the way through instead of on the surface, they'd be unaffected (I wish so badly I could say Johnny would be the immune savior but I can't bestie :( ). I also wonder how Kitty Pryde's power affects her ability to be affected by radiation. It'd be a good opportunity to explore her power, along with the telekinetics because surely some of them would be able to move radiation particles away from them, avoiding harm but ultimately irradiating something else, or for someone really focused and strong they could put the individual atoms back together, but that'd be tedious, and for both there'd be a break even point where afterwards the cost of damage to others around them would undo the damage avoided. And, if the person was also irradiated, there'd be a point where they'd be more damaged by radiation than if they'd just left, and that point would come way quicker if their power manifests as something akin to light like I already said. There's different levels of energy of course, there's a reason we can be around light all the time so Thor's gonna be unaffected, but the stronger folks? I want to see how they would handle it and what they would prioritize, as well as how the overall battle strategy would change and how people who aren't telekinetic would rise to the challenge.

THIS IS SO COOL????????? if they ever decide to do another apocalyptic story (well i guess dark ages is that) they should explore it with radiation like there's so many ways it could affect different characters and their powers

[ask-lethalmon]

(@agent-morpeko) Alicia excitedly aproaches a familiar Nucleon. She smiles and waves.

"Hiya! It's been quite a bit since we've met online, isn't it. Anyways, since we're off-duty for now, we can now normally chat.

Oh! Also I haven't asked your name. I'm Alicia by the way. What's about yourself? Also, what the plans do ya have for the holiday?"

“Yo! Wasn’t expecting to see you here my digital buddy,” Gamma waves to Alicia with her own grin. “Oh guess we never traded names ha, I’m Gamma! It’s cool to actually meet you in person.”

“Didn’t have to many plans yet, still gotta scope out the place. But I figured I’d have fun as I went,” Gamma shrugged, sticking her hands in her pockets. “All I knew was there was some sort of party I could get to for cheap so here I am.”

“How bout you? Know anything fun to do?”

[zameer-fuhsh]

Antimatter and one electron universe

After the end of inflation energy that constituted the universe was converted into matter, antimatter, radiations, and of course other forms of energy.

Antimatter as the suffix 'anti' suggests is the exact opposite of a matter; Well, yes and no. yes because sub-atomic particles of antimatter have an exact opposite charge corresponding to that of subatomic particles of matter and no because they still have mass and can be perceived by senses- An electron of antimatter is called a positron, and nucleons are called anti-protons and antineutrons respectively. having a suffix 'anti' before antineutrons makes no sense because the charge is still neutral; we still can't ignore the possibility of antineutrons having a different arrangement of quarks or even constituency of different elementary particles.

Mathematically the antimatter created must've been almost equal to the amount of matter created. So where did all the antimatter go? antimatter is in fact the most expensive thing in the universe as a result of its scarcity.

When antimatter was created in particle colliders it did not exist for long durations even in something you can call a total vacuum, turns out on contact with the walls of the container of the particle collider antimatter annihilates itself releasing 511 Kilo electron-volts of energy in form of gamma rays and that's a large amount of energy, to bring it on a macro scale 1 kg of antimatter on contact with 1 kg of matter produces energy 3000 times of that released by Hiroshima Nagasaki nuclear explosion.

In my opinion, a possible explanation for antimatter existence can be understood by applying one electron universe theory to it. One electron universe says there is only one electron that moves across the fourth dimension of time, coming in contact with itself countless times, making it seem innumerable and when it travels back in the fourth dimension it magnitude or rather the charge is reversed ie: changes from negative to positive and hence Is called a positron, Similarly, an atom itself can travel back and forth in the time dimension and while it is in the 'past' or graphically negative axis it becomes antimatter and the reason for its shortage might be it coming in contact with matter and liberating energy in form of gamma radiations.

~Anas Kazi

[spaceexp]

First result from HIE-ISOLDE is doubly magic

CERN - European Organization for Nuclear Research logo. 19 December, 2018 The first result to emerge from the HIE-ISOLDE accelerator is the confirmation that the tin-132 nucleus belongs to the doubly magic group of nuclei 

Image above: The MINIBALL gamma-ray detector array at the HIE-ISOLDE accelerator (Image: Maximilien Brice/CERN). Physicists are no magicians, but ask them about how protons and neutrons are arranged in atomic nuclei and you’ll be sure to hear the term magic. Just like electrons fill up a series of onion-like shells of different energy around an atomic nucleus, protons and neutrons are each thought to occupy a series of shells within the nucleus. In this nuclear shell model, nuclei in which protons or neutrons form complete shells, without any space left for more particles, are called magic because they are more stable than their nuclear neighbours. Nuclei with complete proton and neutron shells are termed doubly magic and are exceptionally stable. In a study just published in Physical Review Letters, a team of researchers working for the MINIBALL and HIE-ISOLDE collaborations at CERN provide the first direct proof that the tin nucleus tin-132 (132Sn), which is considered to be doubly magic, does indeed merit this special status. The result is the first to emerge from the recently commissioned HIE-ISOLDE accelerator, and shows that this accelerator is a key facility to unravel the inner workings of atomic nuclei. The nucleus 132Sn has 132 nucleons – 50 protons and 82 neutrons – and is one of only 10 species, out of 3200 known nuclei, that qualify as doubly magic and act as benchmarks for testing the nuclear shell model. What’s more, in the nuclear chart, which organises all known nuclei according to their number of protons and neutrons, 132Sn is close to nuclei thought to be produced in an astrophysical process, the r-process, responsible for creating heavy elements in the cosmos. This process is not fully understood, so studying 132Sn could cast light on the origin of heavy elements in the cosmos. Previous studies that explored the doubly magic nature of 132Sn were indirect, deducing the doubly magic nature of 132Sn by studying the properties of its nuclear neighbours. In this new study, the HIE-ISOLDE/MINIBALL team examined 132Sn directly. The team took 132Sn isotopes produced by the ISOLDE facility, accelerated them in HIE-ISOLDE to an energy of 5.49 MeV per nucleon, and then focused them at a target of lead-206 (206Pb) inside the MINIBALL gamma-ray detector array. This excited the nucleons in the 132Sn nuclei to higher-energy states. These collective excitations, which have low chances of occurring, decayed with emission of gamma-ray photons, which MINIBALL detected. By analysing the number of gamma-ray photons detected, the authors measured the strengths of these excitations for the first time. From these strengths, they found more pronounced excitations in 132Sn compared to those of its nuclear neighbours. This was predicted by theory and is a crucial feature of doubly magic nuclei. It thus confirms the doubly magic nature of 132Sn. “These results were only possible due to a unique combination: ISOLDE, the prime facility for producing radioactive isotopes; the new HIE-ISOLDE accelerator, which provides the ideal energy per nucleon for this type of experiment; and MINIBALL, which can detect gamma rays from the decay of the excitations with high efficiency and superior energy resolution,” explains Peter Reiter, a member of the MINIBALL collaboration. If these results were not enough proof, the researchers also compared the observed strengths with several new state-of-the-art theoretical shell-model calculations for 132Sn, finding a remarkable agreement between the observations and all calculations. This further reinforces the conclusion that 132Sn is doubly magic. Who said physicists are not magicians? Note: CERN, the European Organization for Nuclear Research, is one of the world’s largest and most respected centres for scientific research. Its business is fundamental physics, finding out what the Universe is made of and how it works. At CERN, the world’s largest and most complex scientific instruments are used to study the basic constituents of matter — the fundamental particles. By studying what happens when these particles collide, physicists learn about the laws of Nature. The instruments used at CERN are particle accelerators and detectors. Accelerators boost beams of particles to high energies before they are made to collide with each other or with stationary targets. Detectors observe and record the results of these collisions. Founded in 1954, the CERN Laboratory sits astride the Franco–Swiss border near Geneva. It was one of Europe’s first joint ventures and now has 22 Member States. Related links: Physical Review Letters: https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.121.252501 HIE-ISOLDE: https://home.cern/news/news/experiments/hie-isolde-nuclear-physics-gets-further-energy-boost ISOLDE facility: https://home.cern/science/experiments/isolde MINIBALL: http://isolde.web.cern.ch/experiments/miniball For more information about European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), Visit: https://home.cern/ Image (mentioned), Text, Credits: CERN/Ana Lopes. Best regards, Orbiter.ch Full article

[kalifissure]

Physics dementia trigger warning 🙂

There is really only one mass unit in the universe and that's the nucleon. Which comes in two states or phases.

The first is the neutron. This is the most condensed form, the most concentrated form of matter and therefore energy. Two incredibly high frequency photons simultaneously in orbit around their own gravity/energy. A dual membraned sphere of light.*

The other is the decayed form of the neutron, the proton/electron complex. The +/- charge components of the outer photon decomposed. A proton, is a single gamma photon trapped over its own orbit. A primordial black hole. The outflow of space into the antimatter side creates the positive charge. Flows in dielectrics cause charge separation. Space is a perfect dielectric. THE perfect dielectric.

The vague and distributed electron field/orbital is the corresponding inflow from infinite space to that area to compensate for proton outflow. Which we detect as a negative charge.

For every convergence there is a divergence.

Physicists talk about the proton and electron individually , and they can be separated. As you can separate the blades of a pair of scissors. Nonetheless, the functional unit is the combined pieces. There is an orbital electron for each proton in whatever material you care to name when the charge is neutral. Carbon 14 has 8 neutrons but 6 protons and 6 electrons.

Convergence=Divergence.

Neutrons are self contained. Rotational. Singular. The double layered pearl.

Combined with gravity, this phase change from neutron, the smallest most dense form possible, to proton/electron complex, atomic hydrogen, as large as you want it to be, powers the universe. Recycling so that the universe maintains conservation.

Gravity slowly compressing the gas back into proton/electron nucleon, via stellar nuclear fusion and then via electron capture the decayed photon is "pushed", with the aid of a neutrino back into its orbital form, the neutron.

When a large cluster of neutrons, a neutron star, because of gravity themselves combine into a unity, a singularity, an event horizon, is formed.

The information, the individual swirliness, the individual vectors of each neutron pass through spacetime, making the neutrons in deep voids which then decay into dark matter creating dark energy expansion. The essential phase change. From infinitesimal to infinity. And slowly back again, and again and again.

Neutron decay cosmology.

*which we can't actually ever see as they are propagating, orbiting, 90° to us.

[arxt1]

The solar disk at high energies. (arXiv:2206.00964v1 [astro-ph.HE])

High energy cosmic rays "illuminate" the Sun and produce an image that could be observed in up to five different channels: a cosmic ray shadow (whose energy dependence has been studied by HAWC); a gamma ray flux (observed at $E\le 200$ GeV by Fermi-LAT); a muon shadow (detected by ANTARES and IceCube); a neutron flux (undetected, as there are no hadronic calorimeters in space); and a flux of high energy neutrinos. Since these signals are correlated, the ones already observed can be used to reduce the uncertainty in the still undetected ones. Here we define a simple set up that explains the Fermi-LAT and HAWC observations and implies very definite fluxes of neutrons and neutrinos from the solar disk. In particular, we provide a fit of the neutrino flux at 10 GeV-10 TeV that includes its dependence on the zenith angle and on the period of the solar cycle. This flux represents a "neutrino floor" in indirect dark matter searches. We show that in some benchmark models the current bounds on the dark matter-nucleon cross section push the solar signal below this neutrino floor.

from astro-ph.HE updates on arXiv.org https://ift.tt/UXtRPae