#More Fossil Fragments

[red-wolf-youtube]

Dinosaur Zoo Tycoon - More Fossil Fragments

[bestanimal]

Round 3 - Reptilia - Galliformes

(Sources - 1, 2, 3, 4)

Our next order of birds are the ancient Galliformes, known collectively as “landfowl”. The order contains five families: Megapodiidae (megapodes), Cracidae (“curassows”, “guans”, and “chachalacas”), Odontophoridae (“New World quails”), Numididae (“guineafowl”), and Phasianidae (“pheasants”, “grouse”, “partridges”, “junglefowl”, “turkeys”, “Old World quail”, and “peafowl”).

Many gallinaceous species have rounded bodies and blunt wings. They are typically skilled runners and escape predators by running rather than flying, only using their wings to fly up to trees to roost or escape a predator when cornered. Galliforms are anisodactyl, with three toes that point forward and one that points backward, and some of the adult males also grow spurs that point backwards, which they use for fighting. They are usually omnivorous, feeding on fruits, seeds, leaves, shoots, flowers, tubers, roots, insects, snails, worms, lizards, snakes, small rodents, and eggs, depending on species. Galliforms are mainly nonmigratory. They can be found worldwide in a variety of habitats, including forests, deserts, and grasslands.

Galliforms have diverse mating strategies: some are monogamous, while others are polygamous or polygynandrous. Males of many galliform species are more colorful than the females, with often elaborate courtship behaviors that include strutting, fluffing of tail or head feathers, and vocal sounds. They breed seasonally in accordance with the climate and lay 3 to 16 eggs per year in nests built on the ground or in trees. Females usually brood the eggs, except for the megapodes.

Fossils of galliform-like birds originate in the Late Cretaceous. These ancestors of the galliformes were a niche group of dinosaurs that were toothless and ground-dwelling. When the asteroid impact killed off all non-avian dinosaurs, as well as the dominant birds, Enantiornithes, the ancestors of galliformes were small and lived in the ground which protected them from the blast and ensuing destruction, becoming the new dominant birds along with waterfowl. Modern galliformes originated in the Eocene, around 55 million years ago.

Propaganda under the cut:

The megapodes are unique among birds for their nesting behavior. Instead of sitting on their eggs, they build large mounds of decaying plant matter over them. The male will attend the mound, adding or removing litter to regulate the internal heat while the eggs develop. The Maleo (Macrocephalon maleo) (image 2) is most known for burying its eggs in a hole in the sand, allowing the eggs to be incubated by geothermal or solar energy heating up the sand. They leave the eggs once they are laid, and never return. Megapode chicks are the most precocial of all birds, digging their way out of the nest or ground with their powerful claws. They hatch fully feathered and active, already able to fly and live independently from their parents.

The Australian Brushturkey (Alectura lathami) is the largest living megapode. It is sometimes considered a pest, as it may take mulch for its nest or rake up gardens searching for food. However, it is fully protected in Queensland and New South Wales, and harming one of the unique birds can result in a fine of up to 3000 penalty units ($483,900), or two years imprisonment.

The endangered Horned Guan (Oreophasis derbianus) looks like this:

(source)

The critically endangered Blue-billed Curassow (Crax alberti) once used to range all across Northern Colombia, but is now reduced to small, fragmented populations, with the only known viable population existing in the Serranía de las Quinchas area in the Magdalena Valley. Its population is estimated to be fewer than 1,500 mature individuals. They are threatened due to habit loss, occurring from widespread use of herbicides by the Colombian government. Forests have also been cleared for agriculture, livestock, oil extraction, and mining. Around 98% to 99% of Blue-billed Curassow habitat has been lost. The birds are also hunted, and studied populations are not estimated to survive another 100 years if hunting continued. Thankfully, some reserves have been created and captive breeding has been successful. Now time will tell if the Blue-billed Curassow can be saved.

The iconic California Quail (Callipepla californica) (image 4) was selected as the state bird of California in 1931. They are highly social birds, gathering in small flocks known as "coveys". One of their daily communal activities is dust bathing.

One of the most well-known quails in North America, recognized by their characteristic whistling call, is the Northern Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus). The Northern Bobwhite is considered near threatened, and their populations have declined by around 85% since 1966. One subspecies, the Masked Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus ridgwayi), is endangered, and have been extirpated from Arizona twice. The decline is mainly due to changes in how land is managed. Northern Bobwhites depend on early successional habitat, that requires fire or some other disturbance to be revitalized. These habitats have the forbs, legumes and insects that bobwhite need for food and the heavy or brushy cover for nesting, brooding and safety. To help reverse bobwhite declines, NRCS (Natural Resources Conservation Service) is working with private landowners to manage their land for high-quality habitat in grasslands and pine savannas.

The Helmeted Guineafowl (Numida meleagris) was domesticated in Western Africa, and there is evidence that Domestic Guineafowl were present in Greece by the 5th century BC. The birds are kept for meat and eggs, but today are mostly kept for pest control, as they are avid eaters of ticks, wasps, and other insects. They are also kept as guard animals with other livestock, as they give a loud, shrill warning call when predators are seen. Feral populations descended from domestic flocks are now widely distributed and occur in the West Indies, North America, Australia, and Europe.

Unusually for galliforms, the Crested Partridge (Rollulus rouloul) will feed its young bill-to-bill, rather than teach it to peck at the ground, and both parents engage in this feeding behavior.

The Tragopans are also known as “horned pheasants”, due to the male’s courtship display in which he will inflate large, vividly colored horns on his head and a lappet on his chest.

The Himalayan Monal (Lophophorus impejanus) is the national bird of Nepal, and the males are one of the most colorful birds in the world, covered in patches of iridescent blue, purple, green, and red.

The Willow Ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus) is the state bird of Alaska and has gained recent internet notoriety for its “awebo” call. They are known for changing color from brown to white in the Winter, and have remained relatively unchanged since the Pleistocene.

The largest galliform is the Wild Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) which may weigh as much as 14 kg (30.5 lb) and may exceed 120 cm (47 in).

The Western Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) is a large grouse species, and is extremely sexually dimorphic, with males being nearly twice the size of females. Males are known for their combative behavior during the breeding season, even challenging and chasing off humans who enter their territory.

The critically endangered Edwards's Pheasant (Lophura edwardsi) may be extinct in the wild. The pheasants declined due to deforestation and hunting, but a major blow to their population was the use of defoliant herbicides used during the Vietnam War. The herbicides were sprayed by the United States to deprive the Vietnam soldiers of food crops and/or hiding cover. They also deprived the pheasants of food and shelter. There have been no confirmed sightings of a living individual in the wild since 2000. In 2018, a photograph of a dead female Edwards's Pheasant was taken near Phong Điền Nature Reserve, providing evidence that the pheasants may persist in the wild on the reserve. Thankfully, the pheasants breed readily in human care, and assurance populations are being prepared for release back into the wild.

The Domestic Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) was domesticated in Southeast Asia around 8,000 years ago, from the Red Junglefowl (Gallus gallus). They are kept for meat, eggs, as pets, and for cockfighting. Their domestication has led to them being the most widespread and successful birds in the world, with a total population of 26.5 Billion as of 2023, and an annual production of more than 50 Billion birds.

The smallest galliform is the King Quail (Synoicus chinensis), which is around 12.7cm (5in) long and weighs 28–40 g (1–1.4 oz).

[blueiscoool]

Mammoth Tusk Discovered in Mississippi

Scientists in Mississippi announced a major fossil discovery in the state!

According to the Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality (MDEQ), the agency’s Mississippi State Geological Survey scientists received a message about a the discovery made by Eddie Templeton, an avid artifact and fossil collector. Templeton was exploring in rural Madison County earlier this month when he stumbled upon what appeared to be a portion of an ice-age elephant tusk exposed in a steep embankment.

Mississippi was home to three Proboscideans during the last ice age: Mastodon, Gomphothere, and the Columbian mammoth. All three possessed ivory tusks.

Officials said Mastodons are the most common Proboscidean finds in Mississippi. Mammoths, which were related to modern elephants, are far less common finds in Mississippi.

When Templeton and the State Survey paleontological team arrived to the fossil site, they found the fossil tusk in amazing condition and was only partially exposed just above the water under a bluff in the alluvium of a small drainage. It was suspected based on the strong curvature of the massive tusk that they were dealing with a Columbian mammoth and not that of the more common mastodon. Officials said this would be the first of its kind for the area.

The team was able to carefully remove the clayey sand from around the tusk to expose the seven-foot long fossil. The tusk had been deposited entirely intact. MDEQ officials said most fossil tusk ivory found around the state are just fragments and most are likely to be attributable to the more common mastodon.

The fossil was taken to the Mississippi Museum of Natural Science in Jackson for further curation and careful study. It was confirmed by a museum paleontologist as belonging to a mammoth.

Officials said the discovery offers a rare window into the Columbian mammoths that once roamed Madison County along the Jackson Prairie of central Mississippi. Columbian mammoths were much larger than the infamous woolly mammoth that roamed the colder, more northern regions of North America. They grew up to 15 feet at the shoulder and could weigh more than 10 tons.

[inspofromancientworld]

Spinning Plant and Animal Fibers

By Brooklyn Museum - Spindle without Whorl, whole or Spindle with Cotton Yarn, Fragment. Brooklyn Museum. Retrieved on 2019-11-04.Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) license, CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=83653957

The beginning of twisting fibers from plants or animal coats is difficult to date because they don't fossilize, so we have to rely on trace evidence, such as imprints in mud that did fossilize. We have these of string-like skirts from the Upper Paleolithic that date to about 20,000 years ago. Recent discoveries, though, show that Neanderthals spun cording as well.

Photo of Neanderthal cord from Abri du Maras. M-H. Moncel

The evidence from the Neanderthals was actual fibers that were preserved in a cave in southern France. The fragment was 6mm long and was three bundles of twisted tree fibers twisted together. The most likely usage of the fiber was to be wrapped around a handle of some type or as part of a net bag. This implies many areas of knowledge held by Neanderthals to make the cording including the growth patterns of the trees the fibers came from, spinning, and spinning the resultant thread into a stronger yarn. 'In order to get this fiber, you have to strop the outer bark off a tree to scrape off the innter bark. This is best done in the spring or early summer,' according to Bruce Hardy, co-author of the study of these fibers and professor of anthropology at Kenyon College in Gambler, Ohio.

This spinning was most likely done against the thigh, twisting the fibers as the hand rolls it down the thigh, pinching them, and then bringing them back to the top of the thigh to be twisted more. The product was likely wound around a stick or stone.

By Rama - Own work, CC BY-SA 2.0 fr, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=49227927

The next step was to spin onto the stick, or spindle, directly, then to create a split or hook in the top of the stick to hold the twisted part on the stick. Exactly when this happened, we don't know, as there are, as yet, no direct remains of this process. What we do have evidence of improved technology is small bone and later metal hooks that replaced the slit or hook cut into wood as well as weights made of stone, wood, metal, clay, or later metal that went on the end of the sticks to keep them spinning longer called spinning whorl. These have been found as early as the Neolithic. The combination of these technological improvements is called the drop spindle and we have artwork depicting spinning from many cultures.

By © Marie-Lan Nguyen / Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2596494

The other item needed to make spinning easier is an item called a distaff, which would hold a prepared bundle of fibers is loosely wrapped onto, which freed the hand that would have previously held the fiber and allowed a larger quantity of fiber to be held at one time. The distaff could be tucked under the arm or into a loop or holder in a belt. Again, since this didn't fossilize, we don't know when it was developed, though it does appear in Bronze Age artwork.

If you're interested in learning to spin, local independent yarn stores are a good place to start. Other places to look are reenactment guilds, fiber craft guilds, or online for spinning classes. The benefit of guilds is in-person help learning and the benefit of companionship and experience.

[pkmnprofloblolly]

Hello! Trainer from Alola here, big fan of your work. I was wondering; is there any evidence of any legendary pokemon being related to other pokemon? For example, does Rayquaza share any DNA with other dragon pokemon? (I know it would be extremely difficult to get any rayquaza DNA fhshfjd) Or are pokemon like that entirely their own species?

the answer is, as with many things on this blog.. it depends!

"legendary pokemon" aren't really a cohesive category like, say, a type or a taxonomic group. the only common factors are that they tend to be very rare and that they have legends about them. as our examples, let's use two groups of hoenn legendary pokemon: latios and latias, and groudon, kyogre, and rayquaza.

latios and latias (like other pairs such as nidoqueen and nidoking, or volbeat and illumise, latios and latias are sexually dimorphic members of the same species) are indeed related to other pokemon- they're birds! specifically, they're in the auk family, which are a group of generally stout, seafaring birds like guillemots and puffins. this may seem strange- the latis appear to have wings and arms, and no legs, very unlike birds. however, if we take a look at their skeleton, the connection becomes much more obvious:

what we generally interpret as arms are actually the lati's legs, the thighs of which are obscured by flesh and feathers. while they use their wings to steer and for some lift, the latis generally stay aloft with their psychic powers rather than traditional flight, which is why they can hover in place. this has freed up their legs for use in manipulating objects, and they are rarely seen standing on their feet. because they mostly rely on hovering, their legs no longer have the strength to hold their large bodies up for very long.

these pokemon are indeed exceptionally rare, having very low population numbers in only a few regions, and spending most of their time over open ocean. like many pelagic seabirds, they breed on only a few small islands, like alto mare off the johto region and southern island off hoenn's south coast. their populations are on the upswing, though, in large part due to concentrated conservation efforts on those islands. point being, though, they are indeed just animals. rare, powerful animals, but animals nonetheless.

many legendary pokemon fall into this camp. articuno, zapdos, and moltres, lugia and ho-oh, heatran, and various others.

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conversely, the so-called weather trio of hoenn: groudon, kyogre, and rayquaza. these three are even more rarely seen than the latis, only having been sighted in recent times during their clash in hoenn nearly two decades ago. despite the three's resemblance to other living pokemon, as far as we know they are entirely unrelated to any known animals, or even any other life on earth.

this is known because evidence of these pokemon have been found dating back over 3 billion years ago, that is to say over a billion years before multicellular life even existed. gigantic fragments of footprints attributed to groudon have been sighted alongside some of the earliest fossils we know of of early bacteria. modern physical samples from these pokemon- the extremely few that have ever been recovered- have never resulted in any dna evidence, and appear in structure much more similar to inorganic matter.

as it stands, it appears these pokemon arose some time early (relatively speaking) after the earth formed, being (as opposed to natural living organisms) animate representations of the forces of nature themselves. a similar condition is often assumed for some other grandiose legendary pokemon, such as dialga and palkia, though much less tangible evidence exists for their presence in prehistoric time, so this is mostly an assumption based on their infrequent appearances & legends surrounding their origins.

[neovenatorgirlteeth]

DINOVEMBER 3/13: Sinosaurus triassicus

WE'RE GONNA DO IT FOLKS I'M GONNA DO IT I AM GOING TO COMPLETE THIS CHALLENGE ¡4 DAYS REMAIN! Tbh I've had this drawing sat in my drafts for probably 2 weeks at this point, I've been struggling with no.4 and with the description for this one. She's in colour this time, not because of any premeditated choice but because there wasn't enough contrast between the feathered and nonfeathered parts of the animal.

Anyhoo, Sinosaurus is a theropod from Yunnan province, China that lived roughly 200Ma ago. It's very similar to the North-american Dilophosaurus, being roughly the same size and build, with a pair of head crests that have a distinctive V shape when viewed from the front. Although it's been named since 1940, it was only really properly understood when Specimen KMV8701 was unearthed in the 1980s; this fossil was originally referred to as Dilophosaurus sinensis until it was linked to the jaw fragments of the holotype and reassigned to Sinosaurus.

I'm featuring this animal because another important step has been taken towards understanding it's biology this year: specimen ZLJ0057, another more complete Sinosaurus triassicus found in recent years, has been modelled and analysed in depth by Liang, Falkingham and Xing to help understand it's biomechanics. It was found that Sinosaurus weighed in at almost 850kg, heavier than previously thought, and that it was a strong runner that used both its arms and jaws together to capture prey. These kinds of studies can be a slog to put together, but they form the base on which the rest of palaeontology is built.

[alphynix]

Crystal Palace Field Trip Part 2: Walking With Victorian Dinosaurs

[Previously: the Permian and the Triassic]

The next part of the Crystal Palace Dinosaur trail depicts the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. Most of the featured animals here are actually marine reptiles, but a few dinosaur species do make an appearance towards the end of this section.

Although there are supposed to be three Jurassic ichthyosaur statues here, only the big Temnodontosaurus platyodon could really be seen at the time of my visit. The two smaller Ichthyosaurus communis and Leptonectes tenuirostris were almost entirely hidden by the dense plant growth on the island.

Ichthyosaurs when fully visible vs currently obscured Left side image by Nick Richards (CC BY SA 2.0)

Head, flipper, and tail details of the Temnodontosaurus. A second ichthyosaur is just barely visible in the background.

Ichthyosaurs were already known from some very complete and well-preserved fossils in the 1850s, so a lot of the anatomy here still holds up fairly well even 170 years later. They even have an attempt at a tail fin despite no impressions of such a structure having been discovered yet! Some details are still noticeably wrong compared to modern knowledge, though, such as the unusual amount of shrinkwrapping on the sclerotic rings of the eyes and the bones of the flippers.

———

Arranged around the ichthyosaur, three different Jurassic plesiosaurs are also represented – “Plesiosaurus” macrocephalus with the especially sinuous neck on the left, Plesiosaurus dolichodeirus in the middle, and Thalassiodracon hawkinsi on the right.

They're all depicted here as amphibious and rather seal-like, hauling out onto the shore in the same manner as the ichthyosaurs. While good efforts for the time, we now know these animals were actually fully aquatic, that they had a lot more soft tissue bulking out their bodies, and that their necks were much less flexible.

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The recently-installed new pivot bridge is also visible here behind some of the marine reptiles.

———

Positioned to the left of the other marine reptiles, this partly-obscured pair of croc-like animals are teleosaurs (Teleosaurus cadomensis), a group of Jurassic semi-aquatic marine crocodylomorphs.

A better view of the two teleosaurs by MrsEllacott (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Crystal Palace statues have the general proportions right, with long thin gharial-like snouts and fairly small limbs. But some things like the shape of the back of the head and the pattern of armored scutes are wrong, which is odd considering that those details were already well-known in the 1850s.

———

Finally we reach the first actual dinosaur, and one of the most iconic statues in the park: the Jurassic Megalosaurus!

Megalosaurus bucklandi was the very first non-avian dinosaur known to science, discovered in the 1820s almost twenty years before the term "dinosaur" was even coined.

At a time when only fragments of the full skeleton were known, and before any evidence of bipedalism had been found, the Crystal Palace rendition of Megalosaurus is a bulky quadrupedal reptile with a humped back and upright bear-like limbs. It's a surprisingly progressive interpretation for the period, giving the impression of an active mammal-like predator.

This statue suffered extensive damage to its snout in 2020, which was repaired a year later with a fiberglass "prosthesis".

———

Reaching the Cretaceous period now, we find Hylaeosaurus (and one of the upcoming Iguanodon peeking in from the side).

Hylaeosaurus armatus was the first known ankylosaur, although much like the other dinosaurs here its life appearance was very poorly understood in the early days of paleontology. Considering how weird ankylosaurs would later turn out to be, the Crystal Palace depiction is a pretty good guess, showing a large heavy iguana-like quadruped with hoof-like claws and armored spiky scaly skin.

It's positioned facing away from viewers, so its face isn't very visible – but due to the head needing to be replaced with a fiberglass replica some years ago, the original can now be seen (and touched!) up close near the start of the trail.

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Two pterosaurs (or "pterodactyles" according to the park signs) were also supposed to be just beyond the Hylaeosaurus, but plant growth had completely blocked any view of them.

Although these two statues are supposed to represent a Cretaceous species now known as Cimoliopterus cuvieri, they were probably actually modeled based on the much better known Jurassic-aged Pterodactylus antiquus.

A second set of pterosaur sculptures once stood near the teleosaurs, also based on Pterodactylus but supposed to represent a Jurassic species now known as Dolicorhamphus bucklandii. These statues went missing in the 1930s, and were eventually replaced with new fiberglass replicas in the early 2000s… only to be destroyed by vandalism just a few years later.

(The surviving pair near the Hylaeosaurus are apparently in a bit of disrepair these days, too, with the right one currently missing most of its jaws.)

Image by Ben Sutherland (CC BY 2.0)

The Crystal Palace pterosaurs weren't especially accurate even for the time, with heads much too small, swan-like necks, and bird-like wings that don't attach the membranes to the hindlimbs. Hair-like fuzz had been observed in pterosaur fossils in the 1830s, but these depictions are covered in large overlapping diamond-shaped scales due to Richard Owen's opinion that they should be scaly because they were reptiles.

But some details still hold up – the individual with folded wings is in a quadrupedal pose quite similar to modern interpretations, and the bird-like features give an overall impression of something more active and alert than the later barely-able-to-fly sluggish reptilian pterosaur depictions that would become common by the mid-20th century.

(Much like the statues themselves, the "modern" reconstruction above is based on Pterodactylus rather than Cimoliopterus)

———

The last actual dinosaurs on this dinosaur trail are the two Cretaceous Iguanodon sculptures. At the time of my visit they weren't easy to make out behind the overgrown trees, and only the back end of the standing individual was clearly visible.

Named only a year after Megalosaurus, Iguanodon was the second dinosaur ever discovered, and early reconstructions depicted it as a giant iguana-like lizard.

The Crystal Palace statues depict large bulky animals, one in an upright mammal-like stance and another reclining with one hand raised up. (This hand is usually resting on a cycad trunk, but that element appeared to be either missing or fallen over when I was there.)

Famously a New Year's dinner party was held in the body of the standing Iguanodon during its construction, although the accounts of how many people could actually fit inside it at once are probably slightly exaggerated.

A clearer view by Jim Linwood (CC BY 2.0)

Considering that the skull of Iguanodon wasn't actually known at the time of these sculpture's creation, the head shape with a beak at the front of the jaws is actually an excellent guess. The only major issue was the nose horn, which was an understandable mistake when something as strange as a giant thumb spike had never been seen in any known animal before.

(The fossils the Crystal Palace statues are based on are actually now classified as Mantellisaurus atherfieldensis, but the "modern" reconstruction above depicts the chunkier Iguanodon bernissartensis.)

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Image by Doyle of London (CC BY-SA 4.0)

I also wasn't able to spot the Cretaceous mosasaur on the other side of the island due to heavy foliage obscuring the view.

Depicting Mosasaurus hoffmannii, this model consists of only the front half of the animal lurking at the water's edge. It's unclear whether this partial reconstruction is due to uncertainty about the full appearance, or just a result of money and time running out during its creation.

The head is boxier than modern depictions, and the scales are too large, but the monitor-lizard like features and paddle-shaped flippers are still pretty close to our current understanding of these marine reptiles. It even apparently has the correct palatal teeth!

Next time: the final Cenozoic section!

[geologyin-blog]

While some rocks consist of a single mineral, most are combinations of several minerals. Additionally, rocks can include organic materials, such as fossils or plant fragments, further enhancing their diversity and complexity.

[whencyclopedia]

Homo Habilis

Homo habilis ("handy man") is an extinct species of human that lived in East and South Africa between 2.3 and 1.5 million years ago and plays an interesting role in the discussion surrounding the dawn of our genus of Homo, which is thought to have first appeared around 2.5 million years ago.

Homo habilis was often seen as one of the earliest members of our genus and, for a long time, was commonly depicted as the ancestor of Homo erectus (thus, being a direct ancestor of our own species, too). Nowadays, this is debated, and a much more complex picture of the early days of Homo has emerged. Much discussion remains about the place of Homo habilis within this picture.

The fragmentary fossil record when it comes to Homo habilis (and many other species around at this early time) does not help; though we have a collection of skulls and skull fragments, only three so-called postcranial (below the skull) skeletons have been unearthed, and they are incomplete. The remains showcase a mishmash of features that in some parts resemble Homo, and in others resemble those found in Australopithecus.

What we do know is that Homo habilis was both fully bipedal, as well as a good and probably frequent climber, with strong hands that fashioned stone tools belonging to the Oldowan industry.

Discovery

Homo habilis was first described in 1964 by the British-Kenyan palaeoanthropologist Louis Leakey and his colleagues in a paper that rocked the scientific community. Along with his wife, Mary, Leakey had been combing Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania since the early 1950s in search of traces of Homo's first steps and had already discovered early stone tools belonging to what he termed the Oldowan industry. In the early 1960s, their son Jonathan found several skull and lower jaw fragments, along with some hand bones, in the same fossil bed that had yielded the tools. Soon, more remains were uncovered, including an adult foot, a skull with both upper and lower jaw, and a very fragmented skull with teeth.

Their verdict was that the new remains were quite 'modern' in appearance: they appeared closer to the genus Homo than to that of other early hominins like the Australopithecines. Clearly, this was a good fit for their toolmaker, they argued. Following the definition of Homo that was generally accepted at that time, the team felt the new fossils successfully met three of the key criteria: this species had an upright posture, could walk in a bipedal manner, and had the necessary dexterity to create stone tools. However, the fact that its brain volume was smaller than that of established members of Homo at the time required some fidgeting: the team thus proposed relaxing this criterion a bit.

Leakey's 1964 paper argued for the new species to be added to the genus Homo in the shape of Homo habilis – from the Latin for "handy, skilful, able". The announcement marked a turning point in palaeoanthropology, as Bernard Wood describes: "It shifted the search for the first humans from Asia to Africa and began a controversy that endures to this day." (2014).

Although the Homo habilis taxon was officially validated by the scientific community, it has frequently been challenged and criticised – a battle that is ongoing.

Continue reading...

[yolk-the-joke]

i finally did a design of twisted shelly that i like yippee! also heads up bones, body horror, blood, and rot not drawn the best but it's implied below the readmore

so, i spinned a wheel to see who to work on next and shelly got picked. the dealo of endless is that gardenview got distorted and corrupted by an ichor creature the only one who didnt get twisted is dandy and shrimpo. the corruption made gardenview center into a whole world with fragments of garden view mixed with like minecarft inspired biomes. there's dungens for all the twisted toon and the mains twisted are not the only one with more fucked up form, and they each have their own fighting mechanism. shelly's dungen location is in a badlands, the enemeies are based on fossils, bones and dinosaurs. shrimpo must defat her and take her to dandy so he can use ichor to mend her wounds and go back to her og form. i'll design her after everything later.

[arminreindl]

A size comparisson of the infamous Quinkana fortirostrum, the terrestrial mekosuchine of Pleistocene Australia.

Quinkana is an....interesting animal. A lot remains unknown about it due to the fact that we only have skull material that is properly assigned to the genus, but some hip bones from the Oligocene Riversleigh indicate that at least one mekosuchine had erect-limbs, something that best fits Quinkana.

The size is also something that is fraught with missconceptions. Sometimes people will cite lengths of 6 to 7 meters, but those are not well supported. True enough, a jaw fragment of a croc that size has been assigned to Quinkana in the 90s, but it was never described beyond a conference abstract and a brief mention in Molnar's "Dragon's in the Dust". Given the mess Mekosuchinae was at the time and how much we learned since, I doubt the assignment and by extension "mega Quinkana" (personally I would not be surprised if said fossil turned out to be Paludirex) and went with the much more concrete estimates centered around the holotype skull, which indicates an animal no more than three meters long.

Finally, with the silhouette I mostly tried to accomodate the published estimates with the actual skull size, while going with limbs that are adapted better to moving on land without being too overly lanky (after all it is still a crocodilian). I ended up pulling a lot from Cuban Crocodiles, but as I mentioned the lack of proper fossils means that this is ultimately just one possible interpretation.

I've recently written a major expansion of Quinkana's wikipedia page, which should reflect our current state of knowledge on this fascinating crocodile.

[saritapaleo]

Archovember 2024 Day 25 - Pteranodon longiceps

As one of the main species to make up the mythical “Pterodactyl” conglomerate, Pteranodon longiceps is possibly the most familiar pterosaur to the public. However, most people don’t know much about the real animal behind the pop culture monster. Living in the Late Cretaceous USA, Pteranodon is also the most well-known pterosaur to science, as over 1,200 specimens have been found! It was the first pterosaur found outside of Europe, the first toothless pterosaur found, and, before the discovery of the giant azhdarchids, was also the largest pterosaur known. Pteranodon is also one of the few prehistoric animals with confirmed sexual dimorphism, and it’s a bit extreme to boot! The larger male Pteranodons had huge pointed crests and an average wingspan of 5.6 m (18 ft), while the smaller female Pteranodons had small, rounded crests, wider pelvic canals, and an average wingspan of 3.8 m (12 ft).

Pteranodon lived around the Western Interior Seaway, a massive sea that split North America in two during the Late Cretaceous into the Early Paleocene. With wings shaped like modern day albatrosses, Pteranodons were likely gliders who relied on thermals, but did seem to be more capable of sustained flapping. As one would expect, their diet was made up mostly of fish, though they may have eaten invertebrates as well. With their more heavy build, they could probably dive into the water like modern day gannets, folding up their wings and plunging beneath the waves, snatching up fish with their pointed, birdlike beaks. Pteranodon crests were most likely for display, as there was variation between not only males and females, but also individual males. As females were twice as common as males, they were probably polygynous, with males competing for the mating rights in rookeries of females. Competition was likely not physical, and instead would depend on females determining the age and fitness of males based on the size of their crest.

Pteranodon has been found in both the Niobrara Formation and the younger Pierre Shale Formation. Some possible fragments from the Mooreville Formation and Merchantville Formation also exist. While Pteranodon was much more common, it would have lived alongside, and possibly competed with, the fork-crested pterosaur Nyctosaurus and the toothed seabird Ichthyornis. It is probable that Pteranodon lived in offshore rookeries, raising their flaplings far from land-based predators, as most fossils are found far from what would have been the Interior Seaway’s coastline. Under the waves, Pteranodon would have hunted a variety of fish, ammonites, and squid. It would have come across sea turtles such as Toxochelys, plesiosaurs such as Styxosaurus, and flightless birds like Parahesperornis. It would have had to look out for mosasaurs like Tylosaurus and sharks like Cretoxyrhina. Aside from birds, most Pteranodons would rarely come across dinosaurs. Their main exposure to dinosaurs would be corpses, like that of the hadrosaur Claosaurus, being swept out to sea.

This art may be used for educational purposes, with credit, but please contact me first for permission before using my art. I would like to know where and how it is being used. If you don’t have something to add that was not already addressed in this caption, please do not repost this art. Thank you!

[bestanimal]

Round 2.5 - Cnidaria - Hexacorallia

(Sources - 1, 2, 3, 4)

The anthozoan class Hexacorallia contains five extant (living) orders: Actiniaria (“sea anemones”), Antipatharia (“black corals” or “thorn corals”), Corallimorpharia (“false corals”), Scleractinia (“stony corals” or “hard corals”), and Zoantharia (“zoanthids”). This class contains many of the most important reef builders: the stony corals, sea anemones, and zoanthids.

Like all anthozoans, these organisms are formed of individual soft polyps which in some species live in colonies and can secrete a calcite skeleton. Some species live as solitary polyps. Hexacorals are distinguished from Octocorals by having six or fewer axes of symmetry in their body structure, and tentacles which are simple and unbranched and normally number more than eight. Reef-building or hermatypic corals are mostly colonial, building a communal skeleton around their colony. Corallimorphs are similar to the stony corals, except for the stony skeleton, and have a tendency to overgrow reefs in a carpet formation. Most sea anemones are solitary, single polyps attached to a hard surface by their base but some species float near the surface, or can deatach to escape predators.

Hexacorals are filter-feeding carnivores, using their tentacles armed with stinging cells, called cnidocytes, to catch and neutralize plankton and draw it into their mouth. Larger polyps are able to take correspondingly larger prey, including various invertebrates and even fish. Many species have separate sexes, the whole colony being either male or female, but others are hermaphroditic, with individual polyps having both male and female gonads. Most species release gametes into the sea where fertilisation takes place, and the planula larvae drift as plankton, but a few species brood their eggs. Once the larvae settle in an area, they will metamorphize into a polyp. In colonial species, this initial polyp will repeatedly divide to give rise to an entire colony. Hexacorals can also reproduce by fragmentation, where part of a colony becomes detached and reattaches elsewhere, cloning polyps to grow the colony in the new area.

Hexacorals have existed since the Fortunian. Mackenzia, from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of Canada, is the oldest fossil identified as a sea anemone. Nonetheless, many hexacorals have been declining in numbers and are expected to continue declining due to poaching, ocean acidification and climate change.

Propaganda under the cut:

Hexacorals provide housing, shelter, food, and protection for so many other animals. They are The Givers of the Animal Kingdom.

The largest coral ever recorded, a Pavona clavus colony dubbed the “mega coral” lives off the Solomon Islands. It is 34m (112 ft )wide, 32m (105 ft) long and 4.9m (16 ft) high, larger than a Blue Whale, composed of nearly one billion polyps, and more than 300 years old!

Coral is loud. It can hear and it communicates with each other via sound. We’re only beginning to discover this information and understand the implications of it, and more research needs to be done, but the amount of noise-making humans do in the ocean tends to disrupt the communication corals have with each other and other reef life.

Black Corals have historically been used by Pacific Islanders for medical treatment and in rituals, and are used in modern day for making jewelry.

Sea anemones and zoanthids are popular in the aquarium trade, however, their popularity threatens some populations as the trade depends on collection from the wild.

In southwestern Spain and Sardinia, the Snakelocks Anemone (Anemonia viridis) is consumed as a delicacy. The whole animal is marinated in vinegar, then coated in a batter similar to that used to make calamari, and deep-fried in olive oil.

Most sea anemones are harmless to humans, but a few highly toxic species (notably Actinodendron arboreum, Phyllodiscus semoni and Stichodactyla spp.) have caused severe injuries and are potentially lethal.

Clownfish and Anemonefish (Subfamily Amphiprioninae) are most famous for having a mutualistic relationship with sea anemones, receiving protection from predators by hiding in the anemone's stinging tentacles, and providing the anemone nutrients in the form of faeces. Some other animals have been recorded utilizing sea anemones in a similar way, including cardinalfish, juvenile threespot dascyllus, incognito (or anemone) gobies, juvenile painted greenlings, various crabs (such as Inachus phalangium, Mithraculus cinctimanus and Neopetrolisthes), shrimp (such as certain Alpheus, Lebbeus, Periclimenes and Thor), opossum shrimp (such as Heteromysis and Leptomysis), and various marine snails. One of the more unusual relationships are those between certain anemones (such as Adamsia, Calliactis and Neoaiptasia) and hermit crabs or snails, where the anemones live on the shell of the hermit crab or snail, providing protection from predators while being provided with transportation. Another unusual relationship is between Bundeopsis or Triactis anemones and Lybia boxing crabs, where the small anemones are actually carried around in the claws of the boxing crab as little weapons.

Look at this anemone eating an entire Mola:

(source)

[blueiscoool]

Complete Mastodon Jaw Fossil Found in New York

The homeowner initially found two teeth hidden by a plant on the property, and after digging just a few inches underneath that, two more teeth were found.

A historic (or perhaps more accurately, prehistoric) discovery was made just under the surface of a New York homeowner’s lawn.

A complete mastodon jaw was found in the backyard of a home in the Orange County town of Scotchtown, according to state officials. The jaw, along with additional bone fragments, was recovered by researchers from the New York State Museum and SUNY Orange, the state Education Department said in a press release Tuesday.

It was the first find of its kind in New York in more than 11 years, the officials said.

The mastodon jaw, which was believed to be from an adult, was unearthed by researchers after the homeowner spotted it coming out from his lawn. The homeowner initially found two teeth hidden by a plant on the property, and after digging just a few inches underneath that, two more teeth were found.

“When I found the teeth and examined them in my hands, I knew they were something special and decided to call in the experts,” the homeowner said.

Staff from the museum and university led excavation efforts after that, and uncovered the well-preserved jaw of the mastodon — an ancient relative of modern elephants. A piece of a toe bone and a rib fragment were found as well, officials said.

“While the jaw is the star of the show, the additional toe and rib fragments offer valuable context and the potential for additional research,” said Dr. Cory Harris, Chair of SUNY Orange’s Behavioral Sciences Department. “We are also hoping to further explore the immediate area to see if there are any additional bones that were preserved.”

The fossils will undergo carbon dating and analysis in order to determine just how long ago the mammal was roaming the area, what the diet consisted of, and details of its habitat, according to officials, who noted that the discovery will be featured in public programming starting in 2025.

“This discovery is a testament to the rich paleontological history of New York and the ongoing efforts to understand its past,” said Dr. Robert Feranec, director of Research & Collections and curator of Ice Age Animals at the New York State Museum. “This mastodon jaw provides a unique opportunity to study the ecology of this magnificent species, which will enhance our understanding of the Ice Age ecosystems from this region.”

About 150 mastodon fossils have been found to date across New York, about a third of which found in Orange County.

[paleoforest]

Various Udanoceratops

I started drawing 'em on October 30. I had to draw something Halloween, and found this dinosaur. This early ceratopsian is a giant leptoceratopsid. Its large jaws fragments strikes imagination - skull looks like Jack O Lantern in flesh

These folks are striped with bright heads because they're huge and conspicuous. The feather coat from sparse bristles has been transformed into a mane along the spine because it looks much more authentic and even realistic. The rest of shagginess - on jaw and paws - is the transition form between the scales and (proto)feather. Many have a lower beak down the chin - this depicted not only in reconstructions, but I also noticed it in fossils of P. hellenikorhinus. It plays role of a lips and even beard (just like upper), and having a light color adds volume and old age at the same time.

For experiment i drew em in frontal. There is no picture/diagram on Internet where fossils can be viewed from other angles except profile. Anyway, I gave everyone binocular vision, because that’s basic thing for (small) Neoceratopsia. I use some 3D references and Protoceratops anatomy.

I drew these Udanoceratops earlier, and here they have slight frills that aren't wider than jugal/zygomatic/cheek horns.

[barghest-land]

Hello! I have an advice question if you have the time and inclination. I would like to draw better extinct animals and I am wondering if you have any advice for putting meat on old bones. I know I need to do anatomical studies, and I'm familiar with all yesterdays/not shrinkwrapping. However, when faced with a fossil, I don't know where to start. I've tried looking up papers where they model the muscles, but those are usually 1 leg, or a jaw, so not particularly helpful for illustration. What's your thought process? Your illustrations look so real. I know part of that is your lovely handling of light and shadow, but the animals have real heft to them.

hiii!! ahh i'm probably not the best person to ask tbh, sorry. but i'll try to help as much as i can and explain how i do things:

i still don't feel confident enough in my paleoart. i came to paleoart from "art" part, not from "paleo", so if we talk about science, i know very little. i'm still trying to learn myself and do studies whenever i can, so i can't really explain things in a scientific way. however, there are some things that are helping me to learn: i have a good knowledge of anatomy in general, so if you study extant animals and how their anatomy and muscles work, it helps to draw those who are extinct. it's a really good base, and a lot of references you can work on! and while you're working on those, you can also study light and shadow, that helps to understand the shapes as well. if you want to be more confident in paleo, i think it's easier to start with an extinct animal that is well known, has muscle 3D models, good skeletal drawings, etc. it will help you more than looking on a jaw fragment and not knowing what to do with it (trust me i've been there). also, when it comes to paleo, and especially soft tissue, a lot of it is speculation. for most of the species info about it isn't known at all, so you can do something fun with it! having fun with speculation might be scary (i know it well i'm still scared lol), because you don't know what you can draw, will it be wrong or not, but the answer is - we don't know how most animals looked like, so the fear of making a mistake goes away with practicing and allowing yourself to speculate here and there. for example: if you know how to draw a well studied pterosaur, and later want to draw their relative that is known by only the fragment, you'll be more confident to do so, because you'll know their base features already. so when there's some animal known from a tiny piece of a bone and not much is known, i think the safest way is to look at their closest relatives that are more studied. that definitely doesn't hurt, especially with new described species that don't even have any reconstructions yet. long story short (from the artistic point of view since i don't have another): study living animals, gain confidence drawing well studied extinct ones (you'll have more references there and it's less confusing for a start!), and most importantly have fun! <3 ah and also, there are places where you can get a feedback on your drawings from paleo people. i ask for it often, especially when i'm drawing something far from my comfort zone. i'm learning a lot from my mistakes and it feels good tbh:)