#Mathematics in medieval Islam

[ikrutt]

Do you have any cultural/historical influences you draw on when worldbuilding?

This is a great question, and I'm afraid I can't point towards anything too specific. There are two main reasons for this:

The worldbuilding for Kalandakar exist mainly so I can do humorous drawings that reflect my own experiences with, for example, academia. Albeit in a roundabout and cartoony manner.

I wish for the concepts to be broad strokes and not inspired too closely by any one historical epoch or event. Mostly because I don't trust myself to write historical analogues with the nuance and sensetivity this deserves.

The backdrop of the Jar-Lorego storyline deals with topics such as classism, social inequality, colonialism and the clash of cultures at different levels of technological advancement. I haven't touched too closely upon this, but one of my goals is to write the meeting between stand-ins for indeginous cultures and colonial powers that doesn't result in assimilation or genocide.

My main goal, however, is still to develop these characters and their world, and just... see what happens.

Fadesi science and technology in the region is approximately at the level of Medieval Islam. I.e. Ma-Vireva would have access to steel, hydraulics and indoor plumbing, paper and bookbinding, sophisticated mathematics, navigation and astronomy, as well as a fledgling medical field with herbal drugs and rudimentary surgery. As of yet, there is no germ theory, steam power, electricity or firearms.

To kick of the storyline (Adreas being dumped in the desert), I have drawn inspiration from African trypanosomiasis throughout history. As well as the "white spot" phenomenon on 19th century maps.

See, unbeknownst to Adreas, there is a mysterious disease preventing the Fadesi from advancing into the Jar-Lorego, one which doesn't seem to affect the other two sophonts. After several research missions fail horribly (i.e. everyone dies), they send a Tenel and a Moskuan as a last ditch effort and/or for shits and giggles.

Regardless of the outcome, the university considers this a a win-win; either they'll be rid of the thorn in their side that is Adreas, or they'll have more information on the vast and unexplored desert. That is until Adreas starts putting together the pieces of the greater circumstances, and realize he can utilize this against the Fadesi to benefit Tenel and Moskuan society.

[quiltofstars]

Four large craters on the Moon // Wilco Kasteleijn

From top to bottom left: Arzachel, Alphonsus, Ptolemaeus, and Albategnius.

Arzachel crater is named after the Arabic instrument maker Abū Isḥāq Ibrāhīm ibn Yaḥyā al-Naqqāsh al-Zarqālī al-Tujibi (1029 - 1100). His Latinized name was Arzachel, meaning "the engraver." He wrote books about constructing instruments for calculating the positions of the planets.

Alphonsus crater is named after King Alfonso X of Castile (1221-1284). He was sometimes nicknamed the Astrologer for the creation of the Alfonsine tables used to compute the position of the planets.

Ptolemaeus crater is named after the Greek philosopher Claudius Ptolemy (c. 100 - 170). Among his many accomplishments is the Almagest, the earliest surviving complete book on ancient astronomy. It also provided mathematical "proof" for the geocentric nature of the universe.

Albategnius crater is named after Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Jābir ibn Sinān al-Raqqī al-Ḥarrānī aṣ-Ṣābiʾ al-Battānī (bef. 858 - 928), one of the greatest and most famous astronomers of the medieval Islamic world. It was the accuracy of his data that later led Nicolaus Copernicus to consider a heliocentric model of the universe.

[soular-sisters]

The Origins Of Horoscopes 🔮

as an astrologer who has been mesmerized by the cosmos for 10 years, i have come to have an honest disagreeance for horoscopes. although those whimsical columns are what naturally gravitated me to the world of astrology, it is a shame that horoscopes are what seems to come to the average person's mind when they think of the zodiac. it is our personal belief that the fantastical nature of horoscopes overshadow the beauty of astrology. but this made us wonder.... where did horoscopes come from? continue on to learn about, the origins of horoscopes.

Ancient Times

🔮 The Silk Roads: The earliest evidence of horoscopes date back to the 3rd millennium BCE in Mesopotamia.

🔮 Astrology was adopted on the trading routes of The Silk Roads during the Tang Dynasty (705-907 CE).

🔮 Along these trading routes, traders would sell horoscopes as a service to different regions such as Central Asia, the Iranian Plateau, & China.

🔮 China became very fond of horoscopes during this time & adopted them into the framework of Chinese astrology today.

🔮 Chinese horoscopes at this time were derived from the Hellenistic Period of Ancient Greece.

🔮 During this time, it became Chinese tradition that newborn Chinese babies would be given a horoscope upon birth & then throughout pivotal moments in their lives.

🔮 One of the most important astrologers of this time, Abu Ma'shar (8/10/787- 3/9/886), wrote a book called “Book Of Thousands”.

🔮 “Book Of Thousands” (written in 850)

🔮 The book did not survive to today. Remaining fragments show us that the book was a chronology of world history (from Christian, Persian, & Islamic sources) that intended to connect past, present, & future events to the stars. 🔮 The remaining fragments of the book were collected by David Pingree in 1968 & can be found on select scholarly sources online today.

🔮 Astrology became very popular in Medieval Central Asia.

🔮 It was during this time that two types of astrology formed; mathematically-based astrology (what we astrologers go by) & the magical form of astrology (AKA: horoscopes).

The 20th & 21st Century

🔮 Prominent British astrologer, R.H. Naylor (6/9/1889- 1952), was hired by the Sunday Express (a London-based newspaper) to write a horoscope article.

🔮 Naylor was an assistant to the leading British astrologer of the time called Cheiro. 🔮 Cheiro was sought out by many celebrities of the time for his brilliant astrology services to read their natal charts. He was known to have read the palms of such significant figures such as Mark Twain, Grover Cleveland, & Winston Churchill.

🔮 The article was about the birth of Princess Margaret, born August 21, 1930. (a leo beauty)

🔮 The newspaper decided to run a few more articles. In one of the next articles, Naylor predicted that “a British aircraft will be in danger” between October 8th and 15th. On October 5th, British airship R101 crashed outside Paris with 48 of the 54 on board the plane passing away.

🔮 The population became amazed with the incredible prediction Naylor made. The editor then offered Naylor a weekly column & “What The Stars Foretell”, the first ever horoscope column in human history, was born.

🔮 "What The Stars Foretell”

🔮 The column started as advice for people whose birthday fell on each specific week the newspaper article was published. 🔮 By 1937, the article became more grandiose & spoke of “star signs” to relate to a wider audience. 🔮 This was the creation of the term “star signs”.

🔮 From there on, the world caught on to the eye-catching spells of horoscopes & publications from all over the world began to replicate what Naylor created. This is why historically, horoscopes are written by writers assigned to the task of creating a spellbinding horoscope piece & not astrologers.

Well folks, there you have it. Although the roots of horoscopes share soil with the beautiful creation of astrology, they became more of an object of purchase than the art that astrology truly is. I do believe if horoscopes were intended on sharing truth & not appealing to the masses as a means to sell a product, they would hold value to humanity. But in all honesty, if horoscopes remain to just be a tool to spellbind their readers & curate them into consumers, then they hold no good intention to the art of astrology we are so passionate about.

Thank you so much for reading! I appreciate our lil astrology community so much & hope you learned something from this lil trip down astrology lane. 😊

Research Disclaimer: All research was conducted by Andrehya in May 2024. This is all information found by her own research. Sources are listed below for your own curiosity.

Sources:

The Silk Roads Info

Ancient Horoscope Scholars

Modern Horoscope Info

EXCITING NEWS: we are in the process of configuring our work to create a lil astrology instagram for all of us astrology lovers! please go check it out & show your support by giving us a follow! we really appreciate it. 🥰 IG: astrology instagram

-A.A.

[loathsome-little-creature]

Arab science arguably informed the European fencing theory of the early fourteenth century, we may in part have the mathematical progress of the Islamic golden age to thank for the beginnings of the medieval traditions of geometric fencing. It would take me a long ass post to fully explain it but I highly recommend looking into geometry and stuff in high and late medieval (circa 1260-1340) fencing and sword design if it at all interests you

[transmutationisms]

Far more threatening to the West’s traditional order were the arrival in the early twelfth century of Arabic astrology, which many saw as a threat to Christian ideals of free will, and the Muslims’ rendering of Aristotelian physics and cosmology that accompanied it. It had been one thing for the Western elite to marvel at the practical uses of the Muslims’ astrolabe, algorism, and related technologies, for none of them required a radical rethinking of Christendom’s dominant worldview—at least not at the relatively low level at which Europe’s early adopters first approached them. And church authorities had already adopted Aristotle’s methods of logical argumentation, the dialectic, because they were keen to use it to establish the truth of Christian revelation in their battle against heresy.5 But all that began to change with the introduction of the Arab Aristotelians’ natural philosophy. Here was an underlying metaphysics, a science of “being as being,” that addressed many of the same questions, albeit in a very different way, as the traditional readings of revelation. It presented medieval Christendom with a competing “theory of everything” that could not be either digested and assimilated painlessly, on the one hand, or ignored outright, on the other. Albumazar’s ninth-century Introduction to Astrology, the full text of which appeared in Latin in 1133 and again in 1140, provided the West with the first major pathway into the Aristotelian tradition in natural science. Adelard of Bath had some two decades earlier translated Albumazar’s own abridged version, the Lesser Introduction to Astrology. This early translation, essentially a practical handbook, helped ignite an appetite in the West for Arabic astrology and other occult practices, but it omitted the Aristotelian framework that made the full Introduction to Astrology such a powerful text. And it was this Arab-influenced apprehension of Aristotle rather than any immediate direct access to his natural philosophy that prompted the church to ban his teachings at the university of Paris, then the premier center of Christian theology, in 1210 to 1215 (Lemay 1958:xxvii). The initial crisis at Paris induced by the Aristotle of the Muslim astrologers was soon followed by the appearance around 1230 of Michael Scot’s translations of the great commentaries on Aristotle’s metaphysics and natural science by the Muslim philosopher and jurist Ibn Rushd, known to the Latins as Averroës. Averroës’s works provided Europe with some of its first access to an authentic Aristotle, freed of earlier entanglements with the occult. Yet this presentation posed an even greater challenge to the West, for it forced Christendom to reexamine critically many of its most closely held beliefs—on creation, on the nature of God, and on humanity’s place in the universe. Here, then, lie the origins and driving forces of the second phase—after the initial flurry of translations in Spain, Sicily, and the near East—of the Western encounter with the Islamic intellectual tradition, that of assimilation and, more accurately, of expropriation of Arabic science and philosophy. This phase required an intensive effort to “Christianize” Aristotle, already champion of the church’s dialectic, and to make his powerful natural philosophy and metaphysics safe for Western consumption (Lemay 1958:xxiii; Bullough 1996:46–47). And this effort meant, in effect, a campaign of intellectual “ethnic cleansing” that would attempt to strip out any traces of Muslim influence—now seen as a corruption of the original text—and to bequeath an acceptable version of Aristotle to his legitimate heirs in the Latin West. Over time, the vital contributions of the Muslim philosophers were pushed so far to the margins of Western intellectual history as to become almost invisible. A similar pattern would soon be repeated in other fields, including mathematics, medicine, and even literature. Each time, the anti-Islam discourse would provide the rules of procedure and the intellectual mechanism for this willful act of forgetting.

Jonathan Lyons, Islam Through Western Eyes (2014)

[wilsonaccount]

Science is a rigorous, systematic endeavor that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the world.[1][2] Modern science is typically divided into three major branches:[3] the natural sciences (e.g., physics, chemistry, and biology), which study the physical world; the social sciences (e.g., economics, psychology, and sociology), which study individuals and societies;[4][5] and the formal sciences (e.g., logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science), which study formal systems, governed by axioms and rules.[6][7] There is disagreement whether the formal sciences are science disciplines,[8][9][10] because they do not rely on empirical evidence.[11][9] Applied sciences are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as in engineering and medicine.[12][13][14]

The history of science spans the majority of the historical record, with the earliest written records of identifiable predecessors to modern science dating to Bronze Age Egypt and Mesopotamia from around 3000 to 1200 BCE. Their contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and medicine entered and shaped the Greek natural philosophy of classical antiquity, whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the physical world based on natural causes, while further advancements, including the introduction of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, were made during the Golden Age of India.[15]: 12 [16][17][18] Scientific research deteriorated in these regions after the fall of the Western Roman Empire during the early middle ages (400 to 1000 CE), but in the Medieval renaissances (Carolingian Renaissance, Ottonian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century) scholarship flourished again. Some Greek manuscripts lost in Western Europe were preserved and expanded upon in the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age[19] and later by the efforts of Byzantine Greek scholars who brought Greek manuscripts from the dying Byzantine Empire to Western Europe in the Renaissance.

The recovery and assimilation of Greek works and Islamic inquiries into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived "natural philosophy",[20][21][22] which was later transformed by the Scientific Revolution that began in the 16th century[23] as new ideas and discoveries departed from previous Greek conceptions and traditions.[24][25] The scientific method soon played a greater role in knowledge creation and it was not until the 19th century that many of the institutional and professional features of science began to take shape,[26][27] along with the changing of "natural philosophy" to "natural science".[28]

New knowledge in science is advanced by research from scientists who are motivated by curiosity about the world and a desire to solve problems.[29][30] Contemporary scientific research is highly collaborative and is usually done by teams in academic and research institutions,[31] government agencies, and companies.[32][33] The practical impact of their work has led to the emergence of science policies that seek to influence the scientific enterprise by prioritizing the ethical and moral development of commercial products, armaments, health care, public infrastructure, and environmental protection.

[lboogie1906]

The University of Timbuktu is a collective term for the teaching associated with three mosques in the city of Timbuktu in what is now Mali: the masjid of Sankore, Djinguereber, and Sidi Yahya. It was not a university in the modern sense, but a loosely organized scholastic community that endured for many centuries during the medieval period.

The University of Timbuktu was unlike the modern university in that there was no central organization or formal course of study. There were several independent schools, each having a principal instructor. Students chose their teachers, and instruction took place in mosque courtyards or private residences. The primary focus was on the study of the Quran and Islamic subjects, but academic subjects were also taught such as “medicine and surgery, anatomy, botany, evolution, physiology and zoology, astronomy, anthropology, cartography, geodesy, geology, mathematics, physics, chemistry, philosophy, language and linguistics, geography, history, as well as art.” Teachers associated with the Sankore mosque and the mosque itself were especially respected for learning.

It boasted up to 25,000 students out of a total city population of 100,000.

Timbuktu quickly grew in importance by the start of the 12th century, with a thriving economy based on trading salt, gold, spices, and dyes. As the wealth of the city grew, it also became a center of learning, attracting scholars and manuscripts. It acquired a reputation for learning and scholarship across the Muslim world. #africanhistory365 #africanexcellence

[mycolourfullworld]

Here are some facts about the Moors in Europe: They ruled Spain and Portugal 754 years before the fall of the Mali Empire.

1. The Moors brought a wide variety of new fruits and vegetables to Europe.

The Moors brought many new fruits and vegetables to Spain and Europe that were considered exotic novelties at the time. These products included pomegranates, peaches, lemons, oranges, saffron, cotton, rice, silk, sugar cane, and a variety of other fruits and vegetables. Even though they are commonplace today, the Spanish at the time considered these objects to be almost alien. Several centuries later, they are still important components of Spanish food and production.

2. The Moors Developed Far More Rapidly Than Medieval Europe

The Arabs had an advanced civilization known for its architecture, science, mathematics, and exploration when they conquered the Iberian Peninsula. When the Moors arrived in Spain, they brought with them architectural innovations that astounded European stonemasons. The Alhambra, a fortress and palace complex in Granada, Spain, is one of the most stunning examples of Moorish architecture. Its construction started in 1238, and its grandeur and beauty far outstripped those of any comparable palace. It is still one of the palaces of the Islamic world that has been preserved the best today.

3. Chess Became Popular Across Europe Because of the Moors

Chess has been played for more than 1,500 years, but the Moors brought the game in its present form to Europe. The Moors brought chess to Spain after it had spread from India to the Arabic world. It spread through Europe's courts and society very quickly after it gained popularity. Chess was a well-liked game of strategy and endurance in medieval Spain. Chess was first mentioned in writing in Spain in the Catalan Testament in 1010 AD.

4. The Moors Took Their Hygiene Very Seriously.

A Moor, according to a catchphrase, "would rather go without bread than without soap." The Moors were known for their love of cleanliness. Due to their customs and the demands of their religion, the Moors valued cleanliness and often bathed; in the Moorish town of Cordoba, there were about 900 public baths. This made it possible to maintain proper hygiene at a time when plumbing and running water were still uncommon. Some sources also assert that the Moors introduced some kind of soap to Europe, ushering in a new era of hygiene.

5. The Moors Placed a High Value on Education

The Moors placed a high value on education and made sure that everyone in their realm had access to it. This was in stark contrast to medieval Europe, where education was only available to the richest nobles and clergy and where 90% of the populace was still illiterate. In fact, there have even been instances of European Kings who are illiterate. The Moors founded 17 prestigious universities in Spain, including ones in Cordoba, Malaga, Granada, Seville, Toledo, and Almeria.

6. Many Moorish Words Are Still Used Today in Spanish and English

The Moors introduced new ideas and words to Europe after they arrived, and these quickly assimilated into the common language. Up to 4,000 words in the Spanish language have Arabic roots, including algebra, checkmate, and influenza. Cipher, alcohol, chemistry, typhoon, orange, alkaline, cable, and nadir are additional examples.

7. The Moors Were Very Resourceful

The old Roman irrigation systems that the Moors discovered in Iberia had great potential, so they quickly adopted, improved, and revived them. This increased agricultural productivity and boosted the economy. Additionally, they were able to grow new crops they had brought, including figs, dates, apricots, lemons, and oranges. Thanks to the Moors' creative irrigation methods, Spain quickly rose to become one of Europe's top producers of crops.

8. The Moors brought significant Changes to Spanish Cuisine

For Europeans, spices were an uncommon commodity, and their cuisine was frequently regarded as bland. By bringing over hundreds of unusual spices, fresh recipes, and cutting-edge cooking techniques, the Moors altered that. We still eat a variety of wonderful dishes as a result of this culinary revolution. The spice markets of the Moors were renowned for their variety and provided options for chefs of all types. These medieval markets must have had the most amazing sights and smells.

[ahb-writes]

Hi! I am not sure if this is the right way to do an ask, and I am not sure if you are the right person to ask, but in my worldbuilding, I am primarily basing my world off of an extrapolation of medieval alchemy.

Medieval alchemy is highly based off of works of arabic alchemists, and so on the one hand, I would like to incorporate arabic into my naming convention for vehicles (I am not worrying about characters yet).

On the other hand, I am an american with very little if any connection to cultures which use arabic, and I don't want to unwittingly stumble into a situation where I misuse the language and it becomes a source of problems for me or other people later. I have felt comfortable using greek and latin in naming convention because of their well-known connections to scientific naming schemes and alchemy.

I don't want to inadvertently offend anyone with my setting's design, but the language looks cool, and seems like it would fit really well given my setting's ties, is this something where sufficient research can help me do it properly? Is it something I should avoid to make sure that I am not offending anyone?

Again, apologies if you aren't the right person to ask or this isn't the right way to do an ask.

For clarity and direction on how to model and shape your worldbuilding efforts from a perspective of cultural sensitivity, you may consider consulting the fine folks over at Writing With Color; @writingwithcolor; who have assembled a delightful "general topics" masterpost that includes sections on worldbuilding and character building (creation and culture).

As for borrowing and adjusting naming conventions of other languages, never apologize for curiosity. Sometimes, we simply don't know something is mistake until we ask ourselves, "Wait, is this a mistake?"

To start, Islamic researchers, scientists, academics, and thinkers formed the foundation of what much of the world considers to be "modern" mathematics, astronomy, geography, linguistic scholarship and language translation, medicine, poetry, and more. It's easy and tempting to segregate different historical cultures or regions as we go back in time, but the truth is that it's all intertwined and mixed up (fun fact: We all use Arabic. It's just that most of us don't know it.). Arabic contributions to the Spanish language in particular? That's a serious rabbit hole of research. Global influence of Islamic architecture? Highly fascinating, and research that fills several peer-reviewed journals, textbooks, and dictionaries. Old libraries? Check out the history surrounding the House of Wisdom, also known as the Grand Library of Baghdad (destroyed in 1258 CE), for one of many examples.

I begin with this exploration of cultural mesh because when building a fantasy world that includes glimpses, touches, or influences from known historical periods, you have to dig around to know from where (or what) you're starting. You can't create something new and firm if you don't first have a solid idea of where you're starting from.

In the case of a fantasy environment that focuses on alchemy, with elements from the Arabic language and ostensibly from historical Islamic scientists, consider narrowing your focus those areas of study that will most heavily influence your story.

Curious about intellectual movements? Science? Medicine? A deep-dive into the Arabic Enlightenment may help (The House of Wisdom: How Arabic Science Saved Ancient Knowledge and Gave Us the Renaissance by Jim al-Khalili; The House of Wisdom: How the Arabs Transformed Western Civilization by Jonathan Lyons). Art and natural science? Search for resources that offer a passing glance on the origins of science in medieval Islam (Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction by Howard Turner).

The point is to take a few steps back, before you take a few steps forward. You can get around not knowing the language, and you can circumnavigate your lack of firsthand experience with a culture, by deepening your knowledge of the language's origin and of the culture's most essential inflection points.

But it's all connected (e.g., I've worked my way through dozens of sources of medieval combat and warfare, and the same is true of arms, armor, and fortifications). Ultimately, you have to find your starting point (and stick to it). It's a lot of work, I know. But you don't have to read whole books. For example, you can try snagging a .pdf, and then read only two or three chapters, since those areas are the most relevant to your research needs (e.g., al-Khalili's book has chapters called, "The Lonely Alchemist," "Big Science," and "The Physicist," and Turner's book has a chapter on alchemy, plus separate chapters on astronomy and non-scientific astrology).

By understanding the foundation for the disciplines you use and the foundational cultures from which you take inspiration and influence: your language choices will be more accurately-sourced; your worldbuilding choices will be more detailed and lived-in; and your framing and contextualizing of these terms and influences will be more realistic and consistent.

[escadaman]

The Moors Ruled Spain and Portugal 754 Years Before The Collapse of The Mali Empire

Here are some facts about the Moors in Europe:

1. The Moors Introduced Numerous New Fruits and Vegetables to Europe

The Moors introduced a variety of fruits and vegetables that were previously unknown in both Spain and Europe, and thus deemed exotic novelties. These items included peaches, lemons, oranges, saffron, cotton, rice, silk, sugar cane, apricots, figs, dates, pomegranates and many others. Although commonplace today, during the Middle Ages these items were almost alien to the Spanish. Today, centuries later, they have become staples of Spanish production and diet.

2. The Moors Were Several Steps Ahead of Medieval Europe

At the time of their conquest of the Iberian Peninsula , the advanced civilization of the Arabs was renowned for its architecture, science, mathematics and exploration. Upon their arrival in Spain, the Moors introduced architectural techniques that amazed European stonemasons. One of the most impressive examples of Moorish architecture is the Alhambra, a palace complex and fortress located in Granada, Spain. Construction began in 1238, and it surpassed any similar palace in grandeur and beauty. Today, it remains one of the best-preserved palaces of the Islamic world.

3. Chess Spread Throughout Europe Thanks to the Moors

Even though chess is over 1,500 years old, it was first introduced to Europe in its current form by the Moors. Chess spread from India to the Arabic world and was introduced to Spain by the Moors. It quickly became popular and swept across Europe's courts and society. In medieval Spain, chess was a popular game of strategy and patience. The first written mention of chess in Spain dates back to 1010 AD, in the Catalonian Testament.

4. The Moors Were Very Strict About Their Hygiene

The Moors were known for their love of cleanliness, with a popular saying claiming that a Moor "would rather go without bread than without soap.” Due to their traditions and the rigors of their religion, the Moors were fond of looking spic and span, and encouraged frequent bathing; In the Moorish town of Cordoba, there were around 900 public baths . This allowed for proper hygiene during a time when plumbing and running water were not yet widely available. Some sources also claim that the Moors brought some form of soap to Europe, introducing a new era of cleanliness.

5. Education Was Very Important to the Moors

Education was of utmost importance to the Moors, who ensured that it was universally available to all within their realm. This stood in stark contrast to medieval Europe, where 90% of the population remained illiterate, and education was reserved for only the wealthiest nobles and clergy. In fact, there were even some European Kings who could not read or write. The Moors established 17 great universities in Spain, located in cities such as Cordoba, Malaga, Granada, Seville, Toledo and Almeria, among others.

6. Numerous Moorish Words Found Their Way into Modern Spanish and English

After their arrival in Europe, the Moors brought with them new concepts and words that quickly became a standard part of everyday language. Spanish has up to 4,000 words of Arabic origin, including algebra, checkmate, and influenza. Other examples are cipher, alcohol, chemistry, typhoon, orange, alkaline, cable and nadir.

7. The Moors Were Very Industrious

Upon their arrival in Iberia, the Moors saw the potential in the old Roman irrigation systems they found and quickly adopted, enhanced and revived them. This led to a surge in agricultural productivity and a boost in the economy. They were also able to cultivate new crops they brought with them such as lemons, oranges, figs, dates, and apricots. Soon, Spain became one of the largest producers of crops in Europe, all thanks to the Moors' innovative irrigation techniques.

8. The Moors Greatly Transformed Spanish Cuisine

Spices were a rare commodity for Europeans, and their food was often considered bland. The Moors changed that by bringing over hundreds of unique spices, new recipes and innovative methods of preparing food. This culinary revolution gave rise to many wondrous dishes that we still enjoy today. The Moorish spice markets were famous for their variety, offering choice for cooks of all styles. The colors and smells of these medieval markets must have been truly incredible.

[vanilla-cigarillos]

Alchemy - A Brief History and Rundown

If you’ve seen Fullmetal Alchemist (like I have!) you’ll be familiar with the term “alchemy”. However, the practice has an extremely interesting, very real history that’s fascinating to explore.

What Is Alchemy?

“...an ancient branch of natural philosophy, a philosophical and protoscientific tradition that was historically practiced in China, India, the Muslin world, and Europe.” - Pereira, Michela (2018).

Alchemy attempts to mature, purify, and “perfect” certain materials. Typically associated with chrysopoeia (transmutation of “base metals” into “noble metals” i.e. lead into gold). Alchemists also concern themselves with creating a famed elixir of immortality, as well as a remedy that is able to cure all diseases. The perfection of the human body, and its soul, is thought to result from the alchemical magnum opus. 

Alchemy does not abandon the Greek philosophical idea that everything is composed of four elements (earth, water, air, and fire). Islamic and European alchemists also developed sets of laboratory techniques, terms, and theories that are still in use today. Practitioners were very secretive, often using cyphers to scribe information.

History

This is going to be a tough one to summarize, because alchemy encompasses a variety of philosophical traditions spanning roughly four millennia and three continents. Abovementioned traditions for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace influences and the “genetic” relationships found within alchemy’s DNA, however there are three major strands we are able to identify. 

Chinese Alchemy Centered in China, we see that Chinese alchemy is closely developed alongside Taoism. Researchers have found evidence that Chinese alchemists developed and discovered complex mathematical phenomena that they shared with Arab alchemists during the Medieval period. The “magic square of three” was discovered in BC China, and propagated to followers of Abū Mūsā Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (author of the Jabirian corpus). 

Whereas in European alchemy there developed a central focus on the transmutation of base metals into noble metals, Chinese alchemy moreso focused on medicine. The Grand Elixir of Immortality sought by Chinese alchemists is a comparable goal to the Philosopher’s Stone sought by European counterparts. Ge Hong (Chinese philosopher, physician, writer, politician, Taoist practitioner) described alchemy, along with the practice of meditation, as the sole spiritual practices that could allow someone to gain immortality, or to transcend. He argued that alchemical solutions (i.e. elixirs) were preferable to traditional medicine due to the supposed spiritual protection they were believed to provide. 

In centuries following the passing of Ge Hong, the emphasis on alchemy as a spiritual practice among Chinese Daoists saw a reduction. Later on, Tao Hongjing outright refuted Ge Hong’s claim that alchemy is as important a spiritual practice as meditation. 

Neidan Also known as internal alchemy, Neidan was adopted by Daoists as a new form of practicing alchemy. Neidan had an emphasis on appeasing the inner gods believed to inhabit the human body by practicing alchemy with compounds found within the body itself instead of mixing natural resources. As an example, human saliva was considered nourishment for the inner gods and didn’t need any sort of conscious alchemical reaction to be produced. Inner gods were not believed to be physical presences that occupied each person, rather a collection of deities that each represent and protect a specific aspect of the body. Many elixirs from Daoist alchemy were still used, however Neidan practitioners prioritized meditation over any external alchemical practices. It was believed that immortality was a goal within reach if an inner god were to be immortalized within a person through spiritual fulfillment. 

Indian Alchemy We see heavy connection to the Dharmic faiths within the development of Indian alchemy. 2nd millennium BC text Vedas (large bodies of religious texts in ancient India) describe a connection between gold and eternal life. Buddhist texts from the 2nd and 5th centuries mention the transmutation of base metals (i.e. lead) to gold, and while according to some scholars Greek alchemy might have influenced Indian alchemy in this aspect there are no hard-proof pieces of evidence to support this claim.

Goals of Indian alchemy included the creation of a divine body, as well as immortality. Sanskrit alchemical texts describe multiple pieces of material on the manipulation of sulphur and mercury, that are homologized with the semen of the god Siva (the Supreme Being in Shaivism) and the menstrual blood of the goddess Devi (the Great Goddess). Much of Indian alchemy is heavily linked to the work of Indian medicine and yoga practices.

There is still not much known about Indian alchemy and its practices, as much of the text has yet to be sufficiently integrated into the wider history of alchemy as a whole. 

Western Alchemy Originally occurred around the Mediterranean, with its central focus shifting over the millennia from Greco-Roman Egypt to the Islamic world before making its way to Medieval Europe. Contrasting the abovementioned strands of alchemy, Western alchemy developed its philosophical system mostly independent of however still influenced by various Abrahamic faiths. 

The beginning of Western alchemy is generally traced to Hellenistic Egypt, with the legendary city of Alexandria as a center of alchemical knowledge. Many see the practice originating from Egyptian goldsmithing art. Surviving literary alchemical works from this time period are lacking the mystical and philosophical elements of alchemy, however they contain the works of Bolus of Mendes (neopythagorean writer focusing on esoterica) which aligned the noted alchemical recipes with theoretical knowledge of astrology along with the classical elements (abovementioned earth, water, air and fire). 

Western alchemy considered the “four natural elements as the primary qualities by means of which the amorphous and quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form.” - Burckhardt, Titus (1967). There would later be extensive expansion upon this idea in the more mystical aspects of Western alchemy.

Islamic World After the collapse of the Roman Empire, the focal point of alchemical development shifted to the Islamic World. We know much more about Islamic alchemy due to the disciplined nature of its documentation. Islamic philosophers contributed immensely to alchemical hermeticism, the most influential of which being Jabir.

Jabir’s ultimate goal was Takwin, the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to and including the creation of human life itself. He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities (hotness, coldness, dryness, and moistness) and according to Jabir, each metal contained two of these qualities on an interior level and another two on an exterior level. It was through this logic that Jabir reasoned that by rearranging the qualities of one metal, there would be a different resulting metal. Jabir created an elaborate numerology, whereby root letters of a substance’s name in Arabic, when treated with transformations, showed correspondences with the element’s physical properties. We are able to trace the elemental system used in Medieval alchemy back to origins with Jabir.

[gabriel-macedo]

Life and Work of Al-Haytham: One of the World’s Most Influential Scientists

Introduction

Al-Haytham, also known as Ibn al-Haytham, was born in Basra, in present-day Iraq, around AD 965. and died in 1040 AD. He was an Islamic polymath who left a significant legacy in the fields of optics, mathematics, physics and astronomy. Al-Haytham is widely recognized as one of the most influential scientists in history, and his work continues to be studied and cherished to this day.

Al-Haytham is widely considered one of the most influential scientists in history. He was a prolific scholar and his works had a significant impact on the development of science and scientific thinking. His pioneering approach to the scientific method, which emphasized empirical observation and experimentation, had a profound effect on the study and understanding of the laws of nature.

One of Al-Haytham’s best-known works is the “Book of Optics” (Kitab al-Manazir), which revolutionized the field of optics. In this book he presented a new theory of vision based on the propagation of light in a straight line and refuted the ancient theories of Euclid and Ptolemy. Al-Haytham also conducted experiments with mirrors and lenses, studied image formation, and correctly described the camera obscura.

In addition to his contribution to optics, Al-Haytham made important advances in mathematics. He developed innovative methods for calculating areas and volumes of solid figures, worked in the field of whole and fractional numbers, and solved quadratic equations. His mathematical contributions had a lasting impact on the development of the discipline.

In physics, Al-Haytham formulated fundamental principles of mechanics and investigated motion and force. He studied the fall of bodies and the influence of gravity, establishing a relationship between velocity and the resistance of the medium. His discoveries and theories about the physics of motion were precursors to ideas later developed by scientists such as Isaac Newton.

Al-Haytham also left a significant legacy in astronomy. He criticized the existing astronomical theories of his time and emphasized the importance of accurate observation. Al-Haytham developed improved instruments for measuring angles and determining the position of celestial bodies. His work influenced the study of the motions of the Sun and Moon, as well as the understanding of atmospheric refraction.

Al-Haytham’s influence extends beyond his specific scientific contributions. His scientific method, based on observation, experimentation and empirical verification, pioneered and influenced later scientific thinking. Furthermore, his works were translated into Latin and had a lasting impact on medieval Europe, contributing to the scientific Renaissance.

The thinker Al-Haytham was an Islamic polymath whose contributions in optics, mathematics, physics and astronomy were profoundly influential. His rigorous scientific approach and his pioneering discoveries paved the way for future advances in these areas of knowledge. Al-Haytham is remembered as one of the great scientists and philosophers of his time and his legacy continues to be treasured and studied to this day.

This article is divided into the following sections: 1. Scientific Method 2. Book of Optics 3. Contributions to Mathematics 4. Contributions to Physics 5. Contributions to Astronomy 6. Influence

1. Scientific Method

One of Al-Haytham’s most important contributions to science was the development of the scientific method. He emphasized the importance of careful observation, experimentation, and verification of results against concrete evidence. Al-Haytham argued that scientific theories should be based on empirical evidence, thus rejecting purely theoretical speculation. His work on the scientific method was pioneering and significantly influenced later scientific thinking.

The scientific method developed by Al-Haytham was innovative for its time and had a significant impact on the field of science. He emphasized the importance of careful observation, experimentation, and verification of results against concrete evidence. Al-Haytham’s scientific method can be summarized in a few main steps:

a. Observation: Al-Haytham believed that close and accurate observation was the first step in scientific investigation. He advised scientists to observe the natural world and collect detailed data about the phenomena they studied. Through observation, he believed it was possible to gain valuable information about the laws that govern nature.

b. Formulation of hypotheses: Based on his observations, Al-Haytham formulated hypotheses or assumptions about the phenomena he was investigating. These hypotheses were proposed as preliminary explanations and attempts to understand observed patterns or relationships.

c. Experimentation: Al-Haytham valued experimentation as a means of testing and verifying his hypotheses. He performed meticulous, controlled experiments to collect additional data and confirm or disprove his initial assumptions. Furthermore, he emphasized the importance of repeating experiments several times to ensure consistency of results.

d. Analysis and interpretation of data: Al-Haytham analyzed data obtained through experimentation and observation, looking for patterns, relationships and trends. He used mathematical and statistical techniques to quantitatively analyze data in order to draw reliable and meaningful conclusions.

e. Empirical Verification: A distinctive feature of Al-Haytham’s scientific method was the emphasis on empirical verification. He considered it essential that scientific conclusions be based on concrete evidence and tested through repeatable experimentation. For Al-Haytham, theoretical speculation without empirical foundation was insufficient to achieve reliable scientific knowledge.

f. Review and Improvement: Al-Haytham recognized that scientific knowledge was constantly evolving. He encouraged constant revision of existing hypotheses and theories in light of new evidence and discoveries. Al-Haytham believed that science should be a continuous process of learning and refinement, and that scientific theories should be updated as new knowledge is acquired.

Al-Haytham’s scientific method, with its emphasis on careful observation, experimentation, and empirical verification, was pioneering in its day. He influenced later scientific thinking and laid the foundation for modern scientific methodology. His rigorous and systematic approach helped establish science as an evidence-based enterprise and contributed to the advancement of scientific knowledge.

2. Optics Book

Al-Haytham’s most famous work is the “Book of Optics”, also known as “Kitab al-Manazir”. In this book, Al-Haytham revolutionized the study of optics by providing a detailed explanation of vision and light. He criticized the ancient theories of Euclid and Ptolemy and developed his own theory of vision, based on the propagation of light in a straight line. Al-Haytham performed experiments with mirrors and lenses, studied image formation, and correctly described the camera obscura. His experimental approach and pioneering studies in optics directly influenced the work of later scientists such as Isaac Newton.

The “Book of Optics” (Kitab al-Manazir) is a seminal work written by Al-Haytham, in which he revolutionized the study of optics and made important contributions to the understanding of vision and light. The book is divided into seven volumes and covers a wide range of optical topics, from the nature of light to image formation.

One of the main ideas presented by Al-Haytham in the “Book of Optics” is the theory of vision based on the propagation of light in a straight line. He argued that light travels in straight lines from a light source and enters the eye to form vision. This theory contradicts previously accepted views, which held that light rays were emitted by the eyes.

Al-Haytham also explored the role of brightness and color in vision. He described the reflection of light from mirrored surfaces and studied refraction, that is, the change of direction of light when passing from one medium to another. In addition, he performed experiments with curved mirrors and lenses and investigated the formation of images in concave and convex mirrors.

One of the most famous experiments described by Al-Haytham in the book is the use of the darkroom. He describes how light enters a darkened room through a small hole in one of the walls and forms an inverted image on an opposite surface. This experimental observation led Al-Haytham to conclude that light travels in straight lines and that image formation is caused by the interaction of light rays with objects and surfaces.

Another important aspect addressed in the “Book of Optics” is the explanation of the phenomena of reflection and refraction. Al-Haytham provided laws for the reflection of light in flat and curved mirrors, as well as investigating the refraction of light passing through transparent media. His discoveries about atmospheric refraction contributed to a more accurate understanding of the apparent motions of celestial bodies.

Overall, Al-Haytham’s “Book of Optics” represents an important milestone in the history of optics. His revolutionary ideas on the nature of light, image formation, and optical phenomena had a lasting impact on science and influenced the work of later scientists such as Isaac Newton. The book demonstrates Al-Haytham’s rigorous approach, based on observations and experimentation, and his legacy continues to be valued in modern optics.

3. Contributions to Mathematics

Al-Haytham also made significant contributions to mathematics. He worked extensively in the field of geometry and developed innovative methods for calculating areas and volumes of solid figures. In addition, he advanced the study of integers and fractions, establishing rules for dividing inheritances and solving quadratic equations. His mathematical contributions influenced the further development of this discipline in various cultures. Al-Haytham made several significant contributions to the field of mathematics during his lifetime. His contributions span areas such as geometry, arithmetic, and algebra, and his work has had a lasting impact on the development of this discipline. The following are some of Al-Haytham’s most outstanding mathematical contributions:

a. Geometry: Al-Haytham worked extensively in the field of geometry and developed innovative methods for calculating areas and volumes of solid figures. He formulated precise rules for determining the area of different types of polygons and also explored the measurement of volumes, including the volume of parallelepipeds, cylinders and spheres. His systematic approach to solving geometric problems laid the groundwork for future studies in this area.

b. Whole numbers and fractions: Al-Haytham made advances in the study of whole numbers and fractions. He developed rules for the division of inheritances, solving complex problems of sharing property between heirs. In addition, he worked in the field of rational numbers, investigating their properties and solving fractional equations.

c. Equations of third degree: Al-Haytham was one of the first mathematicians to solve third degree equations systematically. He developed methods for solving these equations and established general rules for their solution. His contributions in this field were precursors to later advances in the study of polynomial equations.

d. Number theory: Al-Haytham also made contributions to number theory. He investigated properties of prime numbers and explored methods for identifying and generating prime numbers. Al-Haytham also studied divisibility and factoring of integers, laying important foundations for the study of numbers.

Importantly, Al-Haytham’s mathematical contributions were influential not only in his own time, but also had a significant impact on later mathematicians. His work demonstrated a commitment to precision, rigor, and mathematical logic, and his discoveries helped pave the way for the development of mathematics as an independent and highly respected discipline.

4. Contributions to Physics

In the area of physics, Al-Haytham made important contributions to the understanding of motion and force. He formulated fundamental principles of mechanics, investigating the motion of objects and the influence of forces on them. Al-Haytham also explored the nature of gravity and studied the fall of bodies, establishing a relationship between velocity and the resistance of the medium in which they are immersed. His discoveries and theories on the physics of motion provided a solid foundation for the further development of this area of knowledge. Al-Haytham made several notable contributions to the field of physics during his lifetime. His investigations covered areas such as motion, force and the nature of gravity, providing a solid foundation for the further development of these concepts. The following are some of Al-Haytham’s major contributions to physics:

a. Study of motion: Al-Haytham carried out extensive investigations into the motion of objects and their causes. He formulated fundamental principles of mechanics, highlighting the importance of forces and inertia. Al-Haytham recognized that an object in motion remains in motion until an external force acts on it, establishing a view that preceded Newton’s first law of motion.

b. Force and inertia: Al-Haytham studied the forces that act on objects and the influence of these forces on their movement. He explored the concept of inertia, understanding that an object at rest will remain at rest unless a force is applied to it. These ideas were fundamental for the later development of Newton’s laws on the dynamics of bodies.

c. Gravity: Al-Haytham also investigated the nature of gravity and studied falling bodies. He observed that objects fall towards the Earth and formulated a relationship between the speed of fall and the resistance of the medium in which they are immersed, recognizing the importance of the environment in the movement of objects.

d. Study of light and optics: Although his main contribution to optics is widely recognized, Al-Haytham’s studies of light also had implications for physics. His theory of the propagation of light in a straight line influenced understanding of the nature of light as a form of electromagnetic radiation, providing a foundation for later understanding of the laws of optics.

Importantly, Al-Haytham’s contributions to physics were significant both in terms of fundamental concepts and their impact on the further development of that discipline. His ideas about motion, force, and gravity laid important foundations for modern physics and were precursors to theories later developed by scientists such as Isaac Newton.

6. Contributions to Astronomy

Al-Haytham contributed significantly to the field of astronomy. He was critical of the astronomical theories of his time and emphasized the need for accurate and meticulous observations. Al-Haytham developed improved instruments for measuring angles and determining the position of celestial bodies. He studied the motions of the Sun and Moon, in addition to making discoveries about atmospheric refraction and its influence on astronomical observation, his work in astronomy laid a solid foundation for future advances in this field. Al-Haytham made notable contributions to the field of astronomy, dedicating himself to the study of the movements of celestial bodies and the improvement of methods of astronomical observation. His contributions include advances in measuring angles, studies of the motion of the Sun and Moon, and discoveries of atmospheric refraction. The following are some of Al-Haytham’s major contributions to astronomy:

1. Measuring instruments: Al-Haytham developed improved instruments for measuring angles and determining the position of celestial bodies. He perfected the astrolabe, an instrument used to determine the position of stars and planets in the sky. In addition, he constructed a new type of astronomical quadrant, known as the Alhazen quadrant, which allowed for more accurate measurements of angles.

2. Motion of the Sun and Moon: Al-Haytham investigated the apparent motions of the Sun and Moon in the sky. He studied the solar and lunar cycles and developed mathematical models to describe and predict these movements. His studies on the movement of celestial bodies were fundamental for the later development of astronomical theories.

3. Atmospheric refraction: Al-Haytham made important discoveries about atmospheric refraction and its influence on astronomical observation. He observed that light from celestial bodies is bent as it passes through the Earth’s atmosphere, leading to an apparent uplift and lateral deflection of stars. These observations on atmospheric refraction contributed to a more accurate understanding of the actual positions of celestial objects.

4. Criticism of existing astronomical theories: Al-Haytham was critical of accepted astronomical theories of his time. He questioned ancient ideas about the motion of celestial bodies and emphasized the need for accurate and meticulous observations to gain a more accurate understanding of the cosmos. His critical approach and his search for empirical evidence were precursors of the scientific method applied to astronomy.

Al-Haytham’s contributions to astronomy provided a solid foundation for further studies in this area. His work on measuring instruments, the motion of celestial bodies, and atmospheric refraction influenced the development of astronomy and contributed to a more accurate understanding of the cosmos. Al-Haytham was one of the pioneering scientists in approaching astronomy with a rigorous scientific mindset, and his contributions continue to be treasured in the history of the discipline.

7. Influence

Al-Haytham’s influence is widely recognized and covers several areas of knowledge. His scientific and philosophical contributions had a significant impact both on his time and on later generations. The following are some key points that highlight Al-Haytham’s influence:

a. Scientific Method: Al-Haytham developed a scientific method based on careful observation, experimentation and empirical verification. His emphasis on obtaining concrete evidence to support theories and hypotheses influenced subsequent scientific thinking. His Scientific Method was a rigorous and systematic approach that helped lay the foundations of modern scientific methodology.

b. Optics and the Science of Vision: Al-Haytham’s contributions to the field of optics, as described in his “Book of Optics”, had a lasting impact. He revolutionized the understanding of vision and light by introducing the theory of light propagation in a straight line. His explorations of image formation, reflection, and refraction laid solid foundations for the later study of optics. Al-Haytham’s ideas in optics influenced later scientists, including Isaac Newton.

c. Mathematics and Physics: Al-Haytham’s mathematical contributions in areas such as geometry, integers and fractions, and solving quadratic equations had a significant impact on the development of mathematics. Furthermore, his investigations of motion, force, and gravity contributed to the understanding of physics and established fundamental concepts that were later developed by other scientists, including Isaac Newton.

d. Advancement of Astronomy: Al-Haytham contributed to the advancement of astronomy through his studies of the movement of celestial bodies, the development of measuring instruments, and his critique of existing astronomical theories. His rigorous scientific approach and his discoveries about atmospheric refraction influenced the observation and study of celestial bodies. Al-Haytham also questioned ancient theories, encouraging a more scientific approach to astronomy.

e. Transmission of Knowledge: Al-Haytham’s work was translated into Latin during the Middle Ages, which allowed his ideas to reach the western world. His contributions were valued and studied by European philosophers and scientists, influencing scientific thought during the Renaissance. His influence spread beyond the Islamic world, leaving an enduring legacy in science and scientific thought across the world.

It is possible to observe that the influence of Al-Haytham is evident in several scientific and philosophical disciplines. His scientific method, his contributions to optics, mathematics, physics and astronomy, and his transmission of knowledge had a significant impact on science and later scientific thought. Al-Haytham is recognized as one of the most influential scientists in history, and his legacy continues to be treasured and studied to this day.

Al-Haytham’s contributions directly influenced science and scientific thinking for generations to come. His scientific method, based on experimentation and observation, was adopted and developed by scientists such as Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton. Al-Haytham’s revolutionary ideas in optics, mathematics, physics and astronomy paved the way for new studies and discoveries in several areas of knowledge. His legacy lives on in the history of science and his work remains a source of inspiration for scientists and scholars around the world.

In conclusion, Al-Haytham, with his remarkable life and work, left a lasting impact on science. His scientific method, his groundbreaking optical discoveries, his mathematical contributions, and his physical and astronomical theories provided a solid foundation for the further development of these disciplines. Al-Haytham is truly one of the world’s most influential scientists whose work continues to be studied and cherished to this day.

[milesmorales69]

Fez, Morocco 🇲🇦

Renowned for its traditional craftsmanship, particularly the famous "Chouara Tannery", where leather has been dyed by hand using ancient techniques for centuries, Fez was founded in the late 8th century by Idris I, a descendant of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), and later expanded by his son, Idris II. The city grew to prominence in the medieval period, becoming a center of learning, trade and culture in the Islamic world.

Al-Qarawiyyin University in Fez is the world's first university. Founded in 859 CE by Fatima al-Fihri, it started as a madrasa (Islamic school) then gradually evolved into a university or a center for higher learning, offering studies in various subjects like mathematics, astronomy, law and medicine.

The Fez el-Bali (Old Madina), a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is a labyrinth of narrow alleys, bustling souks and historic madrasas(Islamic Schools). The Bou Inania Madrasa and the Al-Attarine Madrasa are architectural gems, showcasing intricate tilework, cedarwood carvings and stunning courtyards. The city’s atmosphere, steeped in history, combines spiritual devotion with vibrant Moroccan culture, making it a living testament to North Africa's rich medieval past.

[islamicbook]

A Guide to Islamic History Books in Urdu

Islamic history spans over 1,400 years and is filled with monumental events, dynamic civilizations, influential scholars, and remarkable leaders who shaped not only the Muslim world but global history. For Urdu-speaking readers, the rich tapestry of Islamic history is available in a wide range of books that offer deep insights into the lives, ideas, and achievements of those who have shaped the course of history.

The study of Islamic history in Urdu provides an accessible and culturally relevant approach to understanding this vast subject. Whether you are a student, a history enthusiast, or someone seeking to gain a deeper appreciation of Islamic heritage, these books serve as invaluable resources.

Why Read Islamic History in Urdu?

Urdu, as a language, has a long and rich tradition of scholarship. It bridges the gap between classical Islamic knowledge and modern understanding, especially for readers in South Asia. Here’s why studying Islamic history in Urdu is beneficial:

Accessibility: For millions of Urdu speakers, these books make the complex and vast history of Islam easier to grasp in their native tongue.

Cultural Connection: Islamic history is intertwined with the history and culture of South Asia. Understanding it in Urdu offers a more nuanced and locally relevant perspective.

Rich Scholarly Tradition: Many renowned scholars from the subcontinent have contributed significantly to the field of Islamic history, and their works in Urdu are treasures for anyone keen on exploring the subject in depth.

Key Themes in Islamic History

Islamic history is incredibly diverse, covering several critical periods, empires, intellectual movements, and cultural developments. The main themes explored in Urdu history books include:

The Life of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH): A closer look at the Prophet’s biography (Seerah), his mission, leadership, and the early years of Islam.

The Caliphates and Dynasties: Books on the Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, and Ottoman Caliphates provide an understanding of Islamic governance and cultural expansion.

Medieval Islamic Empires: The Delhi Sultanate, the Mughal Empire, and other Muslim dynasties are explored in their political, military, and cultural context.

Philosophy, Science, and Literature: Many historical works highlight the intellectual contributions of Muslim scholars in fields like medicine, astronomy, mathematics, and philosophy.

Colonialism and Modernity: A growing number of books examine the impact of colonialism on the Muslim world and the subsequent struggle for independence.

Noteworthy Islamic History Books in Urdu

Here’s a selection of some key Islamic history books in Urdu that have made a significant impact on readers and scholars alike. These works cover everything from early Islamic history to the cultural and intellectual contributions of Muslim civilizations.

1. "Tarikh al-Tabari" (The History of al-Tabari) – By Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari

This monumental work by the Persian historian al-Tabari is a critical primary source for early Islamic history. While originally written in Arabic, it has been translated into Urdu and remains an essential text for anyone studying the history of the Prophet's companions, the early caliphates, and Islamic civilization up to the Abbasid period.

2. "Seerah Ibn Hisham" (The Life of Muhammad) – By Ibn Hisham

This classic biography of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) is one of the most important texts in Islamic literature. The Urdu translation of Ibn Hisham's work provides a detailed and intimate account of the Prophet’s life, his character, and the early years of Islam.

3. "Tareekh-i-Islam-i-Hind" (History of Islam in India) – By Siraj-ud-Din Ali Khan Arzu

A significant work on the history of Islam in the Indian subcontinent, Arzu’s book covers the establishment of Muslim rule, the Delhi Sultanate, and the Mughal Empire. This is an essential text for anyone interested in how Islam became deeply rooted in South Asia.

4. "Tareekh-i-Mughul" (History of the Mughals) – By Khwaja Ahmad Faruqi

This well-researched book on the Mughal Empire offers a thorough analysis of the rise, golden age, and eventual decline of one of the most influential empires in Islamic history. Written in a clear and engaging style, this book is a must-read for anyone interested in the Mughal period.

5. "Tareekh-i-Usmaniyah" (History of the Ottomans) – By Dr. Muhammad Iqbal

The Ottoman Empire is one of the most important and enduring empires in Islamic history. Dr. Iqbal’s work on the Ottomans explores the empire’s political, military, and cultural achievements. His reflections also touch on its significance in the context of Islamic thought and its eventual decline.

6. "Tareekh-i-Islam" (History of Islam) – By Maulana Shibli Nomani

One of the most comprehensive accounts of the history of Islam from its inception to the modern period, Maulana Shibli Nomani’s book offers an in-depth analysis of key events, figures, and movements in Islamic history. His scholarly approach makes this an essential read for anyone serious about the subject.

7. "Fikr-o-Tafseer Ka Itihas" (History of Islamic Thought and Tafseer) – By Dr. Muhammad Iqbal

In this work, Dr. Iqbal traces the development of Islamic philosophy and interpretation (Tafseer) from the early centuries of Islam. His philosophical insights offer readers a profound understanding of how Islamic thought evolved in response to political, social, and intellectual challenges.

8. "Tareekh-i-Ahl-i-Bait" (History of the Family of the Prophet) – By Syed Muhammad Raza Rizvi

This book delves into the history and contributions of the Ahl-i-Bait, the family of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). It explores their political, spiritual, and social roles during the early Islamic period, providing a nuanced understanding of their significance in Islamic history.

9. "Tareekh-i-Umayyah" (History of the Umayyads) – By Dr. Muhammad Iqbal

This book offers a detailed examination of the Umayyad dynasty, focusing on their political, military, and cultural influence on the early Islamic empire. Dr. Iqbal’s analysis is both historical and philosophical, making it a valuable resource for understanding the complexities of early Islamic governance.

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The history of Islam is a vast and multifaceted subject that spans continents and centuries. Islamic history books in Urdu provide readers with a comprehensive understanding of this rich heritage, from the life of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) to the political, cultural, and intellectual achievements of Muslim civilizations across the world.

Whether you're looking to explore the rise of Islamic empires, the contributions of Muslim scholars, or the key historical events that shaped the Muslim world, these books are indispensable resources. The scholarship available in Urdu offers a unique window into the past, making it easier for Urdu-speaking audiences to connect with their cultural and religious history.

If you are interested in exploring more about Islamic history books in Urdu or would like to dive deeper into the most influential texts in Islamic scholarship, feel free to reach out! Let us know if you would like a detailed article on "Islamic History Books in Urdu", where we can delve deeper into specific themes, authors, and key works. Your feedback is important, and we are here to guide you on your journey through the rich history of Islam.

[lingshanhermit]

Lingshan Hermit: They Have Always Been Exploring the World in a Clumsy Way

Mathematics originated in ancient Babylon, physics in ancient Greek philosophy, and chemistry in medieval Islamic alchemy, later developed and expanded by Europeans. Thus, some say that mathematics, physics, and chemistry were all invented by Westerners, considering this a symbol of Western civilization's advancement. I have always believed that the emergence of physics and various inventions in the West is unrelated to their intelligence or advancement, but directly linked to their values, cognitive systems, and lack of quicker methods to understand the universe. In my view, Western society has been exploring the world in a clumsy way since the time of Thales in ancient Greece. Using this clumsy method to explore the world, they gradually derived mathematics, physics, and chemistry, yet even today, they have not truly understood the rules and reality of the universe.

Physics tries to understand the laws governing the world by observing phenomena, summarizing the world's rules through one phenomenon and experiment after another. However, this approach lacks the ability to see the big picture, and the scope of observation is very limited. Often, their observations are confined to the realm of tangible matter. Therefore, they cannot understand invisible qi, cannot comprehend magic, and even less can they understand miracles. All of these are attributed by them to illusions and delusions from humanity's ignorant period.

Most people do not realize that all conclusions of modern physics are only temporary. So when many people discuss scientific conclusions, they don't know that what they're talking about are just temporary conclusions, merely the current understanding of the scientific community. They treat these as final conclusions. But if those were truly final conclusions, physicists would no longer need to work.

Unlike the ancient Europeans, the ancient sages of China and India also observed the laws of the universe and explored the reality of the universe and their own minds, but the methods they used were vastly different from those European counterparts. They started from investigating things and extending knowledge, beginning with the inner mind. The pioneers of exploring truth in ancient China didn't need laboratories, petri dishes, or large electron colliders; sometimes they might only need a meditation cushion. Through meditation and observing the inner mind, they gradually discovered the rules of the universe, found that everything is cause and effect, discovered the invisible connections between all things that cannot be seen with the naked eye, found that nothing is as we imagine or define it, and discovered the eternal rules of the universe. So if you have the right lineage and teachings, and you can practice correctly, with strong determination and perseverance, you might understand reality in just ten or twenty years. The difference between this approach and the Western approach is this: The Eastern way is like curing a blind person and letting them see with their eyes; in an instant, everything in the room can be seen clearly - the sofa is on the left, the clock is on the wall, a black cat is lying in the corner of the room. So you know where the door is, where the hallway is, and where the cat is. The Western way of exploring the universe's rules is like a blind person stumbling around the room, groping. You must reach out and repeatedly feel your way forward, guessing what it is after touching it. It's an enormously huge house with millions of items. And they've only just touched a few. Usually, what we call physics, chemistry, and mathematics are the products of Western society in this groping process. Some have said that Chinese society hasn't given birth to science in thousands of years, which is like criticizing a person with good eyesight for not using a white cane or walking on a tactile paving.

The exploration of India and China, being entirely based on personal experience and occurring completely within the mind, is unknown to outsiders, and the results of exploration are too special to be replicated and verified in a laboratory. If you really want to replicate it, you must find a true teacher, then accept their teaching and training, and spend decades or even many lifetimes to verify. So this is much, much more difficult than replicating an experiment in a laboratory. Moreover, for ordinary people, the realms of those who have attained enlightenment are too lofty, and their writings are completely mysterious to ordinary people, so it's hard to be recognized by the general public. Also, in the Eastern-style exploration process, there won't be by-products like cars, electric fans, or vitamin B that can bring practical benefits. Many explorers don't appear successful; some even live by begging. From the perspective of ordinary people, their exploration seems to be of no help to their own lives. The achievements of Western-style exploration, on the other hand, are the kind that can be seen and verified by ordinary people. After all, compared to a dryer, the merit of dedicating one's practice is not so intuitive.

The Western exploration was initially also to understand the world, but later they discovered a huge gold mine in the process of exploration, finding something more attractive than truth. So although many respectable scientists are still persevering, many research purposes have shifted towards pragmatism and commercial interests. Today, most people don't care about what the laws of the universe are (although this is closely related to each of them; if you don't understand the rules of the universe, don't understand how the world operates, even if you can earn a mountain of gold, it will be emptied overnight). They care about practical issues like how to lose weight, how to retire, how to profit from this AI wave.

That being said, although I think their method is not smart, it doesn't prevent me from respecting their exploration and achievements, doesn't prevent me from respecting the pioneers of Western physics, because what they did is also one of humanity's efforts to understand the universe. And even if their method is not smart, it has to some extent touched the edge of truth, which provides the best corroboration for the Dharma.

Written by Lingshan Hermit on October 7, 2024. First published on October 9, 2024.

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灵山居士：他们一直都是在用一种笨笨的方法在探索世界

数学最早起源于古代巴比伦，物理学起源于古希腊的哲学家，而化学则起源于中世纪伊斯兰的炼金术，后来在欧洲人手上发展壮大。所以有人说数学物理化学都是西方人发明的，并且以此认为这就是西方文明先进的象征。我一直都认为物理学和各种发明创造之所以会出现在西方和他们聪明与否先进与否无关，但是与他们的价值观、与他们的认知体系、与他们缺少更快捷认知宇宙的方法有直接关联。在我看来，西方社会从古希腊泰勒斯时期开始就一直都在用一种笨笨的方法在探索世界。他们用这种笨笨的方法探索世界，所以就慢慢衍生出了数学物理学和化学，而且至今他们也没有真正了解宇宙的规则和实相。

物理学通过观察现象来了解世界运行的规律，他通过一个又一个现象和实验来总结世界的规律。但这种方式缺乏综观全局的能力，而且观测范围非常有限，很多时候他们的观察只限于有实体的物质领域。所以他们无法理解看不见的气，无法理解魔法，更加无法理解神迹。所有这些都被他们归结为人类蒙昧时期的幻觉和妄想。

大多数人并不了解现代物理学的所有结论都只是暂时性的结论。所以很多人在谈论科学结论的时候并不知道他们所谈论的那些只是暂时性结论，只是科学界到目前为止的暂时认知。他们会把它当作最终结论来谈论。但如果那真的是最终的结论，物理学家们就不需要继续工作了。

和古代欧洲人不同的是，中国和印度的古代圣��也在观察宇宙的法则，也在探索宇宙和自心的实相，但是他们所使用的方法却和那帮欧洲人大相径庭。他们是从格物致知开始，从内心下手，中国古代探索真理的先驱们不需要实验室，不需要培养皿，也不需要大型电子对撞机，有时候他们可能只需要一个蒲团。经由禅定和观察内心，他们慢慢发现了宇宙的规则，发现了一切都是因缘果，发现了万事万物之间那些肉眼看不见的关联，发现了没有任何事物是我们所想像所定义的样子，发现了宇宙永恒的规则。所以如果你有正确的传承和教授，而你又能正确修行，凭借强大的决心和毅力可能十几二十年就能了解实相。这种方式和西方人方式差别在于：东方的方式就象是治好了一个眼盲的人让他用眼睛去看，屋子里的一切一瞬间就都能看的清清楚楚，沙发在左边，闹钟在墙上，屋子的角落里卧着一只黑色的猫。所以你知道门在哪儿，知道过道在哪儿，也知道猫在哪儿。而西方探索宇宙规则的方式就像是一个瞎子在屋里跌跌撞撞地乱摸，你必须伸着手反复试探着往前摸索，摸到之后再去猜那是什么。那是一间巨大无比的宅子，有上千万件物品。而他只是刚摸到了几件而已。通常我们所说的物理学化学和数学就是西方社会在这个摸索过程中的产物。以前有人说中国社会几千年没有诞生过科学，这就像是指责一个眼睛完好的人不走盲道不用白手杖一样。

印度和中国的探索由于完全是基于个人的体验，探索过程也完全发生在内心，所以外人不得而知，而探索成果也因为过于特殊而不可能被实验室所复制和验证。如果你真的要复制，你就必须寻找一位真正的老师，然后接受他的教授和训练，花上几十年甚至很多辈子来验证。所以这比在实验室里复制一个实验的难度大得多得多。而且对于普通人来说，那些证悟者的境界太过高远，他们的著作对普通人来说完全就是个谜，所以很难为普罗大众所认可。而且在东方式的探索过程中不会出现如汽车电风扇维生素B之类可以带来现实利益的副产品。很多探索者看起来并不成功，他们有些甚至以乞讨为生。从普通人的角度来看，他们的探索对自己的生活毫无帮助。而西方式的探索所取得的成绩则是那种可以被普通人看到和验证的。毕竟，和烘干机相比，回向的功德并不那么直观。

西方人的探索最初也是为了了解世界，但是后来他们在探索过程中发现了巨大的金矿，发现了比真理更具吸引力的东西，所以虽然很多可敬的科学家还在坚持，但是很多研究的目的已经偏向于实用主义和商业利益。在今天大多数人完全不关心什么是宇宙的规律（虽然这和他们每个人都息息相关，搞不清楚宇宙的规则、搞不清楚世界是如何运行的，即便你能挣到一座金山，也会在一夜之间被搬空。），他们关心的是如何减肥如何养老如何在这波AI浪潮中获利这样的现实问题。

话虽如此，虽然我认为他们的方法并不聪明，但并不妨碍我尊重他们的探索和成果、不妨碍我尊重西方物理学的先驱，因为他们所做的事情也是人类为了解宇宙而做的努力之一。而且即便他们的方法不聪明也在某种程度上触摸到了真理的边缘，这为佛法提供了最好的佐证。

灵山居士写于2024年10月7日。首发于2024年10月9日。

[santaclausdeadindian]

"I never saw anyone murdering people screaming Christ is king!"

ok, so obvious first, you think she was alive during the Spanish Civil War?

Second, mean sure, the Franco regime was heavily leaning on the catholic church and yes, it was a very bloody conflict (would not say incredibly violent, or even extraordinarily violent, but that is besides the point), but first of all, it was a 99.99 catholic country, of course there would be stuff like that, but it was way more anti-socialist/communist, than anything else, not an interreligious conflict, like what muslims do all the time. So it is kinda stretches credulity, to say the falangists were deus vulting all over the place. Possibly against communists and other anti-clerical elements, but that would probably be it. It was not a secular conflict.

Third, this fucking bullshit:

Is Islamic terrorism more prevalent currently? Yes.

It was always like that. It is an extremely violent, aggressive, oppressive death-cult. It does push for violent measures on every other page. It sentences you even its followers to death over minor infractions, but it is horrifyingly brutal against all outsiders. Just fucking think for a second, why do you think muslims are allowed to have up to 4 wives? How the fuck do you think that works out, mathematically? They were from the get go incentivised and commanded to inflict violence on everyone else, to take women as (sex)slaves and to enslave or kill everyone else. It is also orders them to kill apostates, so no leaving it, to kill anyone who questions the lying, hypocrite paedo warlord's words, so no reforming it either. There are no other prophets to await for, he was the last. It is a death-cult by any definition and it fucking shows. do look up the death toll of the conquest and subjugation of India, there is no fucking comparison to any other religion, the Mongol Wars were less bloody for fucks sake!

It is so fucking tiring to having to keep telling people to just please look into the history and the very scripts of it.

Fourth, this other bullshit I am sick of.

Poorer countries with less education tend to be more violently religious.

Fuck off all the way to home with that!

After the Eastern Bloc collapsed, along with the shitty command economies, us here in the east fell into poverty so terrible, westerners have to travel to India or Africa to see shit like that. Guess what we did not became? Extremely violent. This poverty equals violence, religious or not, is an entirely western retardation, go and check out Nepal if you doubt me! There are plenty of poor as shit countries that have a fraction of the violence going on compared to some of the richest ones.

It is not in every culture, but it is in every single islamic country's, because islam replaced the cultures it conquered, there is merely regional variations of the same horrid medieval shit. You cannot name a single muslim country that doesn't have some seriously fucked up shit going on, because there isn't any.

The azeris got super rich on their oil and gas wealth, which they promptly invested into their military and now they are using it to invade and ethnically cleanse armenians from their lands, because oh, it was ours, sure, problem is, ANYWHERE muslims are, becomes part of the "ummah", the land of the muslims and they believe all lands will become ummah eventually because it is a supremacist cult hellbent on literal, actual world domination, nazi style.

No fucking way LMFAO