#Valentinian II

[theancientwayoflife]

~ Statue of Valentinian II.

Place of origin: Aphrodisias (now Geyre, Aydin).

Date: ca. A.D. 390

Medium: Marble

[ukdamo]

Today's Flickr photo with the most hits: the emperor Valentinian II (end of 4th CE). Photo taken in the archaeological museum, Istanbul.

[sforzesco]

the way the valentinian and theodosian dynasties intermarried gives me a headache, so we'll just (hand waving) the marriage of licinia eudoxia and valentinian iii, also some normal ribbing between theodosius ii and valentinian iii

can you believe that we got another set of co-emperors with the theodosius-valentinian name set after the absolute disaster of the first pair? incredible!

[caesarsaladinn]

I have not been #tzimiskesmaxxing of late

[attila-werther]

oh valentinian ii.....look at what they did to you.........

[blueiscoool]

1,700-Year-Old Roman Gold Coin Hoard Found in Luxembourg

"Secret" excavations in Luxembourg reveal 141 Roman gold coins from eight Roman emperors and one usurper.

Archaeologists in Luxembourg have discovered a lavish 1,700-year-old hoard of Roman gold coins that had been placed near the foundations of a small, tower-like Roman fort.

The team unearthed 141 gold coins, which were minted between A.D. 364 and 408, in Holzthum, a village in northern Luxembourg. The coins feature portraits of eight emperors, but three coins portrayed an unexpected ruler: Eugenius, an illegitimate emperor of the Western Roman Empire who reigned for only two years (392 to 394).

This usurper, Eugenius, a rhetoric teacher and court official, was proclaimed emperor of the West by a powerful military officer, months after the western emperor Valentinian II was found hanged under mysterious circumstances. However, Theodosius I, the Christian emperor in the East, refused to recognize Eugenius and disapproved of his supposed policy of religious tolerance. This led to armed conflict and culminated in Eugenius' bloody defeat and death at the Battle of Frigidus in September 394. His coins are especially rare because his time in power was so short.

"This is a major archaeological discovery, as it is extremely rare to be able to study an entire ancient monetary deposit in its archaeological context," researchers wrote in a translated statement from the National Institute for Archaeological Research (INRA) in Luxembourg.

Because of its historical significance, the find was kept secret for almost four years, with excavations under the direction of INRA taking place from 2020 to 2024. The team also faced hazardous conditions, as there were multiple World War II munitions and explosives buried in the area, prompting the Luxembourg Army Mine Action Service (SEDAL) to help with the dig.

The gold coins are solidi, a term that comes from the Latin "solidus," meaning "solid" — a reference to their consistently reliable gold content. The coins, each of which weighs approximately 0.16 ounce (4.5 grams), were introduced at the beginning of the fourth century during the era of the "Later Roman Empire." The solidus remained relatively stable for centuries and spread throughout the entire Mediterranean region.

Following an independent analysis, which considered the "excellent condition" of the coins and "the presence of some rare specimens," the coins were valued at 308,600 euros, or nearly $322,000. In accordance with the legal provisions on cultural heritage, this sum is reserved for those who have legal rights, such as property holders, over the find.

"It will still take some time to process the excavations and finds," Luxembourg Culture Minister Eric Thill said in a translated parliamentary statement, "but it will undoubtedly increase our knowledge and understanding of the last century of the Roman Empire in the West."

The researchers plan to analyze the hoard further and eventually publish the results in a research journal.

By Marjanko Pilekić.

[theodosiana]

Upon the decease of Valentinian, six days after his death the army in Italy proclaimed his son Valentinian, then a young child, emperor, at Acincum, a city of Italy. When this was announced to the other two emperors, they were displeased, not because the brother of the one and the nephew of the other had been declared emperor, but because the military presumed to proclaim him without consulting them, whom they themselves wished to have proclaimed.

Soc. 4.31

so valentinian ii was four years old, and ngl, I’d be annoyed as hell too lmao

(we’re doing a little bit of hollywood casting (so to speak) with the designs for the moment, it was subleyras’ painting of saint basil celebrating mass that caught my attention first, and while it vexes me, it also occupies my thoughts 24/7)

[desillutionbitch]

Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna, 5th century.

Theodosius's daughter, Galla Placidia, is forcibly married to the successor of the Visigoth king Alaric who dies quickly. She was returned to her brother Honorius who married her by force in 416 with a of his generals who dies. From there, she joins Arcadius in Constantinople to escape Honorius who wants to marry her by force. She returns to Ravenna to ensure the regency of her son, the future Valentinian III. She is behind the construction of several buildings in Ravenna.

This mausoleum is near the basilica of the Holy Cross, where the relic of Saint Laurent remains, making the mausoleum an ad sanctos burial. But there is no certainty that Galla Placidia rests there.

The structure of the mausoleum is designed in the shape of a cross, with a high drum supporting a central dome. Pediments are created on the arms of the cross, with one branch being slightly longer than the others.

The interior decorations are extremely rich, featuring precious marble paneling and mosaic decorations on a blue background. The windows are obstructed by alabaster panels that diffuse a golden light inside the structure.

Winged animals represents the evangelists and decorative elements includes rosettes, scrolls, and deer drinking from water sources. The lunette portrays Christ with youthful features, wearing a gold mantle and a purple laticlave (a broad stripe indicating senatorial rank). The good shepherd representation is an archaic iconography that dates back to the 3rd century, often accompanying the deceased.

In front of the representation of the Christ is the depiction of saints with iconography summarizing episodes from their lives, featuring cabinets with four books symbolizing the Gospels. Iron grilles with a brazier symbolize Saint Lawrence, who is dressed in white, holding scriptures, and leaning on a jeweled cross.

Saint Lawrence's History : A 3rd-century deacon of Pope Sixtus II, who was persecuted along with the pope and other deacons but not initially arrested. Saint Lawrence was eventually arrested and condemned to the torture of the gridiron when he refused to hand over the Church's treasures. The depiction of Saint Lawrence’s story in three stages, rather than a singular scene of martyrdom.

[kchasm]

Ryu Number: Pope Leo I, Pope Honorius II, and Pope Martin V

i've been busy uuhhhhhh have some popes (roman catholic)

Pope Leo I is the only pope to actually appear on-map in the game (as far as I remember), as well as the only pope to be explicitly identified. He appears at the end of Attila's campaign, where he meets with Attila and then Attila mysteriously decides to stop wrecking Italy. In real life, nobody actually really knows what the bunch sent by Roman Emperor Valentinian III (of which Leo I was a member) actually got across to Attila to get him to put his thing on pause, but a lot of stories like to credit the whole thing to Leo I 'cause post hoc ergo propter hoc, I guess.

Pope Honorius II is the pope in the The Hautevilles campaign that calls a crusade against Roger II of Sicily after the latter took over his dead first cousin once removed's stuff in Italy after said first cousin once removed died. The game makes it seem like Honorius II disliked it because Roger II had a policy of relative religious coexistence, but it was probably more political than that. Honorius II said that Mr. Cousin had left the lands to the Holy See and not to Rog, for one. Honorius II eventually recognized Roger II's claim in exchange for some concessions which Roger II more or less instantly ignored.

Finally, Pope Martin V is the pope in the The Grand Dukes of the West campaign who rules that Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut never actually got divorced from John IV, Duke of Brabant, even if her divorce had been locally recognized and also she'd gotten married to Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (brother of King Henry V of England) after. For Various Reasons, this put a crimp in Jackie's political career.

[bethanythebogwitch]

Origins of legendary Pokemon: Gen III

I am doing a series of posts exploring the real-life inspirations for various Pokémon. Previously I have covered all fish Pokémon, all other aquatic Pokémon, and all starters. Currently I am working through all legendary and mythical Pokémon. It has been a few months since I last updated this series but I’m back now. Today I’m covering gen III. For previous posts see gen I and gen II.

Starting off with the legendary golems, I decided I’ll cover the gen III and gen XIII golems together. All of them are based on, well, golems. In Jewish folklore, a golem is a creature made of inanimate material that has been magically animated. The most famous story about golems, and the one that most modern depictions draw from is the golem of Prague. Dating back to the 16th century, the story goes that Rabbi Loew (a real person) built the golem out of clay and animated it by inserting a clay tablet inscribed with the name of God (a shem) into its mouth. The golem protected the Prague ghetto from pogroms. Every Friday, the Rabbi took the shem out of the golem’s mouth to deactivate it for the sabbath. Eventually the golem went on a violent rampage for reasons that vary depending on who tells the story. Sometimes the Rabbi forgot to take the shem out before the sabbath, other times the golem fell in love and was rejected. Either way, the rabbi eventually managed to pull the shem out, causing the golem to fall apart. The pieces were then stored in the attic of the synagogue, where it can be revived if ever needed again. The attic does exist, but is closed to the public. The idea that golems are animated through certain words either held in the mouth or inscribed on the forehead is common. In some stories (including some variants of the Prague story), the word used is “emét” (אמת) meaning “truth” and the golem can be deactivated by removing the final letter, changing the word to “mét” (מת) meaning “dead”. All of the regis are golems made from some mind of inanimate material: stone for Regirock, ice for Regice, metal for Registeel, electricity for Regieleki, and crystallized dragon energy for Regidrago. Like golems, they needed to be made by an already exiting being, in this case Regigigas. The unique sequence of dots on each regi represents the word carved on a golem’s head to bring it to life. Each regi also represents a historical time period. Regirock represents the stone age, Regice the ice age, Registeel the iron age, and Regieleki the moderm or electric age. Regidrago is harder to pin down since the only dragon age is a series of video games. It could represent the middle ages, with medieval Europe having plenty of dragon legends, or maybe a more general age of myths.

(Image: a statue of the golem of Prague, found in Prague. It is a brownish, mostly-featureless humanoid with several cracks on its body held together by rivets. End ID)

The eon duo are weird. They’re dragons with elements of birds and airplanes (the latter more visible in their mega evolutions). The biggest hint to what they’re supposed to represent might come from both being the eon Pokémon and explicitly brothers and sisters. Eon could just indicate they’ve been around for eons, but it also could come from aeon, a concept in Gnosticism. Gnosticism was a group of early Christian sects that were  very different from modern Christianity and are pretty much extinct now. In Gnostocism, aeons were divine beings that were emanations from the true God. You can think of the as the Gnostic version of angels except they’re more like less perfect derivations of God who can in turn make their own even less pure derivations and so on. It’s weird and complicated. In one of the most popular Gnostic sects, Valentinianism, aeons come in complementary male/female pairs called syzygies.

This is one of the simpler diagrams of how the aeons and syzygies are related to each other. Yeah. (Image: a diagram of the relations between aeons in Valentinianism, consisting of pairs of spheres connected with lines. Sourced from Histoire critique du Gnosticisme by Jacques Matter)

Latias and Latios being male and female counterparts could make them a syzygy of two (a)eons. They might also draw from the Chinese concept of yin and yang, opposing but complimentary forces. Yin is usually associated with femininity and passivity and fits Latias while yang is masculine and more passionate, fitting Latias. The pair’s ability to levitate and bird-like feathers may draw from the martlet, a legendary bird with no legs that spends its entire life flying. Martlets are often depicted with tufts in place of legs like the two tufts that the latis have. Finally, the name of the latis comes from the latin “lateō” which means “I conceal” or “I am hidden”, which fits both the two using illusions to stay hidden.

(Image: a heraldic depiction of a martlet, shown as the silhouette of a bird with two tufts where the legs should be. End ID)

The big names of gen III are of course the super-ancient weather trio of Groudon, Kyogre, and Rayquaza. They each represent one of the “spheres” of Earth. Groudon represents the lithosphere, the outer layer of rock that makes up the planet’s crust. Kyogre represents the hydrosphere, all of the planet’s water in solid, liquid, and gas forms. Finally, Rayquaza represents the atmosphere, the gasses that are trapped on the planet by its gravity. As mythical beasts representing the land, sea, and sky, the trio draw from a trio of creatures in Jewish mythology that were passed down to Christianity and Islam. These creatures are behemoth, leviathan, and ziz, who were primordial beasts that dwelled in and represented land, sea, and sky. Of the three, behemoth and leviathan get most of the representation while ziz remains fairly obscure. This is likely because they are both described in the old testament/Tanakh’s Book of Job as part of what is essentially God spending several passages bragging about how powerful he is and saying therefore he can be as much of an asshole as he likes. Behemoth is a grass-eating swamp-dweller likely inspired by a hippo or elephant while leviathan is a scaly, armored carnivore that (once you strip away all the fantastical elements) was probably inspired by a crocodile. Ziz is usually depicted as a colossal bird or griffon. Behemoth and leviathan are often depicted as mortal enemies who will kill each other in a battle at the end of time, fitting with Groudon and Kyogre being enemies that nearly destroyed the world with their battle.

(Image: a depiction of behemoth, leviathan, and ziz. Behemoth is shown as a red bull. Leviathan is depicted as a brown fish. Ziz is situated above the other two and resembles a griffon with no front legs. End ID. Sourced from the Ambrosiana Bible)

The designs of the three Pokemon draw from animals or mythical creatures who live in their associated biome. The lines covering them may also draw from the Nazca lines of Peru, though only Kyogre has a direct counterpart in the lines with the whale geoglyph.

(Image: the whale Nacza line, seen from above. it is a geoglyph in the form of a whale, drawn in a line lighter than the surrounding desert. End ID)

Kyogre is based on an orca. It’s fitting that the Pokémon who created the ocean is based on the ocean’s most badass animal. Leviathan is usually depicted as a sea serpent nowadays, but it has historically been depicted as a fish or whale (and a lot of ancient cultures didn’t realize that whales aren’t fish). Groudon is based on outdated depictions of theropod dinosaurs that had them standing upright and dragging their tails on the ground like Godzilla. The spikes on its side and tail may come from dinosaurs like Ankylosaurus. It also visually resembles molten or superheated rock (moreso in its primal reversion), a reference to volcanoes and their role in raising islands out of the ocean. Rayquaza is based off of the serpentine, wingless eastern dragons while it having front legs but no hind legs comes from the European lindworm dragons (though lindworms being strictly serpentine dragons with only front legs is a more recent thing). Asian dragons often had power over weather, which Rayquaza has with its ability to negate all weather conditions. it being specifically a dragon that lives in the upper atmosphere and occasionally comes down to earth might come from the draconid meteor shower, which itself is named after the constellation Draco. Oh, and to keep the ancient Judaism origins going, Rayquaza’s name might come from the Hebrew word “rāqī́aʿ”which means “firmament”. The firmament is a giant crystal dome that covers the earth and makes up the sky, found in many different mythologies including ancient Judaism.

Moving over to the mythicals we have this generation’s Mew clone: Jirachi. It being associated with a certain comet and having the ability to grant wishes is a big shout-out to the idea of wishing on a star. Its head is shaped like a star and shooting stars (the ones you usually wish on) are actually meteors. Many meteors are composed of iron, likely why Jirachi is steel-type. Jirachi is also based on Tanabata, a Japanese festival based on mythology and astrology where two deities, represented by the stars Vega and Altair, are only allowed to meet once a year. During Tanabata, people will write wishes on pieces of paper called tanzaku and hang them on bamboo or trees. Three tanzaku are present on Jirachi’s head.

(image: a branch with a paper chain and multiple tanzaku on it. The Tanzaku are multicolored, rectangular strips of paper with Japanese writing on them. End ID)

The connection to Tanabata is more explicit in the anime, where the movie featuring Jirachi has a festival celebrating the return of the comet that awakens Jirachi every thousand years. Lots of comets have very elliptical orbits that only bring them to the inner solar system once every several decades or even centuries. While comets are usually depicted with one tail, they actually have two, generated by the sun’s heat and solar wind. One tail is formed from dust while the other is formed from gas. The two streamer or tail like things coming from Jirachi’s back probably represents the two tails of a comet.

(Image: Comet Hale-Bopp, showing the large, white dust tail and the smaller, blue gas tail. End ID)

Deoxys is the first mythical to be un-mythicaled when it showed up in ORAS as a normally-catchable mon in the postgame. Shame they didn’t keep that up. Anyway, Deoxys is an alien, specifically a virus that mutated while falling into Earth’s atmosphere. The idea of a virus or alien falling from the sky is common in science fiction. Think The Andromeda Strain (book and movie, not the shitty miniseries) or The Blob, or if you want a Japanese example, Space Amoeba. Deoxys is also heavily associated with DNA. Its name comes from the full name of DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid and its tentacles in normal form take the same double helix shape that DNA strands do. Its original 3 forms also come DNA: defense, normal, and attack. Speed form messed this up when it came out. I would have called it rapid form so at least it can reference RNA. The x-shaped silhouette of Deoxys also looks like a chromosome. Deoxys also draws from the idea of mutation, which is the result of changes in the structure of DNA. It is a mutated virus and it can mutate itself into specialized forms. The crystal in its chest (which in the movie continuity is the real Deoxys, with the body being an extension of the crystal) probably comes from the sci-fi trope of silicon-based alien life.  Silicon is the next element down from Carbon on the periodic table and also has 4 valence electrons, leading to speculation that alien life could use silicon as a basis instead of carbon. Silicon-based aliens are often depicted as living crystals.

(Image: a drawing of a cell, zoomed in to show a chromosome, zoomed in to show a DNA strand. The cell is a blue blob, the chromosomes are blue, globular, and shaped like the letter x. The DNA is two blue strands arranged in a double helix structure connected by small rods. End ID. Source).

[alsadeekalsadouk]

Coin was minted to commemorate Licinia Eudoxia, wife of Valentinian III (Emperor of the Roman West) and daughter of Theodosius II (Emperor of the Roman East), was named Augusta (empress). This is a rare coin because it has a woman represented twice: on the front as a bust and on the reverse (photo) as enthroned holding orb and scepter--a visual prototype for the enthroned Virgin Mary.

Obverse: frontal, bust portrait of Licinia Eudoxia, radiate crown, pearl necklace; legend: LICINIA EVD – OXIA P F AVG

Reverse: Licinia Eudoxia enthroned, holding orb and scepter; legend: SALVS RE – I PVBLICA, in field, R – V. In exergue, COMOB

#archaeology #history #ancient #art #archaeologist #Theodosius_II #travel #archaeological #Valentinian_III #italy #museum #Licinia_Eudoxia #heritage #byzantinetoman#arthistory #archaeologylife #culture #commemorate #medallion #photography #Solidus #byzantinecoin #byzantinearcheology #byzantinecoins #الصديق_الصدوق

[corporialus]

Egyptian Gods on Christian Era Roman Coins

Constantius II, festival of Isis issue, struck 352-355 Obverse depicts diademed bust of Constantius facing right. Reverse depicts Anubis, standing left, holding caduceus and sistrum.

The festival of Isis coins are some of the most fascinating pieces struck by Rome in my opinion, especially when taking into consideration that these coins depicting Egyptian deities were still struck under notoriously Christian emperors.

Festival of Isis bronze, 4th century Obverse depicts bust of Isis facing right, wearing hem-hem crown. Reverse depicts Harpocrates standing left and holding a cornucopia

The festival itself was held to commemorate the arrival of the ship of Isis that departed from Alexandria and arrived in Rome on March 5th. The last known emperor depicted on a festival of Isis issue is Valentinian II, and the festival would stop being held in the city of Rome around 416.

Festival of Isis medallion, Valentinian I, 364-375 Obverse depicts diademed bust of Valentinian I facing right. Reverse depicts Isis, holding sistrum and scepter, riding on Sothis.

Crispus, Festival of Isis issue, 316-326 Obverse depicts bust of Crispus facing right. Reverse depicts Isis Pharia on galley, standing to left, head facing right, holding sistrum.

Festival of Isis bronze, 4th century. Obverse depicts bust of Sol-Serapis facing right. Reverse depicts winged sphinx advancing right.

[sforzesco]

I was reading a footnote to Themistius' Brotherly Love Oration and ended up doing a quick painting of Seleucus II Callinicus while looking all these people up

⭐ places I’m at! bsky / pixiv / pillowfort /cohost / cara.app / tip jar!

[palecleverdoll]

Wives and Daughters of Roman Emperors: Ages at First Marriage

I have only included women whose birth dates and dates of marriage are known within at least 1-2 years, therefore, this is not a comprehensive list.

Livia, wife of Augustus; age 16 when she married Tiberius Claudius Nero in 43 BC

Claudia, wife of Augustus; age 14/15 when she married Augustus in 42 BC

Julia the Elder, daughter of Augustus; age 14 when she married Marcellus in 25 BC

Julia the Younger, daughter of Julia the Elder; age 14 when she married Lucius Aemilius Paullus in 5 BC

Livilla, wife of Gaius Caesar (and later Drusus the Younger); age 12 when she married Gaius Caesar in 1 BC

Agrippina the Elder, daughter of Julia the Elder; age 19 when she married Germanicus in 5 AD

Aemilia Lepida, daughter of Julia the Younger; age 18 when she married Marcus Junius Silanus Torquatus in 13 AD

Julia Livia, wife of Nero Caesar; age 16 when she married Nero in 23 AD

Agrippina the Younger, daughter Agrippina the Elder; age 13 when she married Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus in 28 AD

Julia Livia, daughter of Agrippina the Elder; age 15 when she married Marcus Vinicius in 33 AD

Junia Claudilla, wife of Caligula; age 15 when she married Caligula in 33 AD

Julia Drusilla, daughter of Agripinna the Elder; age 17 when she married Lucius Cassius Longinus in 33 AD

Claudia Antonia, daughter of Claudius; age 13 when she married Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus in 43 AD

Poppaea Sabina, wife of Nero; age 14 when she married Rufrius Crispinus in 44 AD

Claudia Octavia, daughter of Claudius; age 13 when she married Nero in 53 AD

Vibia Sabrina, wife of Hadrian; age 17 when she married Hadrian in 100 AD

Faustina the Younger, wife of Marcus Aurelius; age 14 when she married Marcus in 145 AD

Lucilla, wife of Lucius Verus; age 14-16 when she married Lucius in 164 AD

Bruttia Crispina, wife of Commodus; age 14 when she married Commodus in 178 AD

Vibia Aurelia Sabina, daughter of Marcus Aurelius; age 10 when she married Antistius Burrus in 180 AD

Julia Domna, wife of Septimius Severus; age 17 when she married Septimius in 187 AD

Antonia Gordiana, daughter of Gordian I; age 13 when she married an unnamed senator in 214 AD

Annia Faustina, wife of Elagabalus; age 15 when she married Pomponius Bassus in 216 AD

Sallustia Orbiana, wife of Severus Alexander; age 16 when she married Severus in 225 AD

Tranquillina, wife of Gordian III; age 16 when she married Gordian in 241 AD

Galeria Valeria, daughter of Diocletian; age 27 when she married Galerius in 293 AD

Fausta, daughter of Maximian; age 18 when she married Constantine I in 307 AD

Justina, wife of Magnetius (and later Valentinian I); age 10 when she married Magnetius in 350 AD

Constantia, daughter of Constantius II; age 12 when she married Gratian in 374 AD

The average age at first marriage among these women was 15.

[attila-werther]

looking at the theodosian and valentinian dynasties gives me a headache. why is your family tree like this

[brookstonalmanac]

Events 7.2

437 – Emperor Valentinian III begins his reign over the Western Roman Empire. His mother Galla Placidia ends her regency, but continues to exercise political influence at the court in Rome. 626 – Li Shimin, the future Emperor Taizong of Tang, ambushes and kills his rival brothers Li Yuanji and Li Jiancheng in the Xuanwu Gate Incident. 706 – In China, Emperor Zhongzong of Tang inters the bodies of relatives in the Qianling Mausoleum, located on Mount Liang outside Chang'an. 866 – Battle of Brissarthe: The Franks led by Robert the Strong are defeated by a joint Breton-Viking army. 936 – King Henry the Fowler dies in his royal palace in Memleben. He is succeeded by his son Otto I, who becomes the ruler of East Francia. 963 – The Byzantine army proclaims Nikephoros II Phokas Emperor of the Romans on the plains outside Cappadocian Caesarea. 1298 – The Battle of Göllheim is fought between Albert I of Habsburg and Adolf of Nassau-Weilburg. 1494 – The Treaty of Tordesillas is ratified by Spain. 1504 – Bogdan III the One-Eyed becomes Voivode of Moldavia. 1555 – Ottoman Admiral Turgut Reis sacks the Italian city of Paola. 1561 – Menas, emperor of Ethiopia, defeats a revolt in Emfraz. 1582 – Battle of Yamazaki: Toyotomi Hideyoshi defeats Akechi Mitsuhide. 1613 – The first English expedition (from Virginia) against Acadia led by Samuel Argall takes place. 1644 – English Civil War: Battle of Marston Moor. 1645 – Battle of Alford: Wars of the Three Kingdoms. 1698 – Thomas Savery patents the first steam engine. 1723 – Bach's Magnificat is first performed. 1776 – American Revolution: The Continental Congress adopts a resolution severing ties with the Kingdom of Great Britain although the wording of the formal Declaration of Independence is not adopted until July 4. 1816 – The French frigate Méduse strikes the Bank of Arguin and 151 people on board have to be evacuated on an improvised raft, a case immortalised by Géricault's painting The Raft of the Medusa. 1822 – Thirty-five slaves, including Denmark Vesey, are hanged in South Carolina after being accused of organizing a slave rebellion. 1823 – Bahia Independence Day: The end of Portuguese rule in Brazil, with the final defeat of the Portuguese crown loyalists in the province of Bahia. 1839 – Twenty miles off the coast of Cuba, 53 kidnapped Africans led by Joseph Cinqué mutiny and take over the slave ship Amistad. 1840 – A Ms  7.4 earthquake strikes present-day Turkey and Armenia; combined with the effects of an eruption on Mount Ararat, kills 10,000 people. 1853 – The Russian Army crosses the Prut river into the Danubian Principalities (Moldavia and Wallachia), providing the spark that will set off the Crimean War. 1864 – Dimitri Atanasescu founds the first Romanian school in the Balkans for the Aromanians in Trnovo, in the Ottoman Empire (now in North Macedonia). 1871 – Victor Emmanuel II of Italy enters Rome after having conquered it from the Papal States. 1881 – Charles J. Guiteau shoots and fatally wounds U.S. President James A. Garfield (who will die of complications from his wounds on September 19). 1890 – The U.S. Congress passes the Sherman Antitrust Act. 1897 – British-Italian engineer Guglielmo Marconi obtains a patent for radio in London. 1900 – An airship designed and constructed by Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin of Germany made its first flight on Lake Constance near Friedrichshafen. 1900 – Jean Sibelius' Finlandia receives its première performance in Helsinki with the Helsinki Philharmonic Society conducted by Robert Kajanus. 1921 – World War I: U.S. President Warren G. Harding signs the Knox–Porter Resolution formally ending the war between the United States and Germany. 1934 – The Night of the Long Knives ends with the death of Ernst Röhm. 1937 – Amelia Earhart and navigator Fred Noonan are last heard from over the Pacific Ocean while attempting to make the first equatorial round-the-world flight. 1940 – Indian independence leader Subhas Chandra Bose is arrested and detained in Calcutta. 1940 – The SS Arandora Star is sunk by U-47 in the North Atlantic with the loss of over 800 lives, mostly civilians. 1962 – The first Walmart store, then known as Wal-Mart, opens for business in Rogers, Arkansas. 1964 – Civil rights movement: U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act of 1964 meant to prohibit segregation in public places. 1966 – France conducts its first nuclear weapon test in the Pacific, on Moruroa Atoll. 1976 – End of South Vietnam; Communist North Vietnam annexes the former South Vietnam to form the unified Socialist Republic of Vietnam. 1986 – Rodrigo Rojas and Carmen Gloria Quintana are burnt alive during a street demonstration against the dictatorship of General Augusto Pinochet in Chile. 1986 – Aeroflot Flight 2306 crashes while attempting an emergency landing at Syktyvkar Airport in Syktyvkar, in present-day Komi Republic, Russia, killing 54 people. 1988 – Marcel Lefebvre and the four bishops he consecrated were excommunicated by the Holy See. 1990 – In the 1990 Mecca tunnel tragedy, 1,400 Muslim pilgrims are suffocated to death and trampled upon in a pedestrian tunnel leading to the holy city of Mecca. 1994 – USAir Flight 1016 crashes near Charlotte Douglas International Airport, killing 37 of the 57 people on board. 1997 – The Bank of Thailand floats the baht, triggering the Asian financial crisis. 2000 – Vicente Fox Quesada is elected the first President of México from an opposition party, the Partido Acción Nacional, after more than 70 years of continuous rule by the Partido Revolucionario Institucional. 2001 – The AbioCor self-contained artificial heart is first implanted. 2002 – Steve Fossett becomes the first person to fly solo around the world nonstop in a balloon. 2005 – The Live 8 benefit concerts takes place in the G8 states and in South Africa. More than 1,000 musicians perform and are broadcast on 182 television networks and 2,000 radio networks. 2008 – Colombian conflict: Íngrid Betancourt, a member of the Chamber of Representatives of Colombia, is released from captivity after being held for six and a half years by FARC. 2010 – The South Kivu tank truck explosion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo kills at least 230 people. 2013 – The International Astronomical Union names Pluto's fourth and fifth moons, Kerberos and Styx. 2013 – A magnitude 6.1 earthquake strikes Aceh, Indonesia, killing at least 42 people and injuring 420 others.