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Tantra is an integral component of Hinduism at a structural level just as hydrogen atoms are an integral component of a water molecule (H2O).

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The word Tantra to an average Indian and he will probably visualize a disheveled person with bloodshot eyes, smoking ganja, a skull in his hand, sitting in a shamshan ghat and performing some distasteful ritual. Foreigners and the more elite westernized English educated city folks will immediately think of sex and depravity. If you do a search for Tantra on the internet, you will come across a lot of “eastern type” images of people in various sexual positions and so on. This instant association between Tantra and all things ‘immoral’, depraved and wicked has become ingrained in the Hindu as well as non-Hindu psyche, and Tantra has come to be associated with black-magic, animal sacrifices, and other objectionable practices.

In addition to this, a cottage industry of “Tantra Sex” and “Tantra Massage” has grown up in Western countries, especially in the USA, which tries to equate Tantra to soft pornography and sells products and services around this gross and deliberate misrepresentation. This perverted definition of Tantra has spread globally and thus we even have an Australian School of Tantra (Love Works), whose top selling program is “Melbourne Couples Coaching,” which claims to provide “Tantric skills for him for longer lasting sex and Tantric skills for her for more pleasure”!

This is a very serious matter. Most of these notions about Tantra are, of course, grossly incorrect and are demeaning to Hinduism. In this series of essays, I will deal with what Tantra is, what it is not, its relationship to the Vedic theology and metaphysics, various myths and misconceptions about Tantra and finally its relevance in modern Hinduism. I will show how tantra pervades almost all aspects of the life of an average Hindu, many a times, in ways he or she cannot even comprehend.

Esoteric Tantric Practices

Some esoteric Tantric practices like Pañca-makāra (use of meat, cereal, fish, wine and sexual intercourse) or ṣaṭ-karma (the six “magical” rituals) appear to be occult or deviant from mainstream Hinduism.  These have also been exaggerated and exoticized by some Western Indologists from a Judeo-Christian background since they tends to look at religion normatively.

However tantra is much more that meat and sex— these are in fact rare and exceptional forms practiced by a few practioners under special circumstances. In the words of the noted Tantra scholar P. C. Bagchi[1], “It cannot be denied that in some texts there is what may be called black magic, and there are also a few texts full of obscenities; but these do not form the main bulk of the Tantric literature”.

Often the focus on these esoteric practices misses the substance for the shock-value. Relentless focus on self-purification and spiritual development are integral to Tantra Shastra, which includes subtle metaphysics, and advanced yogic practices. In this regard, noted German Indologist Georg Feuerstein rightly says: “The paucity of resources of research and publications on the tantric heritage of Hinduism has in recent years made room for a crop of ill-informed popular books on what I have called Neo-Tantrism. Their reductionism is so extreme that a true initiate would barely recognize the Tantric heritage in these writings. The most common distortion is to present tantric Yoga as a mere discipline of a ritualized or sacred sex. In the popular mind, ‘tantra’ has become equivalent to sex. Nothing could be farther from the truth!”[2]

This is extremely unfortunate, and to a great extent, we Hindus are ourselves to blame, because we have allowed this distortion to persist due our ignorance and lack of interest. Then, there are many self-proclaimed Hindu gurus, who peddle this perverted version of Tantra. Moreover, Bollywood movies with their stereotypical depiction of a lecherous “Tantric Baba” or a cave-dwelling Tantric guru, who can foretell the future through sammohana (hypnosis) and magical prowess, has not helped either; Bollywood has, sadly, poisoned the minds of three generations of film-loving Indians.

An Integral Part of Hinduism

Tantra is an integral component of Hinduism at a structural level just as hydrogen atoms are an integral component of a water molecule (H2O). Tantra “permeates every system of worship in India at the present day, including Vaishnavism”[3]; one cannot segregate it from Hinduism, just as one cannot segregate taste from the food.

The essential philosophy is in harmony with the Vedic worldview and whatever differences exist are with respect to very subtle and highly specialized philosophical points. In the words of Swami Samarpanananda[4]:

Tantra is not a unitary system like the Vedas or any of the Hindu philosophies. It is an accumulation of practices and ideas of the Hindus, since prehistoric times. Its birth is rooted in the Vedas; its development proceeded through the Upanishads, Itihasas, Puranas, and Smritis; and its luxuriant growth has been fostered by Buddhism, various minor Hindu sects, and also foreign influences. The vitality and elasticity, thus acquired made tantra enter every house and temple of India and it also made powerful inroads into every country where Indian thought went. What obtains as Hinduism in India and the West, is essentially tantra packaged to suit the need of a particular community or individual.

An important point to be noted is that Puja, the mode of worship that is common in household and temples is essentially Tantric in its origin and development; a yajna on the other hand is a pure Vedic construct rooted in Vedic metaphysics. While there is something known as Puranic Puja, the Puranas themselves have heavily borrowed from the Tantra Shastras.

To be very clear, Tantra as a separate category was introduced by 19th century Indologists, who were unable to grapple with the vast popular body of Hindu (and Buddhist) literature, distinct from Vedas, yet similar in meta-physics and having names ending with tantra, agama and yamala. Till the 19th century, the Hindus themselves never regarded Tantra as anything distinct from Hinduism, barring the extremely objectionable practices or the guhya (secret) practices of certain sects. According to French Indologist, André Padoux, “[Tantra was] so pervasive that it was not regarded as being a distinct system.”[5]

Therefore, the structure of Hinduism today is like that of a DNA’s double-helix; it consists of two strands which are intertwined and inseparable:

The Vedic strand, which refers to those practices and customs, which grew out of the priestly religion of the Puru-Bharatas and eventually spread across the Indian sub-continent, absorbing and synthesizing elements from various diverse socio-cultural domains[6].

The Tantric strand, which refers to those ancient practices and customs which grew out of the fusion of Vedic proper with the Pashupati-Shiva and pan-India, Devi pantheon over many millennia over a wide geographical area across a huge populace.

The Atharva Veda is, in fact, considered a precursor to the Tantras, because many ideas found in the Atharva Veda like the philosophy of Oneness, initiation, chakras, mantra-elements, and also the so-called “magical” elements like Vaśīkaraṇa, Stambhana, etc. were later elaborated in the Tantras. The Tantra texts often refer to ancient revered teachers like Dadhichi, Lakulisha, Kacha and others belonging to a hoary past, who were instrumental in transmitting the knowledge of the Tantras.

Tantra vis-à-vis Veda

To illustrate the relationship between Tantra and Veda, I will give an illustrative example from the field of computer science.

Sergey Brin and Lawrence Page published their path-breaking dissertation thesis[7] in 1998, titled “The Anatomy of a Large-Scale Hypertextual Web Search Engine“, where they presented a prototype of a large-scale search engine making heavy use of the structure present in hypertext. The paper discusses the question of “how to build a practical large-scale system, which can exploit the additional information present in hypertext” and also the “problem of how to effectively deal with uncontrolled hypertext collections, where anyone can publish anything they want.” This paper was widely appreciated in academic circles, and has been cited and referred to numerous times in many peer-reviewed journals, and is considered one of the most path-breaking dissertation papers of the 21st century. It has essentially changed the face of the 21st century. An average person will most likely tear his head in frustration trying to understand what Brin and Page were talking about. However, in ordinary English, the paper discusses the origins and internal workings of the now popular search engine Google.

Now the question is, for someone who wants to learn how to use Google search, will a study of Brin and Page’s dissertation thesis help? Not really, because he needs a “How To” guide with a brief description of each functionality, some illustrative examples, helpful diagrams and FAQ style answers, and not Google’s underlying algorithm. Does this mean that the thesis is useless? Not at all. Both are equally important depending on the intended audience. With this in mind, let us try to understand the nature of the relationship between the Tantras and the Vedas.

Traditionally, the Vedas are a repository of knowledge and refer to that knowledge which had been perceived by Rishis in a higher state of consciousness and codified as Mantra-saṃhitās. However, this knowledge is abstruse, vast and not readily accessible, except to the specialist, who has undergone extensive rigorous training over a long period of time. The technical texts that are available (the Brāhmaṇa) with extensive commentaries and steps, are themselves quite cryptic, complex and detail-oriented and not something that one can suddenly pick up one day and decide to do a Yajna. He or she must have been trained in this science for a long period. The Tantras, on the other hand, are the scriptures through which the knowledge is supposed to be spread. They had been created manifestly to make the abstruse and esoteric knowledge of the Vedas, accessible to all. Vedic texts are texts written by specialists for other specialists, while Tantric texts are texts written by specialists and practitioners for other practitioners.

Tantra plays the same role in a spiritual practitioner’s life that the “How To” guide alluded to above, plays in a Google search learner’s life. The Dissertation thesis mentioned above is the equivalent of the Brāhmaṇas and the Upaniṣads, which are specialized documents meant for specialists who want to gain knowledge. Tantra is therefore a spiritual knowledge of practical nature and is concerned with the application of the principles of tattva (science of fundamental building blocks of nature) and mantra (science of the sound equivalent of deities) to facilitate spiritual evolution. More specifically, the underlying framework of tantra is based on Vedānta and Sāṃkhya, with some differences[8]. Tantra “combines with the ultimate reality of Brahman or Siva, the validity of the world as an expression of His Shakti.”[9] Tantra is therefore the bridge between the Vedic Karmakāṇḍa (rituals) and Darshana (philosophy), and hence Tantras are sometimes mentioned as a part of the Vedas and also called as the fifth Veda.

Sir John Woodroffe (also known as Arthur Avalon) in his book Shakti and Shakta says[10]:

The Agamas are not themselves treatises on Philosophy, though they impliedly contain a particular theory of life. They are what is called Sadhana Shastras, that is, practical Scriptures prescribing the means by which happiness, the quest of all mankind, may be attained. And as lasting happiness is God, they teach how man by worship and by practice of the disciplines prescribed, may attain a divine experience. From incidental statements and the practices described the philosophy is extracted.

Some of the other similarities between Vedic and Tantric metaphysics are as below

Karmakāṇḍa is common to both Veda and Tantra.

The idea of giving up a false association with the body is common to Darshana and Tantra.

Shuddhikaraṇa (purification) of body and mind of Rāja Yoga is found in Tantra.

Bhakti is common between Purāna and Tantra.

One of the major differences between the Vedic and Tantric mode of worship is with respect to the re-usability of the Mantras. In the Vedic scheme, each desired outcome and each action has a different set of Mantras and corresponding detailed processes. In the Tantric scheme, the same mantra can be used to achieve different aims, only the Sankalpa has to be different.[11]

Today, if you want to do a Pujā at home, you will typically refer to a Nitya Karma text and not a Brahmana or Upanishadic text. These Nitya Karma books will have detailed descriptions of various karmas (nitya, naimitya, etc), methodology and mantras of different Pujās and a collection of Stotrams of various deities. It will not contain a single line of philosophy or esoteric knowledge. Most of these steps of ritual purification, mudrā, nyāsa etc., would have been collated from Tantric manuals, while many of the Mantras will be from the Vedas and Puranas. As an illustration, a typical Nitya Karma Puja guide from the Bengal region today is based on many earlier guides like the 18th century mantra digest Pranatoshini Tantra or the 16th century worship manual Brihat-tantrasara by Krishnananda Agamvagish. Krishnananda himself referred to still earlier Tantric texts, mantra digests and major compendiums like the Prapañcasāra Tantra and śāradā Tilaka Tantra.

Conclusion

Thus, as we can see, Tantra is an essential constituent element of Hinduism and pervades almost all aspects our lives. While Vedas provide knowledge and illumination, the Tantras provide a practical “how to” guide to spiritual aspirants to gain spiritual ascendancy. Tantra philosophy accepts an all-pervading Ultimate Reality and subscribes to the Samkhya cosmology and thus presupposes the philosophy of the Vedanta and Samkhya. However, there are some fundamental philosophical and technical differences between the Vedic and Tantric streams, some of which we have covered. In the words of Swami Samarpananda[12]:

The tantras successfully worked out the synthesis of karma, jnana, bhakti, and yoga for the benefit of practitioners in achieving ultimate union with the supreme Reality. Being a product of the spiritual cross-currents of Hinduism, it sucked into its domain everything connected with religion that was to be found anywhere in India. In turn, it churned out numerous spiritual insights that were beneficial for humankind.

Despite being such an integral part of Hinduism, Tantra continues to be misunderstood and misrepresented. Sir John Woodroffe said in 1913: “of all the forms of Hindu Shastra, the Tantra is that which is least known and understood, a circumstance in part due to the difficulties of its subject-matter and to the fact that the key to much of its terminology and method rest with the initiate.”[13]

In his book Shakti and Shakta, he says of the Tantric rituals: “How profound Indian ritual is, will be admitted by those who have understood the general principles of all ritual and symbolism, and have studied it in its Indian form, with a knowledge of the principles of which it is an expression. Those who speak of ‘mummery,’ ‘gibberish’ and ‘superstition’ betray both their incapacity and ignorance.”[14] So, the logical question is that if Tantra is such an integral part of Hinduism, then why is there so much ignorance about it? Why do most people associate Tantra with marginal practices alone? Given that Tantra is a major component of Hinduism, what can we do to reclaim our heritage and disassociate it from the perverted depiction of Tantra, especially in the west?

Writer  Subhodeep Mukhopadhyay explores and delve into the classification of tantras including practice of Pañca-makāra and ṣaṭ-karma, which are in a way, the source of many confusions and misinterpretations and try to challenges prejudices of early 20th century Indologists, as they attempted to study, classify and deconstruct a pluralistic “pagan” faith with sophisticated philosophy, through a colonial history-centric exclusivist Abrahamic lens.

Aim of Tantra Śāstra

Usage and Etymology of Tantra

Before analyzing the etymology of Tantra, let us step back a little and examine a few ancient as well as modern “secular” usage of words containing tantra.

Modern Usage: India as a modern democracy is a lokatantra. Bhāratavarṣa, the Republic of India is a gaṇatantra. In the sense of a nation state, in 1947 India became svatantra.

Ancient Usage: Adi Shankara refers to Sāṃkhya as a tantra. There are texts like Mātṛtantra and Bhūtatantra, which deal with the technical aspects of the Mother Goddess and ethereal beings like ghosts etc., respectively. Another text is the Aṣṭāṅga tantra related to Ayurveda.

Usage for Children: Traditionally, Indian children are taught morals and commonsense through the stories of Pañcatantra.

In all these usages, the only sense of the word tantra, which makes sense across the board, is “traditional knowledge” or “science” or “specialism” or “rules”. Thus:

Lokatantra is the science of people (democracy)

Gaṇatantra is the science of groups of people (Republic)

Svatantra is the science of self-hood (independence)

Mātṛtantra is the set of rules for the worship of Mother Goddess

Bhūtatantra refers to the rules for dealing with ethereal beings

Aṣṭāṅga tantra is a text in eight parts about Ayurveda

Pañcatantra is the science of niti (rightful conduct of life) through five books.

The term Tantra (1) is “applied in several other provinces of Indian literature to a technical ‘expose’ or ‘handbook’, which in a more or less extensive way deals with a certain subject. Sometimes it means little more than ‘tradition’, ‘specialism’”. John Woodroffe explains in his book ‘Shakti and Śākta’ (2) : “A Very common expression in English writings is “The Tantra”; but its use is often due to a misconception and leads to others. For what does Tantra mean? The word denotes injunction (Vidhi), regulation (Niyama), Śāstra generally or treatise. Thus Shamkara calls the Samkhya, a Tantra. A secular writing may be called Tantra.” This is also broadly in line with some of the commonly accepted etymologies of Tantra:

tantra is supposed to have originated from the root tan (to spread)(3) and therefore tantra is scripture by which knowledge is spread (4)

Some writers derive tantra from tatri meaning knowledge

tantra is that body of knowledge which talks about tattva (essence of objects) and mantra (essence of sacred sounds) (5)

tantra can be explained by splitting its two supposed components, ‘tan’ and ‘tra’, as that which elaborates something of great import connected with mantras and tattvas, which in its turn leads to emancipation or salvation (6).

Over a period of time tantra came to be associated mostly with tantra śāstra, a specialized body of knowledge in the Śaiva, Śākta and Vaiṣṇava domains dealing with spiritual ascendancy and Brahmavidyā.

Monism versus Monotheism

Except for the Śaiva Siddhāntas of southern India, most tantric schools believe in the philosophy of advaita (non-dualism or monism). Advaita literally means “one undivided without a second” and is a philosophical notion unique to India (7), especially Hindu thought. Advaita posits that the entire Universe is one reality, which is also known variously as tat (That), Brahman, Śiva and perhaps God (for the want of a better English term, though not to be confused with Abrahamic God). That reality is abstract, infinite and eternal. Creation and all that we see around us is a projection of ‘That’ reality, having undergone (or apparently having undergone) a two-fold change of “finitization” and “manifestation”, to become perceptible as objects having names and forms:

By “finitization” (application of limiting adjunct), the Infinite reality becomes (or appears to become) finite

“Manifestation” converts (or appears to convert), the abstract Reality into categories, which we can comprehend through our five senses and three spatial dimensions. These may be defined by Sāṃkhya with 24 categories or Kashmiri Shaivism with 36 categories.

The implication of non-dualism is that, all objects in the universe, whether living or non-living, plants or animals, cells or galaxies, are non-separate from this grand reality. Hence, we are all part of God in the sense of Ultimate Reality, and there is no creation that is separate from the creator. In short, therefore, Hindu philosophy categorically insists that all men are born Divine, by virtue of being a part of the underlying Universal Consciousness. However, on account of the limiting adjuncts, we are not conscious of our underlying divinity and potential. The basic aim of all Hindu religious practice is thus to realize this divinity within us and thereby become one with “That”.

Please note that this is quite distinct from the Abrahamic God (Christian God, Muslim Allah and Jewish Yahweh), who are accepted as Creators and thereby separate from Creation. The Abrahamic God is not abstract, all-pervading or genderless like our Brahman, but rather a violent (8), jealous (9), and anthropomorphic male God, who does not like non-believers (10). During the 14 billion years history of the universe, God has revealed Himself only a few times to a few people (the Prophets) in a rather small geography, the middle-east, within a very narrow span of 1,000 years somewhere between 600 BCE to 600 CE. God, then spread His message through these Prophets and Holy Books were written. That was the final word of God. The Abrahamic God will never reveal himself again ever, and there cannot be any other prophets. Each of these religions thinks that their God is the only true God and all other Gods are false. More importantly, since God in the Abrahamic religions is a category separate and distinct from the phenomenal world, there is no concept of achieving Oneness as in Hindu thought. Hence, all practices like Yoga or Tantra sādhanā, whose aim is to achieve union with the Universal Godhead, is experientially as well as intellectually incomprehensible to the practitioners of Abrahamic religions.

Consequently, the categories of monotheistic Abrahamic religions are not as comprehensive as those of non-dual or dualist Indian faiths. It is this inadequacy of the Abrahamic lens, which has been one of the biggest handicaps and stumbling blocks for understanding and interpreting Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism in religion and culture studies in colonial India as well as in the West today. These deficiencies in Abrahamic categories are a major reason behind most of the distortions and misunderstandings that we see today in Indology. It is exceedingly difficult and perhaps well-neigh impossible for a monotheist (or even an atheist) (11) to comprehend non-dualism and its associated practices like yajña, yoga, homam, pūjā and sādhanā. It is like somebody with a PhD in only Waste Management, trying to understand particle physics directly. Garbage, sewage, drainage and sludge are the only categories he knows, so he will only see filth everywhere and not atoms, and consequently map everything from electron to quarks onto a garbage framework.

Philosophy of Tantra Śāstra

We are now in a better position to understand and appreciate the essential philosophy of the Tantra śāstra . (12)

Ultimate Reality is Brahman, the Sat-cit-ānanda (Existence, Knowledge and Bliss), and is Infinite.

That reality appears to undergo a two-fold change on account of Māyā. Māyā is thus the limiting power of Reality by which the unperceivable Sat-cit-ānanda can be intellectually cognized, and which provides us the framework of nāmarūpa (forms and categories), which help us in the very process of cognition.

It is through Māyā that we perceive all Creation – the Universe, others and ourselves as separate entities. It is Māyā, which makes one think that the creation is distinct from Brahman or that Śiva is separate from Shakti.

Till this point, both Vedānta and tantra philosophy agree with each other.

Tantra believes in the Śiva-Shakti nature of Consciousness, that is, in the dual aspect of Consciousness, the Absolute and its creative Power, which are eternally united.

Spiritual knowledge in tantra is therefore “the knowledge of the whole—of Consciousness as Being and of Consciousness as the power of becoming.”

Since, creation is real, a sādhaka must immerse himself in action, devotion and knowledge during his sādhanā process

The important differences between Vedānta and tantra are:

In Vedānta, māyā is neither real nor unreal, and functions only during creation, preservation and destruction phase. Hence neither is creation ultimately real (jaganmithyā), nor are created beings real. True knowledge is thus an undifferentiated consciousness.

Tantra philosophy believes that both the creation and the jīva are real, and that non-dual reality undergoes real evolution. In this it differs from both Viśiṣṭādvaita and Advaita Vedānta respectively.

The Vaiṣṇava Pañcarātra Agamas believe in the philosophy of Bhedābheda, which means “simultaneous difference and non-difference”. According to this school, the individual self (jīvātman) is both different and at the same time not different from the ultimate reality known as paratattva (Brahman). The relationship between jīva and brahman is similar to that between waves and ocean or between sparks and a fire.(13)

Just as one cannot separate the waves from the ocean, so too the jīva cannot be separated from Brahman.

Just as there are many waves, both temporally and spatially, so too there are many jīvas.

Just as there cannot be an ocean without waves, in the same way the jīvas are an essential phenomenal reality and a part of Brahman.

Just as the existence of waves in the ocean in no way diminishes the amount of water therein, in the same way Brahman’s being made up of parts in no way diminishes the perfection of Brahman.

The aim of the Pañcarātra Agamas is also the attainment of knowledge of paratattva, the Highest Reality. However, when the sādhaka realizes “this Brahman or God, the jivas appear to have become one with Him, but do maintain a subtle distinction also”. (14)

The Śaiva Siddhāntas have a distinctly dualistic framework and insist that one can never become a Śiva and at best one can become like Śiva and experience the world in the same way as him. As per this school (15) , the jīva (individual self) is different from Śiva, the Ultimate Reality and this “difference is not in their essence but in their constitution. Their relationship with Siva is not a state of oneness but of sameness… After liberation, the liberated soul knows that its intrinsic nature is that of Siva but that it is not Siva or the Supreme Self. Thus in its liberated state it continues to experience some form of duality, while enjoying Siva (pati) consciousness as its true consciousness free from all bonds (pasas).”

Aim of Tantra Śāstra

The highest aim of the Tantra Śāstras is therefore mokṣa or liberation from bondage. Tantra as a system of thought and practice enables a person to visualize the Universe within himself and to visualize himself as being one with the Universe. Tantra is an inward-looking Science, where both the Subject and the Object is the person himself and hence Tantra can be described as “both an experience and a scientific method by which man can bring out his inherent spiritual power”. (16)

This state of liberation may be achieved by sādhanā, which is the systematic performance of certain rituals and adherence to specific methods of worship and includes:

Recitation of mantras (bīja)

Construction of mystical geometric symbols (maṇḍala) and objects (yantra)

Placement of specific sound-vibrations onto the body (nyāsa)

Use of certain gestures (mudrā) and meditation on the deity (dhyāna)

Doing pūjā, performing japa (repetition of mantras) and purashcharaṇa

Advanced yoga practices

In describing the ritual-orientation of Tantra Śāstras, David Kinsley notes that (17) “by means of various rituals (exterior and interior, bodily and mental) the sādhaka (practitioner) seeks to gain mokṣa (release, liberation)”. The ultimate aim of sādhanā is therefore to “increase concentration and make the mind still. It helps to make an individual detached and become Stitahprajna (stable/equilibrium). But this detachment is neither disinterest towards objects of outer world, nor apathy towards people; instead it is pure selfless love for the whole cosmos without any discrimination or selfish attachment. What actually Sadhana does is to burn away the burden of past karmas that are blocking one’s journey towards the source. Hence, the ultimate end result of any spiritual Sadhana is Jnana (Enlightenment) and complete merger with the Cosmos/God.”(18)

Subject Matter of the Tantras

John Woodroffe in his introduction to the Mahanirvana Tantra says (19) : “The Indian Tantras, which are numerous, constitute the Scripture (Śāstra) of the Kaliyuga, and are as such a voluminous source of present and practical orthodox ‘Hinduism’ … To the Tantras we must therefore look if we should understand aright both ritual, yoga, and sādhanā of all kinds as they exist today, as also the general principles of which these practices are but the objective expression.”

A Tantra traditionally is supposed to cover five (20) or seven (21) topics. The five topics are creation, destruction, worship of Gods, the attainment of all objects and the so-called six magical rites. The seven topics are: Process of creation, dissolution of the Universe, worship of God according to prescribed rules, rules of propitiating all deities, the practice of purascaraṇam, the six practices – ṣaṭkarman and the fourfold dhyānayoga – Yoga of meditation.

Typical subject-matter of a Tantra text (22) :

Philosophical Background – Speculation on the nature of the Absolute, cosmogony, the equivalence of the microcosm and the macrocosm, discussion on jñāna and philosophy, metaphysics, cosmology, the concept and mode of liberation

Mantra Śāstra – Creative nature of sound and word, The power of speech, mantrodhāra

Types of initiation– construction of and initiation into mandala, construction of yantras

Yoga especially Kundaliniyoga and symbolism, four fold practice of yoga, meditation

Daily and special pūjā at home or temple, devotion, image making

Advanced practices for the initiated, mantra purascaraṇa

Gaining super-normal powers, ṣaṭkarman

Rules of conduct, domestic rites and rituals, kriyā, charyā

Deities and their exploits

In addition to cosmogony, mantra creation and other theoretical matters, a typical Śaiva Agama orVaiṣṇava Samhita text will deal more with kriyā and charyā based topics like (23) :

Construction of temples, Installation of images

Temple worship

Ceremonial bathing

Public festivals

French Indologist, Andre Padoux, while talking about the doctrinal aspects of Tantra, describes it as (24) “an attempt to place kama, desire, in every sense of the word, in the service of liberation … not to sacrifice this world for liberation’s sake, but to reinstate it, in varying ways, within the perspective of salvation. This use of kama and of all aspects of this world to gain both worldly and supernatural enjoyments (bhukti) and powers (siddhis), and to obtain liberation in this life (jivanmukti), implies a particular attitude on the part of the Tantric adept toward the cosmos, whereby he feels integrated within an all-embracing system of micro-macrocosmic correlations.”

Conclusion

The Vedas are intended for specialists, while Tantras are meant for spiritual practitioners.

Swami Satyaswarupananda, while discussing Tantric Sādhanā in Prabuddha Bharata, very rightly observes (25):

Tantra, it has been pointed out, is the soul of Hindu spiritual practices. Its wide acceptance— consciously or unconsciously—is the result of its eclectic and pragmatic nature. The tantras contain within them ‘the essentials of the Vedic sacrifices and oblations, and the essence of the monotheistic philosophy of the Upaniṣads, of the Bhakti cult preached by the Purāṇas, of the Yoga method propounded by Patañjali, and of the mantra element of the Atharva-Veda. … The Tāntric mode of Sādhanā, which combines in it Yoga and Bhakti, mantra and homa (oblation), jñāna and karma, prove beyond doubt that Tāntrism can be best studied as the synthesis of all that was good in the various forms of Sādhanā in vogue and, as such, its claim to be the shortest route to the summum bonum, and its promise to its adherents of the easy and speedy attainment of the end, are perhaps justified.’

However, over the last 200 years and especially in the last 50 years, as a consequence of colonial rule as well as post-colonial South Asian studies in the West, and on account of certain socio-political and divisive forces both within and outside India, the meaning of tantra has undergone a drastic change from “technical spiritual knowledge” to ritualized sex and perversions. This is a serious matter which we will fully explore in the latter part of the series. However, to fully appreciate the dynamics of these external forces and how they work, we would first need to deepen our understanding of the tantra Śāstra in general, including the underlying metaphysics, which we have covered to a certain extent.

The tantra śāstras are an integral part of Hinduism, and provide spiritual practitioners concrete guidelines to achieve spiritual ascendancy. In terms of philosophical outlook, most of the tantras, have a decidedly non-dual outlook. Many of the sādhanā practices like pūjā, meditation and yoga described in the tantra śāstras are rooted in the non-dualist aim of achieving experiential Oneness with the Universal cosmic consciousness [1]. In comparing and contrasting non-dualism and Abrahamic monotheism, we had earlier highlighted the severe challenges encountered by those with an Abrahamic lens (whether theist or atheist) in trying to comprehend tantra Śāstra and its allied practices.

Classification of Tantric texts.

A classification exercise will help us map out the complete landscape and make sense of the diversity of traditions, and also to appreciate the commonality between seemingly disparate texts. Compared to Vedic studies, an easily accessible, comprehensive and detailed study of all tantric and Agamaic texts, at a comparable scale, is not available.  There is a huge amount of material available in different versions and very few critical editions have been published. Even today, there are numerous manuscripts in Sanskrit and regional languages, both within and outside India, which are yet to be translated. On the top of that, there are many spurious and fake manuscripts, some indigenous and others of foreign origin [2].  Lamenting on the neglect of the systematic study of Tantra Śāstra, Goudriaan [3] says: “The study of Tantric literature has often been neglected in the past… Systematic further investigation into the field is important and urgent; important because of the intrinsic value of this province of Indian literature as the literary heritage of an extremely influential stream in Indian religious history… and urgent, because a great number of manuscripts, neglected by the present generation, is in danger of getting lost.”

Different Systems of Classification of Tantras

The Tantra Śāstra also known as Agamas permeate the life of modern Hindus across the length and breadth of Indian-subcontinent and Southeast Asia. The diversity of these texts is immense – for example a Kāmākhyā Kālī tantra text from Assam appears to be vastly different from a south Indian Śrīvidyā text, both in the diversity of topics and differentiation of outlooks. However, underlying all this diversity are a lot of common themes pertaining to metaphysics, cosmology, epistemology, yoga and meditation techniques. Given the immense landscape with respect to deities, geographies and chronology, before classifying the texts, we need to select a method of classification. Traditionally, there are five major ways of classifying the Tantra texts based on the deity, nature of the texts, Krāntās, Sampradāyas and srotas.

Deity-wise tantra texts can be broadly classified as Śaiva, Śākta, Vaiṣṇava, Saura and Gāṇapatya.

Based on the type of texts, Tantra literature can be classified as [4]:

Āgama – Primary tantric texts are normally known as Āgama (and Nigama). They can again be subdivided according to the sect:

Śaiva Agamas, which are said to be twenty eight in number

Śākta Agamas, which are said to be  seventy seven in number

Vaiṣṇava Agamas like the Vaikhānasa and Pāñcarātra

Others like Saura and Gāṇapatya sects and general tantra texts

Yāmala – Texts which are attributed to realized souls called Bhairavas are known as yāmalas.

Damara – These texts are attributed to Śiva’s attendants.

According to krāntā system, Bharatavarsha is divided into three krāntās, each having 64 tantras [5] [6]:

Viṣṇu krāntā, comprising the region to the east of the Vindhya range upto Java in Indonesia

Ratha krāntā, comprising the region to the north of Vindhya range including China

Ashvakrāntā, comprising the region West of the Vindhya mountains

In terms of sampradāya (schools), Bharata is said to have four sampradāya [7]:

Gauḍa sampradāya to the east

Kerala sampradāya in the middle

Kāśmīra sampradāya in the North and West

Vilāsa sampradāya found everywhere else

As per the srota system, there are three currents [8] :

Dakṣiṇa srota, which is characterized by sattva guṇa, and is further classified according to four pīṭhas, which are vidyā, mantra, mudra and maṇḍala. The yāmala texts belong to this srota.

Vāma srota, which is characterized by rajas and includes texts like lalita, siddha, santāna etc.,

Madhyama, which is characterized by tamas and includes texts like vijaya, nishvāsa etc.

Different modes of classification yields different sets of texts. Not all the systems are able to account for all the texts. Let me illustrate by taking an example of a text called Brahma yāmala, which is an yāmala text of the Bhairava stream of the Śaiva tradition (specifically Śivaśakti tradition). The knowledge of Brahmayāmala was transmitted via the guru- śiṣya paramparā across geographies over the ages. The first recipient of the divine knowledge was Śrīkaṇṭha, who communicated it to a Bhairava in Prayāga, who in turn taught to other Bhairavas: Krodha, Kapāla and Padma. Padma transmitted the divine knowledge to Devadatta of the Oḍra country. Devadatta had fourteen disciples, who were residents of Madhyadeśa, Saurāṣṭra, Sindhu and other areas [9]. In terms of krāntā, sampradāya and deity, Brahma yāmala has no clear-cut position, but must rather be defined in relation to one or more categories. Therefore, Barhma yāmala describes itself as adhering to the Bhairava srota, Mahābhairava tantra, vidyā pīṭha, and picumata.

Apart from the primary tantra and Āgama texts, there are many specialized tantras, which deal with Ṣhaṭ-Karma, chemistry, astrology and other specific topics. Then, we come across, a major class of very important texts in the nature of mantra Śāstra texts, pūjā digests and compendiums, many of which are the source material for the regular Pūjā books that we use in our homes or temples. Hence, we need a system that spans across all these diverse set of texts. To this end, we will use a classification and enumeration system, given below, based on traditional sources and commentaries, Indian works of pandits like Mahamahopadhyay Gopinath Kaviraj (~1925) and P.C. Bagchi (~1940), modern Indian writings of monks like Swami Samarpanananda and Swami Harshananda, and finally works of Western Indologists like Jan Gonda (1977) and Teun Goudriaan (1981).

Śaiva – Sadaśiva (Śivagama), Vāma or Tumburu, Dakṣiṇa or Bhairava

Śivaśakti traditions – Yāmala (also part of Bhairava tradition)

Śākta – Kālī traditions (Kālī, Kālī Viṣṇu, Kāmākhyā, Tārā and Others), Śrīkula tradition

Kula and Other tantras

Vaiṣṇava – Vaikhānasa, Pāñcarātra, bhakti-oriented tantras of Kṛṣṇa and Rāma

Mantraśāstra

Nibandha

Others – supernatural, chemistry, astrology, alchemy, etc.,

Tantra, Āgama and Saṃhitā

Tantra and Āgama for all practical purposes can be treated as the same and are used interchangeably in the Tantric literature. However, there are some technical differences, especially in the domain of the Ṣaivāgamas, which we have covered in our earlier essay. The south Indian Śaiva Agamas deal more with practical matters like daily worship, building temples, and installation and consecration of idols, and have lesser dealings in the metaphysical realm. The Śaiva tantras focus more on the metaphysical and mystical aspects of the non-dualist doctrine. Another type of text that we come across is the saṃhitā, which is characterized by a four-pāda (quarter) structure and which we find in both the Śaiva as well as Vaiṣṇava domain. In this context, Goudriaan explains [10] :

“Notwithstanding the differences, we are bound to assume that the Agamas and saṃhitās on the one side and the early Tantras on the other have grown on common ground; that both were originally known in the North of India (although the Agamic and Pāñcarātra literatures were preserved almost only in the South); that both were perhaps not meant as antagonistic, but as complementary to each other; that both Agamas and early Śaiva tantras originated in the circles of those, who were well versed in the speculation on Śiva’s mystic nature and in the symbolic expression thereof (and the quest for identification with it) in ritual and yogic practice.”

Overall, the different types of Tantric texts are tantra, Āgama, saṃhitā, sūtra, upaniṣad, purāṇa, tīkā (commentaries), prakaraṇa, paddhati texts, stotram, kavaca, nighaṇṭu, koṣa and hagiographical literature.

Śaiva Tantras

The Śaiva Tantras are vast and varied and have some important texts like Amṛteṣaṭantra or Netratantra, Netragyanarṇava tantra, Niḥśvāsatattvasaṃhitā, Kālottārā tantra, Sarvajñānottārā tantra and others. According to Abhinavagupta, Kashmiri Śaiva trika philosophy, which deals with the core essence of the ultimate universal reality, was transmitted through a series of ten Ṣaivāgamas, eighteen Raudrāgamasand sixty-four Bhairavāgama texts [11]. The Śaivagamas, which are ten in number are distinctly dualistic or pluralistic in their outlook as they posit three fundamental realities pati, paśu and pāśa. The remaining eighteen Agamas are in between monistic and pluralistic in their metaphysical outlook [12].

Vāma Āgama

Tumburu is a special manifestation of Śiva with four shaktis, Jayā, Vijayā, Ajitā and Aparājitā. The vāmasrota was quite popular even in south-east Asia (Kambuja and Indonesia) till the 10th century CE.Vāma Āgama supposedly contain works of Kāpāla, Kālamukha and Aghora among others. Some of the important vāmagama texts are śiraśchedatantra, Vīṇāśikhatantra, Sammohanatantra, and Nayottārātantra. Other texts belonging to this category are Bhairavī, Vīnā, Vīnāmaṇi, Damara, Atharvaka, many of which are now lost.

Dakṣiṇa Āgama

According to tradition [13], the dakṣiṇa Āgama issued from the right mouth of Śiva. Dakṣiṇāgama texts can be divided into four pīṭhas, the vidyā, mantra, mudra and maṇḍala. The tantras belonging to the vidyāpīṭha are Yoginījāla, Yoginīhṛdaya, Mantramālinī, Āghoreṣī, āghoreśvarī, Krīḍāghoreśvari, Lākinīkalpa, Māricī, Mahāmāricī and Ugravidyāgaṇa.

Śaiva siddhānta tradition

The Śaiva siddhānta tradition of Southern India is based on the Śaivagama and the raudrāgama tradition, which are believed to have been revealed by Śiva’s five mouths Sadyojāta, Vāmadeva, Aghora, Tatpuruṣa and Īśāna. They have a total of twenty eight texts.

Dualist School of Ṣaivāgamas

Sadyojāta  proclaimed the kāmikā, yogaja, cintya, kāraṇa, ajita

Vāmadeva proclaimed the dipta, sukṣmā, sahasra, aṃsumāna, suprabheda

Dualistic-cum-monistic school of Raudrāgamas

Aghora proclaimed the vijaya, niḥśvāsa, svāyaṃbhuva, anala, vīra

Tatpuruṣa proclaimed the raurava, makuṭa,  vimala, candra jñāna, bimba

Īśāna pronounced the prodgītā, lalita, santāna, sarvokta, pārameśvara, kiraṇa, vātula, siddha

Other Āgama texts belong to the sects of Pāśupata, soma and Lākula (Nākula)

Yāmala Tradition

The yāmalas represent the Bhairava tradition of the Śaiva domain. The Bhairavas are believed to have been human teachers, who through their spiritual practices attained liberation during their lifetimes and became Śiva-like in their purity. These eight spiritual giants were Bhairavas: Svaccanda, Krodha, Unmatta, Ugra, Kapālin, Jhaṅkāra, Śekhara and Vijaya and they transmitted the knowledge of the eight principal yāmalas to human-kind through the guru-śiṣya paramparā.

The eight main yāmalas are rudra yāmala, skanda yāmala, brahma yāmala, viṣṇu yāmala, yama yāmala, yāyu yāmala, kubera yāmala and indra yāmala.

Two other important yāmalas belonging to the Bhairava tradition are the piṅgalāmata yāmala and the jayadhrata yāmala.

Other secondary yāmalas are the lakṣmī yāmala, gaṇeśa yāmala, candra yāmala, śakti yāmala, svaccanda yāmala, ruru yāmala, ṣiddha yāmala and the atharvāṇa yāmala.

Vaiṣṇava āgamas

The Vaiṣṇava Agamas, also known as the Vaiṣṇavatantras include the popular Pāñcarātra andVaikhānasa traditions, along with lesser known tantras of Kṛṣṇa, Rādhā, Gaurāṅga and Rāma. According to the Sammohana tantra, the latter group includes 75 tantra texts, 205 upatantras, 8 saṃhitās, 1 Yamala, and 2 Damaras [14], but perhaps many of those works are lost and no longer available to us.

Pāñcarātra saṃhitā

Pāñcarātra literally means five nights (pañca: five, rātra: nights) and refers to that esoteric knowledge taught by Keshava (viṣṇu) to Ananta, Garuda, Vishvaksena, Brahma and Rudra over five nights. Swami Harshananda [15] says that since Pāñcarātra “teaches five kinds of knowledge, it is called Pancharatra. These are tattva (cosmology), muktiprada (that which gives mukti, or liberation),bhaktiprada (that which confers devotion), yaugika (yoga) and vaishayika (objects of desire). Or, alternatively, since it teaches about the five aspects of God (called Purushottama)—parā (highest), vyuha(emanation), vibhava (incarnation), antaryāmin (indweller), and archa (form of worship)—it is called Pancharatra.”

Traditionally, there are one hundred and eight Pāñcarātra saṃhitā texts. There are five such lists of hundred and eight texts with some variances, and hence the total number of saṃhitās in existence could have been two hundred and ten. However, many of these works have not been studied owing to a variety of reasons. Gonda [16] explains that “over thirty of the texts extant remain in manuscript form, but many works survive only in fragments; others have not been found or recovered. There are no doubt many works still surviving in libraries yet to be identified with at least some of the titles occurring in the lists.” While the Pāñcarātra texts are called saṃhitās, they also include the important work Lakṣmītantra. Pāñcarātra texts form an important part of the Śrīvaiṣṇava sampradāya.

An important text is the Ahirbudhnya Saṃhitā [17], having 3880 verses in the anuṣṭubh metre. Spread over 60 chapters, it specifically propounds the mystery of Sudarśana, the wondrous discus of Lord Viṣṇu as given by Ahirbudhnya (Śiva) to Nārada and narrated by Durvāsas to Bharadvāja. The text describes the nature of Ultimate Reality Nārāyaṇa, and its two aspects, the active aspect kriyāśakti and the material aspect the bhūtaśakti, and how the world is created as the configuration of sattva, raja and tamas changes. Similar to other texts in this genre, it talks about mantras for meditation and worship, characteristics of the ācārya (preceptor), śiṣya (disciple) and dīkṣā (initiation), yantras, yoga, astras (supernatural weapons), and mantras for curing diseases of body and  mind.

Some of the other important pāñcarātra texts are Jayākhya saṃhitā, Pārameśvara saṃhitā, Pauśkara saṃhitā, Pādma saṃhitā, Nāradīya saṃhitā, Haṃsaparameśvara saṃhitā, Vaihāyasa saṃhitā and Śrīkālapraā saṃhitā.

Vaikhānasa Āgama

The Vaikhānasa sampradāya are a community of temple priests, who are ordained by birth to be priests. They base their spiritual practices on the Vaikhānasa Agamas. The founder of this sect is believed to beVikhanas, a spiritual giant, who is considered to be an incarnation of Viṣṇu. He gained divine knowledge through his spiritual practices and passed it on to his four disciple’s Marīci, Atri, Bhṛgu, and Kāśyapa. Important texts which have survived are as follows [18]:

Anandasaṃhitā and Jayasaṃhitā of Marīci;

Khilādhikāra, Kriyādhikāra, Prakīrṇādhikāra  and Yajñādhikāra of Bhṛgu;

Jñānakāṇḍa of Kāśyapa;

Uttaratantra (or Samūrtārcanādhikāra) of Atri.

Tantras of Kṛṣṇa, Rādhā, Gaurāṅga and Rāma

The Gautamīya tantra is a very famous Vaiṣṇavatantra work which describes the ritual worship of Kṛṣṇa, and has been extensively cited and commented upon later by scholars like Mukundalal, Radkakrishna Goswamin, and Radhāmohana. It is a very important text for the Gauḍiya Vaiṣṇava sampradāya as well as for the puja system of Sri Jagannath in Puri in Odisha. In thirty four chapters, it talks about Krishna mantras, description of Vrindavana, meditation on chakras and Kundalini Yoga, among other topics. Gautamīya tantra says [19] that Śrī Kṛṣṇa, who is very affectionate toward His devotees, sells Himself to a devotee, who offers merely a tulasī leaf and a palmful of water and that the transcendental goddess Śrīmatī Rādhārāṇī, the direct counterpart of Lord Śrī Kṛṣṇa is the primeval internal potency of the Lord. This bhakti-oriented tantra recommends that for a sannyāsī, who has no home, worship of the Deity within the mind is appropriate.

Other important texts are:

The Bṛhadbrahmasaṃhitā from the Nāradapāñcarātra focuses on the worship of Kṛṣṇa as the beloved of Rādhā.

The Māheśvaratantra is a Vaiṣṇava tantra presented as a dialogue between Śiva and Pārvatī. It specifically deals with Lakṣmī’s manifestation as Ramā and Rukmiṇi.

The Sātvatatantra is a bhakti-style tantric text intended for the Sātvatas or Bhāgavatas.

Rādhātantra (or Vāsudevarahasyam), and Kṛṣṇayāmala

Īśānasaṃhitā and Ūrdhvāṃnāyasaṃhitā deal with worship of Kṛṣṇa as Gaurāṅga

Agastyasaṃhitā and Dāśarathīyatantra for Rāma worshippers.

Incidentally, the Gītā Dhyānam, which millions of Hindus chant every day before commencing with Bhagavad Gītā pāṭha, is believed to be from the Vaiṣṇavīya Tantrasāra.

Short Note on Śiva as Tumburu and Śiraścheda Sādhanā of Cambodia

Interestingly, the Jayadhrata yāmala and the Vīṇāśikhatantra prescribes a specific mode of sādhanā calledśiraścheda, which is no more in vogue today, but was quite popular till early 9th century even as far as Kambuja (Hinduized Cambodia) and Bali in Indonesia. Many modern Hindus may not be aware that an important factor behind the spread of Hindu culture throughout south-east Asia was the popular demand for tantra vidyā in those areas. There was a constant flow of highly trained Brahmin tantric adepts like Hiraṇyadāma and Kaundiṇya, who migrated from India to different parts of south-east Asia and imparted knowledge of specialized modes of worship like śiraścheda to local priests, many of whom were in fact earlier Indian migrants.

The Sdok kak Thom inscription in Thailand alludes to this mode of worship and explains the iconography and the philosophy. According to Chirapat Prapandvidya [20], “It begins with an invocation to Śiva, who is described as the one whose real nature is ātman (Supreme Reality), which cannot be expressed in words, but its existence can be inferred by the fact that it pervades the whole bodies of living beings and causes their sensual organs to function. He is further invoked to protect the whole universe with his three eyes, which are the moon, the sun and fire. Those, who see the real nature of ātman, see him clearly in all respects.”

This inscription talks about the Devarāja tradition of Shiva in ancient Cambodia. The tradition started [21] in 802 CE under the reign of King Jayavarman II, when a Brāhmaṇa named Hiraṇyadāma from India accompanied “His Majesty, and His Majesty’s guru, into the depths of the moss-laden forests of Mahendraparvata”. Hiraṇyadāma, then disclosed the mysteries of Devarāja, so that “the king [could] become the cakravartin, or universal ruler.” He taught to Śivakaivalya, the royal priest, four texts, which embodied this esoteric knowledge, namely, Vīṇāśikha, Sammohana, Śiraścheda and Nayottārā.

The Vīṇāśikha is an extremely important work as it is perhaps the only available document concerned with the [22] “Tumburu tradition or Vamasrotas within early Tantric Saivism. About one thing there should be no doubt: the Vīṇāśikha was conceived in India and was brought, together with the other mentioned texts of the Vamasrotas, to South East Asia, where it was taught and written down by Saiva religious specialists… Besides the reference in the Sdok kak Thom inscription, we find several allusions to Tumburu in Sanskrit hymns and fragments from Bali, which partly must go back to an early period of Hindu influence in Indonesia.”

Conclusion

Āgama Hindu Dharma is the name of the religion practiced by Hindus in Southeast Asia, especially in Indonesia. The very fact that Southeast Asian Hindus prefixed their religion with the word Āgama shows how integral tantras are to Hinduism. The massive, rapid and peaceful Hinduization of south-east Asia during the early years of CE, can be attributed to the flow of the knowledge of Āgama Śāstras from India and the continuous migration of Indian tantric sādhakas from different parts of India to Thailand, Cambodia and Indonesia. Within mainland India, tantra sādhanā and metaphysics, deeply influenced Jainism, Buddhism and even the Ismaili Nizari sect of Shia Islam. In terms of geography, tantric influence is seen in China, Tibet, and Southeast Asia and even as far as Japan.

References

[1] (Swami Lokeswarananda, 2010, p. 7)

[2] (Sivaramkrishna, 2010)

[3] Swami Madhavananda in (Swami Lokeswarananda, 2010, p. 5)

[4] (Swami Samarpanananda, 2010)

[5] Padoux, André (2002), “What Do We Mean by Tantrism?”

[6] (Talageri, 2016)

[7] http://infolab.stanford.edu/~backrub/google.html

[8] Unlike Vedanta which considers creation as apparent, Tantra posits that non-dual Reality undergoesreal evolution using the Samkhya categories.

[9] (Swami Lokeswarananda, 2010)

[10] (Woodroffe J. , 1918, p. Chapter One Indian Religion As Bharata Dharma)

[11] (Swami Samarpanananda, 2011)

[12] (Swami Samarpanananda, 2010, p. 275)

[13] (Woodroffe, 1913, p. Introduction)

[14] (Woodroffe J. , 1918, p. Chapter One Indian Religion As Bharata Dharma)

Bibliography

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Swami Lokeswarananda. (2010). Studies on the Tantras. Kolkata: Ramkrishna Mission Institute of Culture.

Swami Samarpanananda. (2010, 4). The Tantras: An Overview. Prabuddha Bharata, pp. 269-275.

Swami Samarpanananda. (2011). Tantra Philosophy and its Practices (Bengali). Belur: Ramakrishna Vivekananda University.

Talageri, S. (2016, 5 7). Two papers by the Renowned Indologist P.E.Dumont. Retrieved from Shrikant G Talageri: http://talageri.blogspot.in/2016/05/two-papers-by-renowned-indologist.html

Woodroffe, J. (1913). Mahanirvana Tantra Translated by Arthur Avalon. Kolkata.

Woodroffe, J. (1918). Shakti and Shakta. Kolkata.

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Goudriaan, T., & Gupta, S. (1981). Hindu Tantric and Sakta Literature. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.

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Mookerjee, A. (1971). Tantra Art Its Philosophy & Physics. New York: Random House.

Mukherjee, G. G. (2010). The Spiritual Heritage of India : The Tantras. In S. Lokeswarananda, Studies on the Tantras (pp. 46-67). Kolkata: Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.

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Swami Samarpanananda. (2010). The Tantras: An Overview. Prabuddha Bharata, 269-275.

Swami Satyaswarupananda. (2010). Editorial. Prabuddha Bharata, 267-268.

White, D. G. (2000). Tantra in Practice. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

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Woodroffe, J. (1918). Shakti and Shakta. Kolkata.

Endnotes:

(Goudriaan & Gupta, 1981, p. 7)

(Woodroffe, Shakti and Shakta, 1918, p. Chapter 3)

Kāśikāvṛtti

tanyate vistāryate jñānam anena iti tantram

tanoti vipulān arthān tattvamantra samanvitān

(Mukherjee, 2010)

The closest to Shankara’s Advaita Vedanta in the Western hemisphere is Spinozism, a monistic theory presented by 17th century Portuguese-Dutch philosopher, Baruch Spinoza

As to those who reject faith, I will punish them with terrible agony in this world and in the Hereafter, nor will they have anyone to help. Quran (3:56)

Do not worship any other god, for the LORD, whose name is Jealous, is a jealous God. (Exodus 34:14)

If your brother, the son of your mother, tempts you in secret or your son, or your daughter, or the wife of your embrace, or your friend, who is as your own soul saying, “Let us go and worship other gods, which neither you, nor your forefathers have known.” Of the gods of the peoples around you, [whether] near to you or far from you, from one end of the earth to the other end of the earth; You shall not desire him, and you shall not hearken to him; neither shall you pity him, have mercy upon him, nor shield him. But you shall surely kill him, your hand shall be the first against him to put him to death, and afterwards the hand of all the people. (Devarim Deuteronomy 13:7-10)

Atheism is not a universal concept. Atheism is closely tied to Abrahamic theology, being simply a rejection of the notion of a Creator God. All Hindus are intrinsically atheists because we don’t buy the Creator God theology. An atheist is not the same as a nāstika. A nāstika is one who does not accept the Vedas as a pramāṇa, like the Jains and Buddhists.

(Swami Samarpanananda, 2010, p. 273)

(Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2016)

(Swami Harshananda, 2003)

(Jayaram, 2016)

(Mookerjee, 1971, p. 11)

(Swami Satyaswarupananda, 2010, p. 268)

(Sridhar, 2010)

(Woodroffe, 1913, p. Introduction and Preface)

(Aiyangar, 1950)

sṛṣṭiśca pralayaścaiva devatānāṃ yathārcanam। sādhanañcaiva sarveṣāṃ puraścaraṇameva ca॥ ṣaṭkarmasādhanañcaiva dhyānayogaścaturvidhaḥ। saptabhirlakṣarṇauyuktamāgamaṃ tāntrikaṃ viduḥ ।

(Swami Samarpanananda, 2010)

(Goudriaan & Gupta, 1981, p. 8)

(White, 2000, p. 8)

(Swami Satyaswarupananda, 2010, p. 267)

By Subhodeep Mukhopadhyay Subhodeep Mukhopadhyay

Demystifying Tantra śāstras Tantra is an integral component of Hinduism at a structural level just as hydrogen atoms are an integral component of a water molecule (H2O).

[soniyatv]

pramana

khyab pa tshad mas grub cing rtags khas blangs kyis grub pa - pervasion established through valid cognition/pramana and the asserted proof [like proclaiming sound as permanent from the viewpoint of a sentient being: sgra chos can, ma byas pa yin par thal, rtag pa yin pa'i phyir, rtag na ma byas pas khyab; tshad mas grub la rtags rtag pa khas len pa'o] [IW]

khyab pa tshad mas grub cing rtags khas blangs kyis grub pa - pervasion established through valid cognition/pramana and the asserted proof [IW]

gyal - pramana eliminating confusion, yawn [IW]

grags chen bco brgyad - the 18 renowned scriptures [of Sakya philosophy]. {so sor thar pa'i mdo}. - Pratimoksha sutra, {‘dul ba mdo rtsa ba}. - Vinaya sutra, {mngon rtogs rgyan}. - Abhisamayalamkara, {mdo sde rgyan}. - Sutralamakara, {rgyud bla ma}. - Uttara tantra, {dbus mtha’ rnam 'byed}. - Madhyantha vibhanga, {chos dang chos nyid rnam 'byed}. - Dharmadharmata vibhanga, {spyod 'jug}. - Bodhicharyavatara, {dbu ma rtsa ba shes rab}. - Mulamadhyamika prajna, {bzhi brgya pa}. - Catuhsataka, {dbu ma la 'jug pa}. - Madhyamikavatara, {mngon pa kun btus}. - Abhidharma samuccaya, {mngon pa mdzod}. - Abhidharma kosha, {tshad ma kun btus}. - Pramana samuccaya, {tshad ma rnam 'grel}. - Pramana vartika, {tsahd ma rnam nges}. - Pramana viniscaya, {tshad ma rigs gter}. - Pramana yuktiniti, {sdom gsum rab dbye}. - Trisamvara pravedha] [IW]

grags chen bco brgyad - the 18 renowned scriptures [of philosophy in the Sakya tradition]. {so sor thar pa'i mdo} Pratimoksha Sutra, {'dul ba mdo rtsa ba} Vinaya Sutra, {mngon rtogs rgyan} Abhisamaya Alamkara, {mdo sde rgyan} Sutra Alamakara, {rgyud bla ma} Uttara Tantra, {dbus mtha’ rnam 'byed} Madhyantha Vibhanga, {chos dang chos nyid rnam 'byed} Dharma Dharmata Vibhanga, {spyod 'jug} Bodhicharya Avatara, {dbu ma rtsa ba shes rab} Mulamadhyamika Prajna, {bzhi brgya pa} Catuhshataka, {dbu ma la 'jug pa} Madhyamika Avatara, {mngon pa kun btus} Abhidharma Samuchaya, {mngon pa mdzod} Abhidharma Kosha, {tshad ma kun btus} Pramana Samuchaya, {tshad ma rnam 'grel} Pramana Vartika, {tshad ma rnam nges} Pramana Viniscaya, {tshad ma rigs gter} Pramana Yuktiniti, {sdom gsum rab dbye} Trisamvara Pravedha [RY]

'gal ba gsum - the three kinds of contradiction [the three incompatible objects c of mutual abandonment and c of not existing together phan tsun spangs 'gal, lhan cig mi gnas 'gal dang, contradictions of refuting pramana.] [IW]

'gal ba'i khyab bya dmigs pa'i thal 'gyur - the consequence of a contradictory pervaded object [one of the four rang rigs entailed consequences. Having put forward as reason a contradictory pervaded refuted by pramana relying on a contradiction of mutual exclusion phan tsun spangs 'gal la brten pa'i tsad ma'i gnod 'gal can gyi 'gal ba'i khyab bya rtags su bkod nas, the consequence which is entailed if reversed, thal ba 'phangs pa gang zhig bzlog na, intrinsically entails the consequence of a contradictory pervasion 'gal khyab dmigs pa'i rang rgyud 'phen pa ste. for example, the dharmin a vase, entails: destruction is uncertain, because its own destruction depends on other causes of that will later arise intrinsically from its cause rang rgyu las phyi 'byung ba'i 'jig rgyu gzhan la ltos pa, by that consequence, that dharmin’s own destruction does not depend on other later arising causes of destruction intrinsically arising from its cause. Since destruction [IW]

sgra tshad - grammar and pramana [logic/ epistemology] [IW]

bsgrub bya ltar snang - though by rtags sbyor it is maintained that the thesis is established dharma and dharmin {chos dang chos can} do not accord or because they are ruled out by perceptual pramana etc., the thesis cannot be established] [IW]

mngon gyur - evident (object), see, realize, actualize, become evident/ manifest, manifest phenomenon 1) arise and become visible; 2) attain independence and comprehend; 3) [power of perciving] objects to be evaluated by perceptual pramana [EG gzugs sgra dri ro reg bya gzhal bya'i gnas gsum gyi nang gses] [IW]

mngon gyur - evident (object), see, realize, actualize, become evident/ manifest, manifest phenomenon 1) arise and become visible; 2) attain independence and comprehend; 3) [power of perceiving] objects to be evaluated by perceptual pramana [IW]

mngon sum tsad 'bras - fruition of perceptual pramana [myong stobs kyis rang yul ji bzhin rtogs pa ste, dper na, sngo 'dzin dbang mngon la mtson na, sngon po ni gzhal bay dang, sngoon po'i rnam par shar nas sngon po la gsar du mi bslu ba'i shes pa ni tsad ma, sngon po mngos su rtogs pa ni mngos sum tsad 'bras yin pa lta bu'o [IW]

mngon sum tsad ma - perceptual pramana [tsad ma'i nang gses, rtog bral ma 'khrul zhing gsar du mi bslu ba'i shes pa, dper na, bum 'dzin dbang mngon skad cig dang po dang, mngon shes skad cig dang po dang, rnam mkhyen dang 'phags pa'i mnyam bzhag ye shes skad cig dang po lta bu, ngo bo rtog bral, yul rang mtsan, dus da lta ba, 'dzin stangs gsal la ma 'dres par 'dzin pa'o [IW]

mngon sum tshad 'bras - the fruit of the pram a of direct perception, fruition of perceptual pramana [IW]

mngon sum tshad ma - perceptual pramana * direct perception GD direct (new) valid cognizer [IW]

chos grags - Dharmakirti [in the 5th century In S India yul k'anytsi na ga ra in the bhramin caste. pupil of Dignagaslob dpon phyogs glang gi slob ma dbang phyug sde las tsad ma kun btus tshar gsum listened to, shastra tshad ma rnam 'grel &, rnam nges, rigs thigs etc. having written the tshad ma sde bdun slob dpon phyogs glang gi dgongs pa ji lta bar bkral bas tshad ma'i gzhung 'grel ba'i slob dpon du gyur pa'o,… Dharmakirti, “fame of dharma,” a disciple of {phyogs glang}, Dignaga 1 of the {'dzam gling mdzes pa'i rgyan drug}, ornament of pramana] [IW]

chos dang chos can gtan la dbab pa - {chos dang chos can gtan la dbab pa [pramana text by the Indian master dze t’ ri] [IW]

chos rtsod - dharma debate [naturally clearing ignorance, blo gros kyi na 'phar ba, the secret piths of each view and doctrine dpyis phyin par rtod, not falling into faults of exaggeration and denigration, for the sake of the increase of the teachings engage in debate by pramana, w its assertion refutation, and abandoning] [IW]

'jig rten gyi mngon sum tsad ma - pramana of worldly direct perception [IW]

'jig rten gyi mngon sum tsad ma - pramana of worldly direct perception [experiential certainty of seeing, hearing, and other experience of sentient beings] [IW]

'jig rten pha rol grub pa - Establishing the Existence of the Next World [pramana text by the Indian master chos mchog] [IW]

rjes khyab - forward pervasion [anvayavyapti] [positive] pervasion [rtags gsal gyi sbyor ba 'god pa'i tshul gnyis pa, two modes establishing the syllogism uniting thesis and reason; the mthun phyogs establishing that alone is certainly existing according to pramana, EG, what is produced is impermanent &, smoke] [IW]

rjes dpag - (aanumana) inference [see a sign/ reason and according to its certain connection establis what is to be established/ proved, evaluate/comprehend hidden objects of valid cognition/ pramana from the signs/ reasons smoke and water birds infer fire and water] [IW]

rjes dpag gi bcad shes - inferential determinate/ subsequent cognition [bcad shes kyi nang gses, rang 'dren byed kyi inferential pramana already realized/ perceived, knowledge of realizing/ perceiving it again: inference that sound is impermanent in the second instant etc.] [IW]

rjes dpag gi tshad 'bras - the fruition of inferential pramana/ valid cognition [by power of a reason realize one’s object as it is rang yul ji bzhin rtogs pa ste, EG, in inferring sound is impermanent, impermanant sound is the gzhal bya, from a reason in which the three modes are complete [tshul gsum tsang ba'i gtan tshigs], after the rnam pa [phenomenon, aspect, perception, situation, mental image ???] of the impermanence of sound has arisen, the new non-deceptive knowledge of theimpermanence of sound is pramana, which is the fruition of actually realizing the impermanence of sound] [IW]

rjes dpag gi tshad 'bras - the fruition of inferential pramana/ valid cognition [R], after the rnam pa [phenomenon, aspect, perception, situation, mental image ???] of the impermanence of sound has arisen, the new non- deceptive knowledge of the impermanence of sound is pramana, which is the fruition = actually realizing the impermanence of sound] [IW]

rjes dpag gi tshad 'bras - the fruition of inferential pramana/ valid cognition [IW]

rjes dpag gi tshad ma - inferential valid cognizer/ pramana [IW]

rjes dpag gi shes pa - inferred knowledge/ [pramana], rational understanding [IW]

rjes dpag tshad ma - pramana/ valid cognition of inference [rang gi rten depending on a true sign/ reason for one’s hidden gzhal bya new non-deceptive zhen rig EG, dngos stobs rjes dpag, tshad ma gnyis kyi nang gses] [IW]

rjes su dpag pa'i tshad ma - pramana of inference [IW]

rjes su dpag ba'i tshad ma - pramana of inference [IW]

rtag rtogs - pramana that correctly realizes something to be eternal [true knowledge ascertaining space etc dharmas of non-things to be eternal from the viewpoint of abhidharma/ relative truth] [IW]

rtag rtogs - pramana that correctly realizes something to be eternal [IW]

rtags khyab gnyis ka tshad mas grub pa - neither reason or pervasion established [EG the dharmin sound is impermanent because it is produced, de yang if first sound is asserted to be permanent khyab rtags is established by pramana and dam bca’ la khas blangs kyi bsal ba 'bab pa'i thal 'gyur yang dag &, if sound is not asserted to be permanent the khyab rtags is established by pramana and dam bca’ la bsal ba med pas rgol ba de la is a thal 'gyur ltar snang] [IW]

rtags ma grub pa - establishing reason not established [by assertion or pramana, eg, the dharmin sound, is permanent, because it is not mnyan bya [hearable]. since the reason is not established it is called thal lan rtags ma grub, thal 'gyur ltar snang bzhi'i nang gses] [IW]

rtags tshad mas grub cing khyab pa khas blangs kyis grub pa - reason established by pramana and the pervasion by assertion [from the viewpoint of someone asserting if it is produced it is impermanent, the dharmin sound is impermanent, because it is produced] [IW]

rtags tshad mas grub cing khyab pa khas blangs kyis grub pa - reason established by pramana and the pervasion by assertion [IW]

rtags yang dag pa - correct signs. There are three correct signs that establish the pramana of inference {rjes dpag tshad ma'i sgrub byed} There are the sign of result {'bras bu} the sign of nature {rang bzhin} and the sign of inconceivability {ma dmigs pa} One sign is sufficient to establish inference [RY]

rtags yang dag pa - correct signs [There are three correct signs that establish the pramana of inference {rjes dpag tshad ma'i sgrub byed} there are the sign of result {'bras bu} the sign of nature {rang bzhin} and the sign of inconceivability {ma dmigs pa} 1 sign is sufficient to establish inference] [IW]

bstan bcos tshad ma - the pramana of the shastras [IW]

tha snyad pa'i tshad ma - [vravaharikapramana] conventional validating cognition [RY]

tha snyad tshad ma - conventional reasoning/ pramana [IW]

thams cad mkhyen pa grub pa'i tsig le'ur byas pa - {thams cad mkhyen pa grub pa'i tsig le'ur byas pa} [rgya gar gyi slob dpon dge srung gis brtsams pa'i pramana text [IW]

thos byung - arisen from hearing from the spiritual friend of scriptural pramana sgra spyi tsam gyi nges pa rnyed pa [IW]

'thad sgrub kyi rigs pa - the reasoning of proper establishing [1 of {rigs pa bzhi} [= formal reasoning/proof pramana] [IW]

'thad pa sgrub pa'i rigs pa - the reasoning of proper establishing [1 of {rigs pa bzhi} = formal reasoning/ proof pramana] [IW]

'thad pas sgrub pa'i rigs pa - the reasoning of proper establishing [1 of {rigs pa bzhi} = formal reasoning/ proof pramana] [IW]

dag pa gzigs pa - refers to the pramana of pure vision as opposed to {ma dag tshur mthong tshad ma} [RY]

dag pa gzigs pa - pure vision [pramana of the noble ones that sees things as they are vs {ma dag tshur mthong tshad ma} the impure pramana of this side] [IW]

dag yig mkhas pa'i 'byung gnas - {dag yig mkhas pa'i 'byung gnas} [grammar pramana crafts medicine, madhyamika, prajnaparamita, abhidharma, mantra chos skad rnams sde tshan so sor phyes te bsgrigs pa'i ming gi rnam grangs, composed in the 18th century by lcang skya rol pa'i rdo rje] [IW]

de kho na nyid bsdus pa'i dka’ 'grel - {de kho na nyid bsdus pa'i dka’ 'grel [pramana text by kamalash'ila] [IW]

de kho na nyid bsdus pa'i tshig le'ur byas pa - {de kho na nyid bsdus pa'i tshig le'ur byas pa} [pramana text by Shantarakshita] [IW]

don dam bden pa - absolute truth [one of the two truths, Vaibhashika: whatever bcom pa or blos cha shas so sor bsal ba na rang 'dzin gyi blo 'dor du mi rung ba'i chos cha med gnyis dang, Sautrantikas: sgra rtog gis btags par ma ltos par rang gi sdod lugs kyi ngos nas rigs pas dpyad bzod du grub pa'i chos rang mtsan; Mind-only: don dam dpyod byed kyi rig shes tshad mas rnyed don yongs grub kyi chos, Madhyamaka: rang mngon sum du rtogs pa'i perceptual pramana rang nyid gnyis snang nub pa'i [IW]

don byed snang can gyi dbang mngon tshad ma - pramana of sensory perception of a power to produce a function [IW]

don byed snang can gyi dbang mngon tshad ma - pramana of sensory perception of a power to produce a function [EG mes btso bsreg gi don byed nus par 'jal ba'i dbang mngon tshad ma] [IW]

bsdus gwa - collected topics [of pramana] [IW]

bsdus grwa - collected topics [elementary class in reasoningg, introduction to {gtan tsigs rig pa), first text in {mtsan nyid rigs lam}, by {cha ba chos seng} etc. Sautrantika reasoning and the associated pramana texts’ abbreviated sense'i “bsdus grva” with bsdus chen 18, 21 etc.] [IW]

bsdus grwa che 'bring chung gsum - the geater, middle, and lesser collected topics [in studying the collected topics of reasoning, in introductory pramana, collections for those of the greatest, middle, and lesser powers or training [IW]

bsdus tshan - topics in an abbreviated text [of pramana eg topics red and white, log min log, rgyu 'bras chung ba] [IW]

bsdus ra - collected topics of pramana [IW]

bsdus ra - collected topics of pramana [= bsdus grva first study text/course in philosophical reasoning [IW]

rnam 'grel - pramanavarttika, commentary, elucidation [IW]

rnam 'grel - pramanavarttika, commentary, elucidation. Syn {dbu ma rnam 'grel} [RY]

rnam 'grel tshad ma - pramanavartika [JV]

phyogs kyi glang po - Dignaga [great logician, c 500ad, author of pramana-sammuccaya 'dzam gling mdzes pa'i rgyan drug gi ya gyal, tsad ma rig pa'i rgyan gyi slob dpon phyogs kyi glang po ni, rgya gar lho phyogs kyi rgyud du rgyal rigs kyi sras su sku 'khrungs, mkhan po rgyal ba'i dbang po las rab tu byung, slob dpon dbyig gnyen bsten nas tsad ma la shin tu mkhas par gyur te, tsad ma'i bstan bcos thor bu rnams bsdus te lus yongs su rdzogs pa'i gzhung tsad ma kun btus rtsa 'grel gnyis dang, dmigs pa brtag pa rtsa 'grel, dus gsum brtag pa, rigs pa la 'jug pa, phyogs chos dgu'i 'khor lo la sogs pa tsad ma'i gzhung mang du brtsams te nang pa'i tsad ma rig pa'i srol 'byed pa'i slob dpon du gyur pa'o; 2) phyogs brgyad srung mkhan glang po,//. [IW]

phyogs kyi glang po - Dignaga [Dignaga], n. of a great logician, c. 500 AD, author of Pramana-Samucchaya [RY]

phyogs glang - Dignaga [= {phyogs glang kyi glang po} is, among the six ornaments which beautify jambudvipa, the recipient of the transmission of pramana, valid cognition, to bring an end to confusion about meaning [IW]

phyogs glang - Dignaga, [Syn {phyogs glang kyi glang po}. is, among the Six Ornaments which Beautify Jambudvipa, the recipient of the transmission of pramana, valid cognition, to bring an end to confusion about meaning [RY]

phyogs glang - Dignaga. Fifth century author of Abhidharma Kosha. Disciple of Vasubandhu, famed for his contributions to pramana, logic and epistemology. Counted among the Six Ornaments which Beautify Jambudvipa, he is the holder of the transmission of valid cognition, which brings an end to confusion about meaning [RY]

bod rigs - The Tibetan people [one of the small autonomous peoples {rang rgyal gyi grangs nyung mi rigs} lo rgyus kyi yig cha rnying pa phal mo che rnams las 'di skad ces gsungs te, thog mar mtsho yod pa rim gyis bri nas nags tshal stug po rgyas par mched pa'i skabs shig na yul gru 'dzin nas a monkey with the blessing of te great compassion came. From his union with a rock demoness srin mo, came the six clans {bod mi bu gdung drug}. then gradually they spread, until now da lta 'di'i mi 'bor gyi the count is more than sa ya gsum dang brgyad 'bum bdun khri 3,870,000. bod rang skyong ljongs dang, mdo smad, mtsho sngon, kan su'u, si khron, yun nan, zhing chen gret regions khag gi sa khul du kha gram nas gnas yod. From those people in U are Upas. those in Tsang Tsangpas, those in {mnga’ ris} {stod pa}, in {kan su'u} and {mtsho sngon} {aamdoba}; in {si khron} and {yun nan} Khampas. The people have their own language and writing tshang ba yod pa'i thog yul srol 'tsho ba'i goms ! gshis sogs khyad par can yod cing, they are buddhists, grammar. Of pramana, manufacture, and medicine nang don etc. texts of the ten sciences they have a profound and extensive collection. [IW]

byis pa 'jug pa'i rtog ge - {byis pa 'jug pa'i rtog ge} pramana text by the Indian master {dgra las rgyal ba} [IW]

blo tshad ma - knowledge w valid cognition/ pramana [like the Buddha’s omniscient wisdom and the true perception of the minds of the noble 1s] [IW]

blo rig - 1) knowledge by the perceiver; 2) pramana, knowledge [IW]

blo rig - 1) knowledge by the perceiver {yul can gyi shes pa} of something not necessarily itself.]; 2) pramana, knowledge [IW]

blo rigs - 1) pramana [text]; 2) types of awareness/ cognition; 3) knowledge, intelligence, intellect [IW]

blo rigs - 1) pramana [text] [text from teaching methods of reasoning and valid knowledge in particular presenting the mental states/situations {blo} that are and are not valid knowledge {rigs} The ones that are are {tshad ma} and others {tshad min}; 2) types of awareness/ cognition; 3) knowledge [IW]

dbang mngon tshad ma - the pramana of sense perception [among perceptual pramana {mngon sum tshad ma}, rang gi extraordinary predominant condition from the material sense organs las arising free from conception, non-confused, and new knowledge, eg gzugs sgra dri ro reg bya grasping sense perception being viewed in the 1st instant] [IW]

dbang mngon tshad ma - the pramana of sense perception [IW]

dbang po'i mngon sum tshad ma - the validity of direct sense perception, sensory pramana [IW]

dbu tshad - madhyamika and pramana [IW]

dbu tshad kyi gzhung - scriptures of Madhyamika and pramana [IW]

'bras rtogs gnyis pa - the second realization of the fruition [one of three fruition realizations, fruition of rang rig pramana, by ['dzin] fixating consciousness aspect of self- realization [rang rtogs], the grasped object [gzung] to be evaluated, 'dzin rnam tshad ma is presented, the fruition of self- awareness [rang rig]. This is the presentation of the mind only extraordinary pramana fruition.] [IW]

'bras rtogs dang po - the first realization of the fruition [one of three fruition realizations, fruition of reasoning for others, by gzung rnam? gyi [= par?] shes pa rnams, the aspect of realizing their own object, the object to be grasped and evaluated; grasping mind, after the phenomena of that object arise, for that object new, non deceptive awareness pramana, its own object really realizing fruition is presented. That is presentation of the sutra ordinary mind pramana fruition presentation.] [IW]

'bras rtogs gsum pa - the third realization of the fruition [one of three fruition realizations, this is the presentation of the the sautrantika extraordinary tradition pramana fruition. The form of the external object to be evaluated, by means of phenomenally arising as one’s own object, new non-deceptive awareness pramana. But this pramana by arising as one’s own form phenomena does not become of one’s own nature pa'i gzugs rtogs pa tshad 'bras yin no. this is the form realization pramana fruition.] [IW]

ma dag tshur mthong tshad ma - the impure pramana/ perception of this side [IW]

ma dag tshur mthong tshad ma - the impure pramana/perception of this side [sees what is present as impure as opposed to {dag pa gzigs pa'i tshad ma}, impure perception of ordinary people [IW]

ma dag tshur mthong tshad ma - the pramana that sees what is present as impure as opposed to {dag pa gzigs pa'i tshad ma} Also the impure perception of ordinary people [RY]

med rtogs - realization of nonexistence, pramana realizing non-existence [IW]

med rtogs - realization of nonexistence, pramana realizing non-existence [as such, med pa la med par nges pa'i yang dag pa'i shes pa'o [IW]

tshad - culmination, limitation, measure[ment], scale, degree, model, progress, size, balance, moderation, limit, boundary, degree, extent, norm, level, pramana = {tshad ma}, all, every[1]/ time, whatever, whoever, genuine, authentic, real, perfect, logic, compete w [IW]

tshad 'bras gzhal gsum - pramana, fruition and evaluation [tshad 'bras kyi rnam gzhag ste, tshad ma = rnam par 'jog byed kyi cause or characteristic &, 'bras bu = rnam par gzhag bya'i fruition or mtshon bya &, gzhal bya = tshad ma de yi yul la byed pa'o] [IW]

tshad 'bras gzhal gsum - pramana, fruition and evaluation [R] [IW]

tshad ma - 1) true, non-deceptive; 2) pramana; 2) logic, science of valid cognition [IW]

tshad ma - 1) true, non-deceptive [smras pa tshar mar bzungs ba]; 2) pramana [rang yul la mi bslu ba'i shes pa pa ste rang yul gsar du rtogs pa'i blo mngon sum yang dag dang, rjes dpag yang dag rnams so]; 2) logic, science of validi cognition [rig gnas che ba lnga'i ya gyal, tshad ma rig pa'o authenticity, validity, proof, pramana, logic, ideal, dialectics, epistemology, valid [cognition/ understanding], proof [of knowledge]. three kinds. direct perception {mngon sum}. inference, indirect {rjes su dpag pa}. trustworthy scripture or testimony {yid ches pa'i lung}. the study of pramana [in a monastic college]. authentic, genuine, convincing. right cognition/ understanding [free from illusion]. valid source of knowledge, true knowledge, reasoning, {'thad pa}, {rigs pa}. there are three pramanas, direct perception, inference and scripture. Someimtes the following three pramanas are discussed, direct {mngon gyur}, hidden {lkog gyur}. and very hidden {shin tu lkog gyur}. the {! shin tu lkog gyur}. pramana in the buddhist sense has to be known through the Buddha’s teaching., since ulktinmately valid cognition comes down to the buddhas’ perception of things as they are [tse] [IW]

tshad ma - true, proven, genuine; ideal, validity, valid cognition; authentic (standard)/ standard of authenticity; valid cognizer [when related to cognition]; validating; authenticity, validity, proof, pramana, logic, ideal, dialectics, epistemology, valid [cognition / understanding], proof [of knowledge]. three kinds. direct perception {mngon sum} inference, indirect {rjes su dpag pa} trustworthy scripture or testimony {yid ches pa'i lung} the study of pramana [in a monastic college]. authentic, genuine, convincing. right cognition / understanding [free from illusion]. valid source of knowledge, true knowledge, reasoning, {'thad pa}, {rigs pa} There are three pramanas, direct perception, inference and scripture. Sometimes the following three pramanas are discussed, direct {mngon gyur}, hidden {lkog gyur} and very hidden {shin tu lkog gyur} The {shin tu lkog gyur} pramana has to be known through the Buddha’s teaching. reasoning, {'thad pa, rigs pa} [RY]

tshad ma kun btus - tshad ma kun las btus pa zhes bya ba [rgya gar gyi slob dpon phyogs kyi glang pos brtsams pa'i rtog ge'i tshig don brgyad dang khyad par du yang dag pa'i shes pa don tshan drug tu bsdus nas gtan la 'bebs par byed pa ste, mngon sum gyi le'u dang, rang don gyi le'u dang, sel ba brtag pa dang, gzhan don le'u dnag, dpe brtag pa dang, sun 'byin brtag pa bcas le'u drug gi bdag nyid can gyi tshad ma'i gzhung zhig go], pramanasamuccaya [by dignaga/ {phyogs glang}. his principal wo{tshad ma gsum - three Kinds of valid cognition [Direct perception {mngon sum tshad ma}, implicit inference {dngos stobs rjes dpag gi tshad ma}. and scriptural authority {lung}. or {shin tu lkog gyur gyi tshad ma}. [Gdmk] mngon sum tshad ma dang rjes dpag tshad ma, lung gi tshad ma bcas so] [IW]

tshad ma kun btus - compendium on right, perception; by Dignaga. The Compendium of Valid / Right Cognition, Pramana-Samucchaya [by Dignaga / {phyogs glang} his principal work, the foundation of Buddhist logic] [RY]

tshad ma kun btus - the Compendium of valid/ right cognition, [pramanasamuccaya [by Dignaga/ {phyogs glang}. his principal work, the foundation of Buddhist logic]. Ts [IW]

tshad ma kun las btus pa - Compendium of Valid Knowledge, Pramana Samucchaya, by Dignaga [RY]

tshad ma sde bdun - Seven Treatises on Logic; [Pramana Vartika Karika and six other important texts]; Dharmakirti, 7th century [RY]

tshad ma bsdus pa - pramanasamuccaya [JV]

tshad ma rnam 'grel - Pramana-Vartika, [work on logic by Dharmakirti]. The “Commentary on the Compendium of Valid Cognition”, the greatest work of Indian Buddhist epistemology and logic, an inquiry into the “valid means of knowing {tshad ma}” one of the {tshad ma sde bdun}- the seven treatises on logic by Dharmakirti. pramana Vartika by Dharmakirti, 7th cent [RY]

tshad ma rnam 'grel - Commentary on Logic [commentary on Dignaga’s Compendium of Logic [Pramana-Samucchaya]; Pramana Vartika Karika; Dharmakirti, 7th century [RY]

tshad ma rnam 'grel - Pramanavartika, Commentary on the compendium of valid cognition [work on logic by dharmakirti]. the greatest work of indian buddhist epistemology and logic, an inquiry into the “valid means of knowing {tshad ma}.” 1 of the {tshad ma sde bdun}. the 7 treatises on logic by Dharmakirti. [tse]. tshad ma rnam 'grel gyi tshig le'ur byas pa zhes bya ba, rang don gyi le'u dang, tshad ma grub pa'i le'u dang, mngon sum gyi le'u dang, gzhan don le'u bcas le'u bcas le'u bzhi'i bdag nyid can, rgya gar gyi slob dpon dpal chos kyi grags pas brtsams pa'i tshad ma'i gzhung rgyas pa zhig ste, tshad ma sde bdun las rtsa ba lus lta bu'i bstan bcos gsum gyi gras shig] [IW]

tshad ma rnam 'grel - Pramanavartika, [work on logic by Dharmakirti]. the “Commentary on the compendium of valid cognition”, the greatest work of indian buddhist epistemology and logic, an inquiry into the “valid means of knowing {tshad ma}.” one of the {tshad ma sde bdun}. the seven treatises on logic by Dharmakirti. Ts. tshad ma rnam 'grel gyi tshig le'ur byas pa zhes bya ba, rang don gyi le'u dang, tshad ma grub pa'i le'u dang, mngon sum gyi le'u dang, gzhan don le'u bcas le'u bcas le'u bzhi'i bdag nyid can, rgya gar gyi slob dpon dpal chos kyi grags pas brtsams pa'i tshad ma'i gzhung rgyas pa zhig ste, tshad ma sde bdun las rtsa ba lus lta bu'i bstan bcos gsum gyi gras shig [IW]

tshad ma rnam 'grel - Pramanavartika, Commentary on the compendium of valid cognition [IW]

tshad ma rnam par ngas pa - [Pramaan.vinis'caya] [one of the {tshad ma sde bdun}. the seven treatises on logic by Dharmakirti. the Pramanavinishcaya, “a setting of valid cognition” by dharmakirti, [second of {ma sde bdun} [IW]

tshad ma rnam par nges pa - [Pramaan.vinis'caya] one of the {tshad ma sde bdun} the seven treatises on logic by Dharmakirti. the Pramana-vinishcaya, “A Setting of Valid Cognition” by Dharmakirti, [second of {tshad ma sde bdun} [RY]

tshad ma tshig don rab gsal - {tshad ma tshig don rab gsal} [pramana text by bu ston] [IW]

tshad ma bzhi - the four kinds of pramana [mngon sum tshad ma dang, rjes dpag tshad ma, lung tshad ma, dpe nyer 'jal gyi tshad ma ste bzhi [IW]

tshad ma gsum - the three knds of pramana [mngon sum tshad ma dang rjes dpag tshad ma, lung gi tshad ma bcas so [IW]

tshad ma'i blo - valid cognition/ consciousness, pramanabuddhi [IW]

tshad ma'i blo - valid cognition / consciousness, pramana-buddhi [RY]

tshad mas rtogs pa - understand validly/ truly, realized by pramana [IW]

tshad mas gnod 'gal - contradicted by pramana/ reasoning [IW]

tshad mas gnod 'gal - contradicted by pramana/ reasoning [rang dngos su rtogs pa'i tshad ma des de dang 'gal zlar gyur pa'i blo la gnod pa can gyi 'gal ba, dper na, byas rtag gnyis lta bu gzhi sgra de byas pa yin par rtogs pa'i blos sgra mi rtag par rtogs pa'i blo skyed cing, sgra mi rtag par rtogs pa'i blos sgra rtag 'dzin la gnod pa phan tshun spangs 'gal gyi tshad mas gnod 'gal dang, du ba dang grang reg gnyis lta bu, me yod par nges pa'i tshad mas gzhi der grang ba sel bar nges pa'i tshad ma 'dren pas grang reg yod par 'dzin pa la gnod pa lhan cig mi gnas 'gal gyi tshad mas gnod 'gal yin no] [IW]

tshad med dge - apramanasubha god, 2nd mansion of 3rd dhyani heaven, limitless virtue heaven, 1 of gzugs khams gnas rigs bcu bdun [JV]

tshad med 'od - apramana-abha god, immeasurable light, 2nd mansion of 2nd dhyani heaven, measureless light heaven, 1 of gzugs khams gnas rigs bcu bdun [JV]

gzhan las nges kyi tshad ma - prime cognizer/pramana when ascertainment is induced by another [one’s own pramana assistend in being ascertained by another eg, in the continnuum of a person who does not recognize an utpala an utpala grasping perception &, tshad ma in the mind of a person tshad ma'i brda la ma byang ba] [IW]

gzhan las nges kyi tshad ma - prime cognizer/pramana when ascertainment is induced by another [R] [IW]

gzhan las nges pa gsum - the three kinds of ascertainment of pramana by another [R] [IW]

gzhan las nges pa gsum - the three kinds of ascertainment of pramana by another; 1) by oneself an uptpapa from far away only color doubting eye perception etc. bden pa gzhan las nges pa dang 2) seeing a juniper from far away yal 'dab can du nges kyang gang yin doubting etc. spyi rang las nges shing khyad par gzhan las nges pa 3) from far away seeing red light tsam nges kyang doubting whether it is from lamp, jewel rang las nges shing bdag nyid kyi spyi dang khyad par gzhan las nges pa ste gsum mo] [IW]

gzhan sel brtag pa'i tshig le'u byas pa - the chapter examining exclusion of the other [pramana text by the Indian master dge srung] [IW]

gzhal bya - object of right cognition/ comprehension [that has been realized by pramana or the nature of the things themselves] [IW]

gzhal byed tshad ma gsum - te three kinds of evaluating pramana [mngon sum dang, rjes dpag, yid ches tshad ma; perception, inference, and faith/opinion] [IW]

gzhi grub - existent base, established basis [by pramana] [IW]

gzhi ma grub pa - non-existent unestablished ground/ topic [1) not establised by pramana; 2) non- existent; 3) gshis ka yag po min pa] [IW]

yid kyi mngon sum tshad ma - the validity/ pramana of direct mental perception [IW]

yid mngon tshad ma - pramana/ valid cognition of mental perception [IW]

yod rtogs - existence realizing pramana [IW]

yod pa - 1) existence, existent, being, existing thing, compounded perceptible entity, possibility of existing, is known, exists, present.; 2) have, possess TSE; 2) past tense; 3) by pramana perceive that things exist [IW]

rang 'dzin tshad ma - naturally grasped pramana [non-confused awareness/ perception of gzugs sgra dri ro reg bya lnga grasping five gates of the senses dbang po sgo lnga'i shes pa ma 'khrul ba'o [IW]

rang 'dzin tshad ma - naturally grasped pramana [IW]

rang rig mngon sum tshad ma - pramana of direct perception of intrinsic awareness/ self-cognizance [IW]

rang rig mngon sum tshad ma - pramana of direct perception of intrinsic awareness/self-cognizance [mngon sum bzhi'i nang gses, rtog bral ma 'khrul ba'i gsar du mi bslu ba'i 'dzin rnam, dper na, rnam mkhyen myong ba'i rang rig dang, bum 'dzin mig shes dang rtog pa skad cig dang po myong ba'i rang rig lta bu'o [IW]

rang las nges kyi tshad ma - prime cognizer/ pramana which induces ascertainment by itself [tshad ma gang zhig rang nyid tshad ma yin par rang stobs kyis nges pa 'dren pa, EG, “sound is impermanent” realizing inferential pramana &, utpala recognizing individual gi rgyud kyi nye ba'i utpala grasping sense perception pramana &, tshad ma'i brda la byang ba'i person’s'i continum’s pramana knowledge/ [IW]

rang las nges kyi tshad ma - prime cognizer/ pramana which induces ascertainment by itself [IW]

rig byed pa - Indian doctrine, maintaining four kinds of pramana: mngon rjes lung gi tshad ma + dpe nyer 'jal gyi tshad ma; thog rtags yang dag dang ltar snang skor gyi tshul smra mkhan zhig [IW]

rigs sgo - presentation the means of employing reasoning and pramana rigs par 'jug pa'i sgo zhes bya ba'i rab tu byed pa zhes bya ba [slob dpon phyogs kyi glang pos mdzad cing, kha che'i pandi ta chen po dpal bsrung ba dang bod kyi sh'akya'i dge slong grags pa rgyal mtsan gnyis kyis dpal sa skya'i gtsug lag khang chen por bsgyur pa'o] [IW]

rigs sgo - presentation the means of employing reasoning and pramana rigs par 'jug pa'i sgo zhes bya ba'i rab tu byed pa zhes bya ba [IW]

rigs pa - 1.(Tha mi dad pa) suitable, proper, logical, tenable, appropriate, fits, makes sense [,//de ltar byed mi rigs,//shin tu rigs pa]; 2) Yin lugs rgyu mtsan [rigs pa dang 'gal ba,//rigs pa dang ldan pa,//rigs pa ma yin pa,//rigs pas grags pa,//rigs pas sgrub pa]; 2) antidote to the kleshas [bden bzhi'i rnam pa bcu drug gi nang gses shig]; 3) philosophy, reasoning, reason, rational thinking [w logical principles and analysis, logical arguement, suitably correct method, the right method, 14th of the {'phags pa'i bden pa bzhi rnam pa bcu drug tu phye ba} = the 16 aspects of the four Noble Truths reasoning, see {rgyu bya ba byed pa'i rigs pa}, {'bras bu ltos pa'i rigs pa}, {'thad par 'grub pa'i rigs pa} and {ngo bo chos nyid kyi rigs pa}Note that all four of these reasoning have both pramanas, direct perception and inference nyaya, yukti, pramana, something new and fresh, true understanding rather than one’s ordinary understanding adj logical, tenable, appropriate, fit! s, makes sense two philosophy, reasoning, reason, rational thinking - the type of reasoning that employs logical principles and analysis, logical arguement, suitably correct method, the right method, 14th of the {'phags pa'i bden pa bzhi rnam pa bcu drug tu phye ba} = the 16 aspects of the four Noble Truths] [IW]

rigs pa - 1) {rigs pa, rigs pa, rigs pa} intr. v.; to be logical, tenable, appropriate, fits, makes sense; it is fitting. 2) philosophy, reasoning, reason, rational thinking - the type of reasoning that employs logical principles and analysis, logical argument, suitably correct method, the right method, reasoning, special reasoning, argument, logical argument; nyaya, yukti, pramana, reason. logical reasoning; logical, reasonable, rational. 14th of the {'phags pa'i bden pa bzhi rnam pa bcu drug tu phye ba} the 16 aspects of the Four Noble Truths; among the 16 aspects of the four truths: Def. by Jamg?n Kongtr?l: {rigs pa ma yin pa nyon mongs pa'i gnyen po byed pa'i mtshan nyid can}. see {rgyu bya ba byed pa'i rigs pa}, {'bras bu ltos pa'i rigs pa}, {'thad par 'grub pa'i rigs pa} and {ngo bo chos nyid kyi rigs pa} [RY]

lung - [authoritative] text, epic, [reading] transmission, scriptural authority, scripture, reading strap, quotation, very hidden pramana {shin tu lkog gyur gyi tshad ma} GD valley, text, the tradition [of scriptures], sacred story, tale, prophecy, textual authorization, precepts TSE holder, sling, words spoken by respected persons [IW]

lung - [authoritative] text, epic, [reading] transmission, textual authorization, scriptural authority, reading strap, quotation, very hidden pramana * GD valley, [the tradition of] scripture, sacred story, tale, prophecy, textual authorization, commentary/ instruction/ precepts TSE holder, sling, words spoken by respected persons [IW]

bsam pa'i shes rab - the prajna of contemplation [thought, reflection. analyzes by reasons and thinks about the meaning of what has been heard by pramana in order to attain certainty] [IW]

bsam byung gi shes rab - prajna arising from thinking/ contemplation [thinking and analyzing hearing gaining certainty by pramana i determinative knowing[er] eg inference realizing sound is impermanent, + becoming continuous conviction of that] [IW]

bsal - 1) [will] remove[d], clear[ed] away, negat[ed], gave up the idea (of [f p sel],; 2) division [arithmetic]; 3) merely apparent thesis, the reason actually establishing the opposite by pramana. eg, the dharmin sound is permanent, because it is produced] [IW]

bsal ba - 1) [will] remove[d], clear[ed] away, negat[ed], gave up the idea (of [f p sel ba],; 2) division [arithmetic]; 3) merely apparent thesis, the reason actually establishing the opposite by pramana. eg, the dharmin sound is permanent, because it is produced] [IW]

bsal ba bzhi - the four kinds of clearing away [mngon sum gyis bsal ba dang, dngos stobs kyis bsal ba dang, khas blangs kyis bsal ba dang, grags pas bsal ba by perception, the power of things themselves [as basis of inference/pramana] assertion [in scripture] opinion [without the foreging justifications] [IW]

lhan skyes tha snyad pa'i tshad ma - natural conventional pramana/ validating cognition [IW]

[soniyatv]

grid-like cities started in the indus valley

he grid pattern of the urban planning in the Indus Valley Civilization was a unique feature that set it apart from other ancient civilizations of the time. While other civilizations did have planned cities, the level of organization and standardization seen in the Indus Valley was relatively uncommon.

INDUS INFLUENCE?

The ancient Greeks are credited with developing the grid-like city planning that is often associated with their architecture and urban design. While there is no definitive date for when this practice began, it is generally believed to have emerged during the 8th century BCE in the Greek city-state of Sparta.

The earliest Greek cities were not planned in a grid-like fashion, but rather grew organically over time. However, as Greek civilization advanced and cities became more important centers of trade and culture, there was a growing need for more organized and efficient urban planning. The grid system offered an effective way to maximize the use of available space and facilitate movement through the city.

One of the earliest examples of a Greek city planned in a grid-like pattern is the city of Miletus, which was founded in the 7th century BCE. The city was laid out in a grid of rectangular blocks, with streets running at right angles to each other. The city was also designed with public buildings and spaces, such as a theater, market, and gymnasium.

The use of the grid system in city planning became increasingly common throughout the Greek world in the following centuries, with notable examples including the cities of Athens and Corinth. The Romans, who were heavily influenced by Greek culture and architecture, also adopted the grid system in their urban planning.

Similarly, the ancient Romans were known for their use of the grid system in city planning, with streets intersecting at right angles to form a grid of rectangular city blocks. Examples of Roman cities with grid-like layouts include Pompeii and Herculaneum in Italy.

However, it should be noted that while these civilizations did use grid-like city planning to some extent, the level of standardization and organization seen in the Indus Valley Civilization was relatively unique for its time. The grid pattern of the Indus Valley Civilization is also distinctive in that it is oriented to the cardinal directions, with major streets running north-south and east-west.

[soniyatv]

Balochistan Sphinx

[soniyatv]

MELUHHA. MELAKA. MELA. MEL. TA-MIL.

Meluhha/Melukhkha - This term appears in several ancient texts, including the Sumerian and Akkadian texts, and is thought to refer to the Indus Valley Civilization. Some scholars believe that the word has Dravidian origins.

Melaka - assemblage; “visionary encounters (with the Goddesses)”; the “union” (of Śiva and Śakti); Yoginīmelaka, “a meeting with Yoginīs”

Meru - This is a mountain that is considered sacred in Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain traditions. The word is believed to have Dravidian roots.

Mela - This is a Sanskrit word that means “gathering” or “assembly”. It is commonly used to refer to large festivals and gatherings in India.

Melammu - This is a Sumerian word that means “divine radiance” or “divine glory”. It is believed to have Dravidian roots.

Melakadambur - This is a village in Tamil Nadu, India, that is known for its ancient Hindu temple. The name of the village is believed to have originated from a combination of two words - “melai” (Tamil for high) and “kadambu” (Tamil for tree).

Melakarta - This is a system of organizing and classifying musical scales in Carnatic music, a classical music tradition from South India. The term “melakarta” literally means “primary scales” in Sanskrit, but its exact origins are unclear and it may have Dravidian roots.

Melaka - This is a city in Malaysia that was an important trading port in ancient times. The name is thought to have originated from a combination of two words - “mele” (Tamil for hill) and “ka” (Sanskrit for foot), referring to the city’s location at the foot of a hill. 

Melana - a form of dance in Odisha

Melap - a traditional musical instrument in Rajasthan

Melchham - a folk dance form in Himachal Pradesh

Mel - a festival celebrated in Assam

Melana - a religious festival celebrated by the Khasi tribe in Meghalaya

Mel - a community gathering in Punjab

Melo - a type of folk song in West Bengal

Melava - a gathering of people for a social or religious occasion in Maharashtra

Meluha - an ancient civilization in the Indus Valley

Mel - a gathering of people for social and cultural events in Kerala

Mela - a festival or fair held in various parts of India

Melat - a type of song in the Maldives

Melan - a traditional wrestling competition in Uttarakhand

Mela-kacheri - a type of music concert in Tamil Nadu

Melattur style - a style of Bharatanatyam dance in Tamil Nadu

Melodious - having a pleasant tune or melody in music

Melam - a type of percussion music in Kerala

Melapadam - a musical composition in the Indian classical tradition

Melakarta - a system of classification of ragas in Carnatic music

Melavu - a traditional folk dance in Andhra Pradesh

Melghat - a mountain range in Maharashtra

Melkote - a town in Karnataka known for its temples

Melnattu - a term used to describe the western region of Tamil Nadu

Melukote - a town in Karnataka known for its temples

Meliaputti - a town in Andhra Pradesh

Melavasal - a place in Tamil Nadu known for its silk production

Melachirappalli - a town in Tamil Nadu

Melur - a town in Tamil Nadu

Melathiruppanthuruthi - a village in Tamil Nadu

Melmaruvathur - a town in Tamil Nadu known for its temple

Melanam - a type of ceremonial procession in Kerala

Melapalayam - a town in Tamil Nadu

Melmuri - a village in Kerala

Melparamba - a village in Kerala

Melkam - a traditional dance in Assam

Melamchi - a river in Nepal

Melukavu - a village in Kerala

Melmadoor - a village in Telangana

Melukote Narasimha - a form of Lord Vishnu worshipped in Karnataka

Melkallur - a village in Tamil Nadu

Melasani - a village in Karnataka

Melkamane - a village in Karnataka

Melvettoor - a village in Kerala

Melthonnakkal - a village in Kerala

Melukote Vyasaraya - a prominent philosopher and saint in the Madhva tradition

Meloor - a village in Kerala

Melkavattur - a village in Tamil Nadu

Meladi - a village in Rajasthan.

SIDENOTE

“mel-” or “meldh-” which means “dark,” “black,” or “soil” is found in various Indo-European languages, such as the Latin word "melas,” the Greek word “mélās,” the Old English word “melan,” and the Sanskrit word “mālā.”

[soniyatv]

yidam | istadevata | meditational deity

[soniyatv]

dream yoga

"In the yoga of dreaming (rmi lam, *svapna), the yogi learns to remain aware during the states of dreaming (i.e. to lucid dream) and uses this skill to practice yoga in the dream

[soniyatv]

Tilopa (988–1069) was an Indian Buddhist tantric mahasiddha who lived along the Ganges River. He practised Anuttarayoga Tantra, a set of spiritual practices intended to accelerate the process of attaining Buddhahood. He became a holder of all the tantric lineages, possibly the only person in his day to do so. In addition to the way of insight and Mahamudra, Tilopa learned and passed on the Way of Methods (today known as the Six Yogas of Naropa) and guru yoga. Naropa is considered his main student.

[soniyatv]

Sahaja, Svecchachara, Samarasa, Sama

"four keywords of the Nath sampradaya"

[soniyatv]

"Born in Seeyamangalam also known as Simhavakta near Kanchipuram, Dignāga (also known as Diṅnāga, c. 480 – c. 540 CE) was an Indian Buddhist philosopher and logician. He is credited as one of the Buddhist founders of Indian logic (hetu vidyā) and atomism. Dignāga's work laid the groundwork for the development of deductive logic in India and created the first system of Buddhist logic and epistemology (pramāṇa)."

[soniyatv]

INDU <- shengdu, tianzhu, xiandou

"His travelogue presents India in fascicles separate from those for Central Asia. He, however, does not call it India, but the phonetic equivalent of what previously has been variously interpreted as "Tianzhu" or "Shengdu" or "Xiandou". More recent scholarship suggests the closest pronunciation of the 7th-century term in his travelogues would be "Indu"

..

To Lampaka's southeast is the country of (modern Nangarhar), with many Buddhist monasteries and five Deva temples. The number of monks here, however, are few. 

The stupa are deserted and in a dilapidated condition. The local Buddhists believe that the Buddha taught here while flying in the air, because were he to walk here, it caused many earthquakes. Nagarahara has a 300 feet high stupa built by Ashoka, with marvellous sculptures.

..

Some five hundred li (~200 kilometer in 7th-century) to the southeast is the country of Gandhara – which some historic Chinese texts phonetically transcribed as Qiantuowei. On its east, it is bordered by the Indus river, and its capital is Purusapura. 

This is the land of ancient sages and authors of Indic sastras, and they include Narayanadeva, Asanga, Vasubandhu, Dharmatrata, Monaratha and Parshva.[30][32] To the southeast of Purusapura city is a 400-foot-high stupa built by Emperor Kanishka, one with nearly 2000 feet in diameter and a 25 layer wheel on the top. There is a large monastery near it. Gandhara has numerous holy Buddhist sites, and Xuanzang visited and worshipped all of them.[32] He calls the stupas and the Buddha images in this region as "magnificent" and made with "perfect craftmanship

..

To the northeast of Varsha country, states Xuanzang, there is a lofty mountain with a bluish stone image of Bhimadevi. She is the wife of Mahesvara. It is a great site of pilgrimage, where Indians from very far come with prayers. At the foot of this mountain is another temple for Mahesvara where ceremonies are performed by naked heretics who smear ash on their body

[soniyatv]

Kingdom of Bamiyana

"South of Bactra is the country of Kacik, then the Great Snow Mountains with valleys "infested with gangs of brigands" (Li Rongxi translation). Crossing this pass, thereafter is the country of Bamiyana (a part of modern Afghanistan). There, state his travelogue is a colossal statue of standing Buddha, carved from a rock in the mountains, some one hundred and forty feet tall and decorated with gems. This valley has Buddhist monasteries, and also a colossal copper statue of the Buddha, that is over a hundred foot tall. He was told that it was cast in separate parts and then joined up together. To the east of a monastery in the Bamiyana valley was a Reclining Buddha entering Parinirvana that was over one thousand foot long. The people and the king of this valley serve the Buddhist monks, records Xuanzang.

Heading east and crossing the Black range, Xuanzang describes the country of Kapishi, where the Mahayana tradition of Buddhism had come in vogue. It had over 100 monasteries with stupas. More than 6000 monks, mostly Mahayana, studied here. Along with these Buddhist monasteries, states his travelogue, there were over ten Deva temples (Hindu) with "heretical believers who go about naked and smear dust over their bodies", translates Li Rongxi.[23] Furthermore, in the same capital region, there is a Hinayana monastery with 300 monks at the northern foothills.

The citizens of this country, adds Xuanzang, fondly recall "King Kanishka of Gandhara" (2nd-century CE, Kushan empire). To its east are the "City of Svetavat temple" and the Aruna Mountain known for its frequent avalanches. His travelogue then describes several popular legends about a Naga king. He also describes miraculous events from a Buddhist stupa, such as raging flames bursting out of them leaving behind stream of pearls. The citizens here, states Xuanzang, worship pieces of Buddha's remains that were brought here in more ancient times. He mentions four stupas built in this area by king Ashoka"

[soniyatv]

"dragon race" - xuanzang on his journey from china to india

"Moving further westward, Xuanzang met about two thousand Turkic robbers on horses. The robbers began fighting with each other on how to fairly divide the loot. After the loot had thus been lost, they dispersed. Xuanzang thereafter reached the country of Kuchi. This country of 1000 li by 600 li, had over one hundred monasteries with five thousand monks following the Sarvastivada school of Hinayana Buddhism, and studying its texts in "original Indian language".

Xuanzang writes of a dragon race and a region where water dragons metamorphose into horses to mate and create dragon-horses, also into men and mating with women nearby, creating dragon-men who could run as fast as the dragon-horses. These were men who will have massacred an entire city, leaving the place deserted"

[soniyatv]

"In 630 CE, Xuanzang arrived in the kingdom of Agni -- ie. Yanqi, in a place called Turpan, in present day China

Here he met the king, a Buddhist along with his uncle Jnanachandra and precept Mokshagupta, who tried to persuade him to quit his journey and teach them Buddhist knowledge. He declined and they equipped him further for his travels with letters of introduction and valuables to serve as funds. Xuanzang observed that the country of Agni had more than ten monasteries following the Sarvastivadaschool of Hinayana Buddhism, with two thousand monks who ate "three kinds of pure meat" with other foods, rather than vegetarian food only that would be consistent with Mahayana Buddhist teachings. Therefore, the Buddhists in this country had stagnated in their Buddhist teachings."

[soniyatv]

Yogācāra

is an influential tradition of Buddhist philosophy and psychology emphasizing the study of cognition, perception, and consciousness through the interior lens of meditation, as well as philosophical reasoning (hetuvidyā).

[soniyatv]

Indian words for consciousness/wisdom

cit

vijnana (consciousness) vs jnana? (knowledge?)

prajna (wisdom)

vidya (science, learning, scholarship, true/correct knowledge, spiritual knowledge, self awareness)

abhijna

[soniyatv]

The pain will leave once it has finished teaching you” - Bruce Lee.