#thequantum

[jeanniemarieblaha]

No matter your appearance Or what you've experienced You get to do your Light your way. Revel in that. And then reveal It. 1111%. Yes, you absolutely can. You're amping up your planet right now. Keep going. Love, The Quantum #Light #YourLight #YourWay #YourLightYourPower #AmpingItUp #KeepGoing #ThisTime #TheLightStays #TheQuantum #MessagesFromTheQuantum #PalmTrees #Arizona https://www.instagram.com/p/CWsILO7rp5Z/?utm_medium=tumblr

[airevast2090-blog]

VAST AIRE: IGC RECORDS Presents: "Dark Metropolis" featuring VAST AIRE (Produced by COSMIQ) | This is the first single off of the "AIREPLANE" album, a collaboration of @VASTAIRE2090 and @IAMCOSMIQ All Serious DeeJays Steal This! Add To Your Current Playlist. FREE SOUND CLOUD STREAM & DESKTOP DOWNLOAD: https://soundcloud.com/iamcosmiq/darkmetropolis (Download Desktop On Comp/ Stream From Phones & Tablets) Master/Mixed by: @_theosyn Graphic Design/Animation by: @slvdrdigital Watch Promo Vid On YouTube Link Below https://youtu.be/Pw-FD5e2ql4 Hastags #vastaire #cosmiq #darkmetropolis #aireplane #hiphop #indie #underground #subculture #cannibalox #thequantum #crimsongodz #igcrecords #thesource #tbt

[salvadormusic]

Music streaming from all Clouds. #paragon #thequantum #quantum #musicblog #soundcloud #googleplay #streamingnow #playlist #boombap #hiphop #nyarts #cosmiq #slvdrmusic #itunes https://www.instagram.com/p/BukNP70AT8d/?igshid=1lkg55fmn36o3

[thepaintedpyramid]

#quantumphysics #reality #manifestingreality #thequantum

[honestlyscentedwhispers]

Dynamic2

Dynamicvibrations,undulations.Quantum existence.Reality.Quantum foam,form.Consciousnessdwellsin thequantum realm.Pulsing in andout.Here andthere.Everywhere.Uncertain.What’sseenrests onpureprobability.Substructure reality unsure.Unreal.Pulsating withpotential.Infinite potential.Infinite variations all existing at once.All timeat once.Quantum consciouspartof agreaterwhole.

[billcosmiq]

"WAVES" EP available now by "The Quantum" (@QuantumFiles) Produced by @BILLCOSMIQ #thequantum #billcosmiq #salvadormusic #soundcloud #musician #songwriter #nyc #producer #musicproducer #free #hiphop #musicislife #music #artislife #beats #artist #hifructose #juxtapoz #artiststowatch #billcosmiqproduction #salvadormusicgroup #flawless #newmusic #musiclife #waves #graphicdesign #90stakeover #musicsupervisor #artlife7u

[redhiredjobs]

New Job Opening in United States :

Direct calls to the appropriate department as necessary. If you're up for the challenge, apply today! In this position, you will work out of theQuantum One…

- August 26, 2020 at 05:11PM

[exquisiteequilibrium]

This video talks about the Law of Attraction and theQuantum field. For a free pdf about basic weight loss tips please visit this page: https://ift.tt/39KiixF

[jeanniemarieblaha]

There is no terrain Where your heart cannot go. Those who tell you otherwise, Are yet away from their Soul's purpose. Stand up for your heart. And for other hearts blazing, as well. In Business. Relationships. Community. The World. Leaders like you are altering your planet's evolutionary trajectory. Forever. Walk on, tenacious Heart. Walk on. Love, The Quantum #TheQuantum #MessagesFromTheQuantum #TenaciousHeart #Blazing #Business #Relationships #Community #TheWorld #Leaders #Illuminators #Evolution #Trajectory #WalkOn https://www.instagram.com/p/CVxUFDLFf6Y/?utm_medium=tumblr

[airevast2090-blog]

VAST AIRE: Serious Musicians That Want To Collaborate Contact Me Direct. I'm About To Knock Out Side Projects Getting Ready To Finish Up My New Album "Aireplane" #LabWork #VastAire #CrimsonGodz #IAmCosmiq #HipHop #GothamCityWorldTour #GasesInHell #GothamOxCityEp #CannibalOx #TheQuantum #NYC #GhostInTheShell #IronGalaxyClik #IGC

[salvadormusic]

Reflection Eternal #slvdrmusic #thequantum #igc #cultura #capriceclassic #penultimo #clases #hiphop #skyblue #blackink #tastemaker #ritmo #dun #yo #billboard #selection #nprmusic #iheart #appleplay #lamusica https://www.instagram.com/p/Bv-r_jeFLnW/?igshid=1d71bknrrdbwc

[liberalcom-blog]

Quantum Tarot Kit: Version 2.0 [With Paperback Book]

https://liber-al.com/?p=42857&utm_source=SocialAutoPoster&utm_medium=Social&utm_campaign=Tumblr Combining the revolutionary theories of 20th and 21st century physics and traditional tarot wisdom, the Quantum Tarot takes the reader on a journey of discovery through a unique physical and spiritual universe. Using vivid photographic imagery, the cards illuminate the fascinating, complex world of modern science. These powerful images are spot-glossed to highlight their beauty. The companion booklets for most Lo Scarabeo decks are in five languages: English, Spanish, French, Italian, and German. Editorial Reviews Summary: TheQuantum Tarot is a magical blend of traditional Tarot and modern science. Featuring images from the Hubble Space telescope, myths join quantum theory on cards of natural beauty. Highlighted with subtle gloss printing, the images invite you to delve into the secrets of the universe and the secrets of your own soul. In-Depth Review: There are a great many reasons people buy Tarot decks. One reason is to learn about something else, something not related to Tarot at all. You see, once you are familiar the structure of a Tarot deck and know the meanings of the cards, you have a foundation of understanding upon which you can hang anything. This gives you an instant bridge between yourself and the unknown subject. The Tarot becomes a frame, a metaphor, that facilitates learning. TheQuantum Tarot is an excellent example. Someone who wants to learn more about modern science can use this deck to gain a basic understanding of the major principles of contemporary scientists. Then, if they wish, they can read articles and books without being totally lost, as they will have a basic vocabulary already in place. Another reason someone might buy a deck is as a gift. Contrariwise, a science geek can use this deck to learn Tarot. So if you know a science geek who has expressed interest in Tarot, this would make a great gift. Sometimes people buy decks because they like the art. The art of theQuantum Tarot is created using computer generation and photo collage. Many of the photos are from NASA, particularly the Hubble Space Telescope. You can read more about the source photos here:http://www.quantumtarot.co.uk/qtimagesource.htm The art may remind you of theQuest Tarot, so if you have/like that, you will like this as well. However, even if that art is not your style there is still something amazing and powerful about reading images taken from a space telescope. Humans have always turned to the stars for guidance, after all. As if that weren’t enough, the cards have spot gloss that adds to the reading experience both visually and tactilely. The spot gloss invites…no, compels…you to go slower, look deeper at each card. It is a fascinating and unique experience. The deck makes good use of the Tarot structure. The Major Arcana cards illustrate major scientific theories. The Minor Arcana cards provide specific examples that illustrate those theories. The Court Cards are constellations and planets. Below are examples from the booklet for each of these: The Hermit: Subatomic Particles About 100 years ago scientists thought that atoms were the smallest constituents of matter in the universe. They visualized atoms as solid little balls, like miniscule billiard balls. But the early decades of the 20thcentury saw a series of discoveries that revealed the new wonders of the subatomic world. Atoms were not fundamental particles at all, but miniature solar systems made up of a nucleus of protons and neutrons, with one or more negatively-charged electrons whizzing round in orbit. Further discoveries in the nineteen-sixties revealed that protons, neutrons and electrons weren’t fundamental either, but were made up of still smaller particles knows asquarks . The Quantum Hermit represents this idea of a hidden world awaiting discovery. He shines his light into mysterious corners and leads us far away from the crowd into reflection and contemplation. He may signal a physical withdrawal from the world, or a more subtle realigning of attention away from the everyday into the deeper mysteries of the inner world. 5 of Cups: Particle Decay Particles do not actually decay in the sense of physically falling apart. Instead they are changed into other, lighter particles through the effects of the weak [atomic] force. This process is irrevocable-the particles can never return to their original form. In the suit of Cups, the combative energy of the fives is experienced as a distressing sense of loss. In any conflict there tends to be a winner and a loser and the 5 of Cups focuses on loss. This card is about recognizing and acknowledging the finality of loss, but it also gently reminds us what we may yet gain. Queen of Swords: Cassiopeia Cassiopeia is an easily recognizable constellation in the northern hemisphere with its characteristic “W” shape. The mythological Cassiopeia was a bit of a troublemaker. She claimed that her beauty rivaled Poseidon’s sea nymph’s, which enraged the unpredictable sea god. As a punishment her daughter Andromeda was chained to a rock at sea as a sacrifice to the monster Cetus. When she was rescued by Perseus, Cassiopeia plotted to kill him at their wedding. The Assyrians give Cassiopeia another dress, depicting her as a beneficent grain goddess. The Queen of Swords represents wisdom gained through experience and often suffering. She has honed the sword of her mind and gained the maturity to deploy it wisely. She can hold the mental energy of Swords, knowing when to speak and when to stay silent. The images are loosely based on RWS compositions. If you look at them and think about them, you will see the connections. And as you saw in the examples, the pairings of the card and scientific concept are very well done. The included booklet spends most of its space on the cards, both traditional Tarot meanings and science. There is no instruction for reading the cards, so an absolute beginner will probably want to get a book on reading the Tarot, too. Deck Attributes Name of deck:Quantum Taro t Publisher: Lo Scarabeo ISBN: 9780738726694 Creators’ names: Kay Stopforth and Chris Butler Brief biography of creator:Kay Stopforth has been reading the Tarot for nearly twenty years and is the author of two decks, theQuantum Tarot and theUniverse Cards . Her particular obsession is the ways in which the Tarot can illuminate and feed the creative process. Artist’s name: Chris Butler Brief biography of artist:Chris Butler is an internationally renowned artist, public speaker, and educational program producer whose work focuses on science, nature, and maritime subjects. His illustrations have appeared in thousands of publications worldwide, from theTimes of London toScientific American . A graduate of California State University Fullerton’s school of Television and Film Production, Chris has served as a art director and animator on both educational and entertainment programs. Among his screen credits are the National Geographic IMAX film “Forces of Nature” (2003) and Griffith Observatory’s “Centered in the Universe,” (2006). Name of accompanying book:Quantum Tarot Number of pages of book: 128, 55 in English Author of book: Kay Stopforth Available in a boxed kit?: Yes If yes, are there extras in the kit?No Reading Uses: General Artistic Style: photographic, computer generated Original Medium:photographic, digital Theme: science, space Tarot, Divination Deck, Other: Tarot Does it follow Rider-Waite-Smith Standard?: Yes Does it have extra cards? If yes, what are they?: Yes: The Universe and The Phoenix – From the Publisher Click Here: https://liber-al.com/?p=42857&utm_source=SocialAutoPoster&utm_medium=Social&utm_campaign=Tumblr #Body,Mind&Spirit #Divination #LlewellynPublications #LoScarabeo #NewAge #Tarot #Topical

[slvdrdigital-blog]

"WAVES" EP - The Quantum Promotional Ad, for The Quantum "WAVES" Music Video. | SLVDR DIGITAL | #slvdrdigital #digital #rapmusic #cultura #waves #peace #graphicdesign #hiphop #cinematic #waves #paragonep #coverart #thequantum #cosmiq #slvdrmusic #artist #independentlabel #muse #musicvideo (at Los Angeles, California)

[zoxpress-blog]

Inside IBM's Zurich lab, where scientists are banking on being the first to crack the quantum code

Inside IBM's Zurich lab, where scientists are banking on being the first to crack the quantum code http://zox.press/2018/11/12/inside-ibms-zurich-lab-where-scientists-are-bankingon-being-the-firstto-crack-thequantum-code/

[hubbon-blog]

Paramagnetismis a form ofmagnetismwhereby certain materials are weakly attracted by an externally appliedmagnetic field, and form internal,induced magnetic fieldsin the direction of the applied magnetic field. In contrast with thisbehavior,diamagneticmaterials are repelled by magnetic fields and form induced magnetic fieldsin the direction opposite to that of the applied magnetic field.[1]Paramagnetic materials includemostchemical elementsand some compounds;[2]they have a relativemagnetic permeabilitygreater than or equal to 1 (i.e., a small positivemagnetic susceptibility) and hence are attracted to magnetic fields. Themagnetic momentinduced by the applied field is linear in the field strength and rather weak. It typically requires a sensitive analytical balance to detect the effect and modern measurements on paramagnetic materials are often conducted with aSQUIDmagnetometer.Paramagnetism is due to the presence ofunpaired electronsin the material, so all atoms with incompletely filledatomic orbitalsare paramagnetic. Due to theirspin, unpaired electrons have amagnetic dipole momentand act like tiny magnets. An external magnetic field causes the electrons' spins to align parallel to thefield, causing a net attraction. Paramagnetic materials includealuminum,oxygen,titanium, andiron oxide(FeO).Unlikeferromagnets, paramagnets do not retain any magnetization in the absence of an externallyapplied magnetic field becausethermal motionrandomizes the spin orientations. (Some paramagnetic materials retain spin disorder even atabsolute zero, meaning they are paramagnetic in theground state, i.e. in the absence of thermal motion.) Thus the total magnetization drops to zero when the applied field is removed. Even in the presence of the field there is only a small induced magnetization because only a small fraction of the spins will be oriented by the field. This fraction is proportional to the field strength and this explains the linear dependency. The attraction experienced by ferromagnetic materials is non-linear and much stronger, so thatit is easily observed, for instance, in the attractionbetween arefrigerator magnetand the iron of the refrigerator itself.Relation to electron spinsConstituent atoms or molecules of paramagnetic materials have permanent magnetic moments (dipoles), even in the absence of an applied field. The permanent moment generally is due to the spin of unpaired electrons inatomicormolecular electron orbitals(seeMagnetic moment). In pureparamagnetism, thedipolesdo not interact with one another and are randomly oriented in the absence of an external field due to thermal agitation, resulting in zero net magnetic moment. When a magnetic field is applied, the dipoles will tend to align with the applied field, resulting in a net magnetic moment in the direction of the applied field. In the classical description, this alignment can be understood to occur due to atorquebeing provided on the magnetic moments by an applied field, which tries to align the dipolesparallel to the applied field. However, the true origins of the alignment can only be understood via thequantum-mechanicalproperties ofspinandangular momentum.If there is sufficient energy exchange between neighbouring dipoles they will interact, and may spontaneously align or anti-align and form magnetic domains, resulting inferromagnetism(permanent magnets) orantiferromagnetism, respectively. Paramagnetic behavior can also be observed in ferromagnetic materials that are above theirCurie temperature, and in antiferromagnets above theirNéel temperature. At these temperatures, the available thermal energy simply overcomes the interaction energy between the spins.In general, paramagnetic effects are quite small: themagnetic susceptibilityis of the order of 10−3to 10−5for most paramagnets, but may be as high as 10−1for synthetic paramagnets such asferrofluids.DelocalizationSelected Pauli-paramagnetic metals[3]MaterialMagnetic susceptibility,[10−5]Tungsten6.8Cesium5.1Aluminium2.2Lithium1.4Magnesium1.2Sodium0.72In conductive materials the electrons aredelocalized, that is, they travel through the solid more or less asfree electrons. Conductivity can be understood in aband structurepicture as arising from the incomplete filling of energy bands. In an ordinary nonmagnetic conductor the conduction band is identical for both spin-up and spin-down electrons. When a magnetic field is applied, the conduction band splits apart into a spin-up and a spin-down band due to the difference inmagnetic potential energyfor spin-up and spin-down electrons. Since theFermilevelmust be identical for both bands, this meansthat there will be a small surplus of the type of spin in the band that moved downwards. This effect is a weak form of paramagnetism known asPauli paramagnetism.The effect always competes with adiamagneticresponse of opposite sign due to all the core electrons of the atoms. Stronger forms of magnetism usually require localized rather than itinerant electrons. However, in some cases a band structure can result in which there are two delocalized sub-bands with states of opposite spins that have different energies. If one subbandis preferentially filled over the other, one can haveitinerant ferromagnetic order. This situation usually only occurs in relatively narrow (d-)bands,which are poorly delocalized.s and p electronsGenerally, strong delocalization in a solid due to large overlap with neighboring wave functions means that there will be a largeFermi velocity; this means that the number of electrons in a band is less sensitive to shifts in that band's energy, implying a weak magnetism. This is why s- and p-type metals are typically either Pauli-paramagnetic or as in the case of gold evendiamagnetic. In the latter case the diamagnetic contribution from the closed shell inner electronssimply wins from the weak paramagnetic term of the almost free electrons.d and f electronsStronger magnetic effects are typically only observed when d or f electrons are involved. Particularly the latter are usually strongly localized. Moreover, the size of the magnetic moment on a lanthanide atom can be quite large as it can carry up to 7 unpaired electrons in the case ofgadolinium(III) (hence its use inMRI). The high magnetic moments associated with lanthanides is one reason whysuperstrong magnetsare typically based on elements likeneodymiumorsamarium.Molecular localizationOf course the above picture is ageneralizationasit pertains to materials with an extended lattice rather than a molecular structure. Molecular structure can also lead to localization of electrons. Although there are usually energetic reasons why a molecular structure results such that it does not exhibit partly filled orbitals (i.e. unpaired spins), some non-closed shell moieties do occur in nature. Molecular oxygen is a good example. Even in the frozen solid it contains di-radical molecules resulting in paramagnetic behavior. The unpaired spins reside in orbitals derived from oxygen p wave functions, but the overlap is limited to the one neighbor in the O2molecules. The distances to other oxygen atoms in the lattice remain too large to lead to delocalization and the magnetic moments remainunpaired.Curie's lawMain article:Curie's lawFor low levels of magnetization, the magnetization of paramagnets follows what is known asCurie's law, at least approximately. This law indicates that the susceptibility,, of paramagnetic materials is inversely proportional to their temperature, i.e. that materials become more magnetic at lower temperatures. The mathematical expression is:where:is the resulting magnetizationis themagnetic susceptibilityis the auxiliarymagnetic field, measured inamperes/meteris absolute temperature, measured inkelvinsis a material-specificCurie constantCurie's law is valid under the commonly encountered conditions of low magnetization (μBH ≲ kBT), but does not apply in the high-field/low-temperature regime where saturation of magnetization occurs (μBH ≳ kBT) and magnetic dipoles are all aligned with the applied field. When the dipoles are aligned, increasing the external field will not increase the total magnetization since there can be no further alignment.For a paramagnetic ion with noninteracting magnetic moments with angular momentum J, the Curie constant is related the individual ions' magnetic moments,.The parameter μeffis interpreted as the effective magnetic moment per paramagnetic ion. If one uses a classical treatment with molecular magnetic moments represented as discrete magnetic dipoles, μ, a Curie Law expression of the same form will emerge with μ appearing in place of μeff.Click "show" to see a derivation of this law:Curie's Law can be derived by considering a substance with noninteracting magnetic moments with angular momentum J. If orbital contributions to the magnetic moment are negligible (a common case), then in what follows J = S. If we apply a magnetic field along what we choose to call the z-axis, the energy levels of each paramagnetic center willexperienceZeeman splittingof its energy levels, each with a z-component labeled by MJ(or just MSfor the spin-only magnetic case). Applying semiclassicalBoltzmann statistics, the molar magnetization of such a substance is.Whereis the z-component of the magnetic moment for each Zeeman level, so– μBis called theBohr magnetonand gJis theLandé g-factor, which reduces to the free-electron g-factor, gSwhen J = S. (in this treatment, we assume that the x- and y-components of the magnetization, averaged over all molecules, cancel out because the field applied along the z-axis leave them randomly oriented.) The energy of each Zeeman level is. For temperatures over a few K,, and we can apply the approximation:,which yields:. The molar bulkmagnetization is then,and the molar susceptibility is given by.When orbital angular momentum contributions tothe magnetic moment are small, as occurs for most organic radicals or for octahedral transition metal complexes with d3or high-spin d5configurations, the effective magnetic moment takes the form (ge= 2.0023... ≈ 2),, wherenis the number of unpaired electrons. In other transition metal complexes this yields a useful, if somewhat cruder, estimate.Examples of paramagnetsMaterials that are called "paramagnets" are most often those that exhibit, at least over an appreciable temperature range, magnetic susceptibilities that adhere to the Curie or Curie–Weiss laws. In principle any system that contains atoms, ions, or molecules with unpaired spins can be called a paramagnet, but the interactions between them need to be carefully considered.Systems with minimal interactionsThe narrowest definition would be: a system with unpaired spins thatdo not interactwith each other. In this narrowest sense, the only pure paramagnet is a dilute gas ofmonatomic hydrogenatoms. Each atom has one non-interacting unpaired electron. Of course, the latter could be said about a gas of lithium atoms but these already possess two paired core electrons that produce a diamagnetic response of opposite sign. Strictly speaking Li is a mixed system therefore, although admittedly the diamagnetic component is weak and often neglected. In the case of heavier elements the diamagnetic contribution becomes more important and in the case of metallic gold it dominates the properties. Of course, the element hydrogen is virtually never called 'paramagnetic' because the monatomic gas is stable only at extremely high temperature; H atoms combine to form molecular H2and in so doing, the magnetic moments are lost (quenched), because of the spins pair. Hydrogen is thereforediamagneticand the same holds true for many other elements. Although the electronic configuration of the individual atoms (and ions) of most elements contain unpaired spins, they are not necessarily paramagnetic, because at ambient temperature quenching is very much the rule rather than the exception. The quenching tendency is weakest for f-electrons becausef(especially 4f) orbitals are radially contracted andthey overlap only weakly with orbitals on adjacentatoms. Consequently, the lanthanide elements with incompletely filled 4f-orbitals are paramagnetic or magnetically ordered.[4]μeffvalues for typical d3and d5transition metal complexes.[5]Materialμeff/μB[Cr(NH3)6]Br33.77K3[Cr(CN)6]3.87K3[MoCl6]3.79K4[V(CN)6]3.78[Mn(NH3)6]Cl25.92(NH4)2[Mn(SO4)2]·6H2O5.92NH4[Fe(SO4)2]·12H2O5.89Thus, condensed phase paramagnets are only possible if the interactions of the spins that lead either to quenching or to ordering are kept at bay by structural isolation of the magnetic centers. There are two classes of materials for which this holds:*.Molecular materials with a (isolated) paramagnetic center.*.Good examples arecoordination complexesofd- or f-metals or proteins with such centers, e.g.myoglobin. In such materials the organic part of the molecule acts as an envelope shielding the spins from their neighbors.*.Small molecules can be stable in radical form,oxygenO2is a good example. Such systems are quite rare because they tend to be rather reactive.*.Dilute systems.*.Dissolving a paramagnetic species in a diamagnetic lattice at small concentrations, e.g. Nd3+in CaCl2will separate the neodymium ions at large enough distances that they do not interact. Such systems are of prime importance for what can be considered the most sensitive method to study paramagnetic systems:EPR.Systems with interactionsIdealized Curie–Weiss behavior; N.B. TC=θ, but TNis not θ. Paramagnetic regimes are denoted by solid lines. Close to TNor TCthe behavior usually deviates from ideal.As stated above, many materials that contain d- or f-elements do retain unquenched spins. Salts of such elements often show paramagnetic behavior but at low enough temperatures the magnetic moments may order. It is not uncommon to call such materials 'paramagnets', when referring to their paramagnetic behavior above their Curie or Néel-points, particularly if such temperatures are very low or have never been properly measured. Even for iron it is not uncommon to say thatiron becomes a paramagnetabove its relatively high Curie-point. In that case the Curie-point is seen as aphase transitionbetween a ferromagnet and a 'paramagnet'. The word paramagnet now merely refers to the linear response of the system to an applied field, the temperature dependence of which requires an amended version of Curie's law, known as theCurie–Weiss law:This amended law includes a term θ that describes the exchange interaction that is present albeit overcome by thermal motion. The sign of θ depends on whether ferro- or antiferromagnetic interactions dominate and it is seldom exactly zero, except in the dilute, isolated cases mentioned above.Obviously, the paramagnetic Curie–Weiss description above TNor TCis a rather different interpretation of the word "paramagnet" as it doesnotimply theabsenceof interactions, but rather that themagnetic structureis random in the absence of an external field at these sufficiently high temperatures. Even if θ is close to zero this does not mean that there are no interactions, just that the aligning ferro- and the anti-aligning antiferromagnetic ones cancel. An additional complication is that the interactions are often different in different directions of the crystalline lattice (anisotropy), leading to complicatedmagnetic structuresonce ordered.Randomness of the structure also applies to the many metals that show a net paramagnetic response over a broad temperature range. They do not follow a Curie type law as function of temperature however, often they are more or less temperature independent. This type of behavior isof an itinerant nature and better called Pauli-paramagnetism, but it is not unusual to see, for example, the metalaluminiumcalled a"paramagnet", even though interactions are strongenough to give this element very good electrical conductivity.SuperparamagnetsSome materials show induced magnetic behaviorthat follows a Curie type law but with exceptionally large values for the Curie constants. These materials are known assuperparamagnets. They are characterized by a strong ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic type of coupling into domains of a limited size that behave independently from one another. The bulkproperties of such a system resembles that of a paramagnet, but on a microscopic level they are ordered. The materials do show an ordering temperature above which the behavior reverts to ordinary paramagnetism (with interaction).Ferrofluidsare a good example, but the phenomenon can also occur inside solids, e.g., when dilute paramagnetic centers are introduced in a strong itinerant medium of ferromagnetic coupling such as when Fe is substituted in TlCu2Se2or the alloy AuFe. Such systems contain ferromagnetically coupled clusters that freeze out at lower temperatures. They are also calledmictomagnets.See also*.Bohr magneton*.Curie temperature*.Diamagnetism*.Ferromagnetism*.MagnetochemistryReferences1.^Miessler, G. L. and Tarr, D. A. (2010)Inorganic Chemistry3rd ed., Pearson/Prentice Hall publisher,ISBN0-13-035471-6.2.^paramagnetism. Encyclopædia Britannica3.^Nave, Carl L."Magnetic Properties of Solids".HyperPhysics. Retrieved2008-11-09.4.^Jensen, J. & MacKintosh, A. R. (1991).Rare Earth Magnetism. Oxford: Clarendon Press.5.^Orchard, A. F. (2003)Magnetochemistry. Oxford University Press.Further reading*.Charles Kittel,Introduction to Solid State Physics(Wiley: New York, 1996).*.Neil W. Ashcroft and N. David Mermin,Solid State Physics(Harcourt: Orlando, 1976).*.John David Jackson,Classical Electrodynamics(Wiley: New York, 1999).External links*.http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/MagParticle/Physics/MagneticMatls.htm*.Magnetism: Models and Mechanismsin E. Pavarini, E. Koch, and U.

Paramagnetismis a form ofmagnetismwhereby certain materials are weakly attracted by an externally appliedmagnetic field, and form internal,induced magnetic fieldsin the direction of the applied magnetic field. In contrast with thisbehavior,diamagneticmaterials are repelled by magnetic fields and form induced magnetic fieldsin the direction opposite to that of the applied magnetic field.[1]Paramagnetic materials includemostchemical elementsand some compounds;[2]they have a relativemagnetic permeabilitygreater than or equal to 1 (i.e., a small positivemagnetic susceptibility) and hence are attracted to magnetic fields. Themagnetic momentinduced by the applied field is linear in the field strength and rather weak. It typically requires a sensitive analytical balance to detect the effect and modern measurements on paramagnetic materials are often conducted with aSQUIDmagnetometer.Paramagnetism is due to the presence ofunpaired electronsin the material, so all atoms with incompletely filledatomic orbitalsare paramagnetic. Due to theirspin, unpaired electrons have amagnetic dipole momentand act like tiny magnets. An external magnetic field causes the electrons’ spins to align parallel to thefield, causing a net attraction. Paramagnetic materials includealuminum,oxygen,titanium, andiron oxide(FeO).Unlikeferromagnets, paramagnets do not retain any magnetization in the absence of an externallyapplied magnetic field becausethermal motionrandomizes the spin orientations. (Some paramagnetic materials retain spin disorder even atabsolute zero, meaning they are paramagnetic in theground state, i.e. in the absence of thermal motion.) Thus the total magnetization drops to zero when the applied field is removed. Even in the presence of the field there is only a small induced magnetization because only a small fraction of the spins will be oriented by the field. This fraction is proportional to the field strength and this explains the linear dependency. The attraction experienced by ferromagnetic materials is non-linear and much stronger, so thatit is easily observed, for instance, in the attractionbetween arefrigerator magnetand the iron of the refrigerator itself.Relation to electron spinsConstituent atoms or molecules of paramagnetic materials have permanent magnetic moments (dipoles), even in the absence of an applied field. The permanent moment generally is due to the spin of unpaired electrons inatomicormolecular electron orbitals(seeMagnetic moment). In pureparamagnetism, thedipolesdo not interact with one another and are randomly oriented in the absence of an external field due to thermal agitation, resulting in zero net magnetic moment. When a magnetic field is applied, the dipoles will tend to align with the applied field, resulting in a net magnetic moment in the direction of the applied field. In the classical description, this alignment can be understood to occur due to atorquebeing provided on the magnetic moments by an applied field, which tries to align the dipolesparallel to the applied field. However, the true origins of the alignment can only be understood via thequantum-mechanicalproperties ofspinandangular momentum.If there is sufficient energy exchange between neighbouring dipoles they will interact, and may spontaneously align or anti-align and form magnetic domains, resulting inferromagnetism(permanent magnets) orantiferromagnetism, respectively. Paramagnetic behavior can also be observed in ferromagnetic materials that are above theirCurie temperature, and in antiferromagnets above theirNéel temperature. At these temperatures, the available thermal energy simply overcomes the interaction energy between the spins.In general, paramagnetic effects are quite small: themagnetic susceptibilityis of the order of 10−3to 10−5for most paramagnets, but may be as high as 10−1for synthetic paramagnets such asferrofluids.DelocalizationSelected Pauli-paramagnetic metals[3]MaterialMagnetic susceptibility,[10−5]Tungsten6.8Cesium5.1Aluminium2.2Lithium1.4Magnesium1.2Sodium0.72In conductive materials the electrons aredelocalized, that is, they travel through the solid more or less asfree electrons. Conductivity can be understood in aband structurepicture as arising from the incomplete filling of energy bands. In an ordinary nonmagnetic conductor the conduction band is identical for both spin-up and spin-down electrons. When a magnetic field is applied, the conduction band splits apart into a spin-up and a spin-down band due to the difference inmagnetic potential energyfor spin-up and spin-down electrons. Since theFermilevelmust be identical for both bands, this meansthat there will be a small surplus of the type of spin in the band that moved downwards. This effect is a weak form of paramagnetism known asPauli paramagnetism.The effect always competes with adiamagneticresponse of opposite sign due to all the core electrons of the atoms. Stronger forms of magnetism usually require localized rather than itinerant electrons. However, in some cases a band structure can result in which there are two delocalized sub-bands with states of opposite spins that have different energies. If one subbandis preferentially filled over the other, one can haveitinerant ferromagnetic order. This situation usually only occurs in relatively narrow (d-)bands,which are poorly delocalized.s and p electronsGenerally, strong delocalization in a solid due to large overlap with neighboring wave functions means that there will be a largeFermi velocity; this means that the number of electrons in a band is less sensitive to shifts in that band’s energy, implying a weak magnetism. This is why s- and p-type metals are typically either Pauli-paramagnetic or as in the case of gold evendiamagnetic. In the latter case the diamagnetic contribution from the closed shell inner electronssimply wins from the weak paramagnetic term of the almost free electrons.d and f electronsStronger magnetic effects are typically only observed when d or f electrons are involved. Particularly the latter are usually strongly localized. Moreover, the size of the magnetic moment on a lanthanide atom can be quite large as it can carry up to 7 unpaired electrons in the case ofgadolinium(III) (hence its use inMRI). The high magnetic moments associated with lanthanides is one reason whysuperstrong magnetsare typically based on elements likeneodymiumorsamarium.Molecular localizationOf course the above picture is ageneralizationasit pertains to materials with an extended lattice rather than a molecular structure. Molecular structure can also lead to localization of electrons. Although there are usually energetic reasons why a molecular structure results such that it does not exhibit partly filled orbitals (i.e. unpaired spins), some non-closed shell moieties do occur in nature. Molecular oxygen is a good example. Even in the frozen solid it contains di-radical molecules resulting in paramagnetic behavior. The unpaired spins reside in orbitals derived from oxygen p wave functions, but the overlap is limited to the one neighbor in the O2molecules. The distances to other oxygen atoms in the lattice remain too large to lead to delocalization and the magnetic moments remainunpaired.Curie’s lawMain article:Curie’s lawFor low levels of magnetization, the magnetization of paramagnets follows what is known asCurie’s law, at least approximately. This law indicates that the susceptibility,, of paramagnetic materials is inversely proportional to their temperature, i.e. that materials become more magnetic at lower temperatures. The mathematical expression is:where:is the resulting magnetizationis themagnetic susceptibilityis the auxiliarymagnetic field, measured inamperes/meteris absolute temperature, measured inkelvinsis a material-specificCurie constantCurie’s law is valid under the commonly encountered conditions of low magnetization (μBH ≲ kBT), but does not apply in the high-field/low-temperature regime where saturation of magnetization occurs (μBH ≳ kBT) and magnetic dipoles are all aligned with the applied field. When the dipoles are aligned, increasing the external field will not increase the total magnetization since there can be no further alignment.For a paramagnetic ion with noninteracting magnetic moments with angular momentum J, the Curie constant is related the individual ions’ magnetic moments,.The parameter μeffis interpreted as the effective magnetic moment per paramagnetic ion. If one uses a classical treatment with molecular magnetic moments represented as discrete magnetic dipoles, μ, a Curie Law expression of the same form will emerge with μ appearing in place of μeff.Click “show” to see a derivation of this law:Curie’s Law can be derived by considering a substance with noninteracting magnetic moments with angular momentum J. If orbital contributions to the magnetic moment are negligible (a common case), then in what follows J = S. If we apply a magnetic field along what we choose to call the z-axis, the energy levels of each paramagnetic center willexperienceZeeman splittingof its energy levels, each with a z-component labeled by MJ(or just MSfor the spin-only magnetic case). Applying semiclassicalBoltzmann statistics, the molar magnetization of such a substance is.Whereis the z-component of the magnetic moment for each Zeeman level, so– μBis called theBohr magnetonand gJis theLandé g-factor, which reduces to the free-electron g-factor, gSwhen J = S. (in this treatment, we assume that the x- and y-components of the magnetization, averaged over all molecules, cancel out because the field applied along the z-axis leave them randomly oriented.) The energy of each Zeeman level is. For temperatures over a few K,, and we can apply the approximation:,which yields:. The molar bulkmagnetization is then,and the molar susceptibility is given by.When orbital angular momentum contributions tothe magnetic moment are small, as occurs for most organic radicals or for octahedral transition metal complexes with d3or high-spin d5configurations, the effective magnetic moment takes the form (ge= 2.0023… ≈ 2),, wherenis the number of unpaired electrons. In other transition metal complexes this yields a useful, if somewhat cruder, estimate.Examples of paramagnetsMaterials that are called “paramagnets” are most often those that exhibit, at least over an appreciable temperature range, magnetic susceptibilities that adhere to the Curie or Curie–Weiss laws. In principle any system that contains atoms, ions, or molecules with unpaired spins can be called a paramagnet, but the interactions between them need to be carefully considered.Systems with minimal interactionsThe narrowest definition would be: a system with unpaired spins thatdo not interactwith each other. In this narrowest sense, the only pure paramagnet is a dilute gas ofmonatomic hydrogenatoms. Each atom has one non-interacting unpaired electron. Of course, the latter could be said about a gas of lithium atoms but these already possess two paired core electrons that produce a diamagnetic response of opposite sign. Strictly speaking Li is a mixed system therefore, although admittedly the diamagnetic component is weak and often neglected. In the case of heavier elements the diamagnetic contribution becomes more important and in the case of metallic gold it dominates the properties. Of course, the element hydrogen is virtually never called ‘paramagnetic’ because the monatomic gas is stable only at extremely high temperature; H atoms combine to form molecular H2and in so doing, the magnetic moments are lost (quenched), because of the spins pair. Hydrogen is thereforediamagneticand the same holds true for many other elements. Although the electronic configuration of the individual atoms (and ions) of most elements contain unpaired spins, they are not necessarily paramagnetic, because at ambient temperature quenching is very much the rule rather than the exception. The quenching tendency is weakest for f-electrons becausef(especially 4f) orbitals are radially contracted andthey overlap only weakly with orbitals on adjacentatoms. Consequently, the lanthanide elements with incompletely filled 4f-orbitals are paramagnetic or magnetically ordered.[4]μeffvalues for typical d3and d5transition metal complexes.[5]Materialμeff/μB[Cr(NH3)6]Br33.77K3[Cr(CN)6]3.87K3[MoCl6]3.79K4[V(CN)6]3.78[Mn(NH3)6]Cl25.92(NH4)2[Mn(SO4)2]·6H2O5.92NH4[Fe(SO4)2]·12H2O5.89Thus, condensed phase paramagnets are only possible if the interactions of the spins that lead either to quenching or to ordering are kept at bay by structural isolation of the magnetic centers. There are two classes of materials for which this holds:*.Molecular materials with a (isolated) paramagnetic center.*.Good examples arecoordination complexesofd- or f-metals or proteins with such centers, e.g.myoglobin. In such materials the organic part of the molecule acts as an envelope shielding the spins from their neighbors.*.Small molecules can be stable in radical form,oxygenO2is a good example. Such systems are quite rare because they tend to be rather reactive.*.Dilute systems.*.Dissolving a paramagnetic species in a diamagnetic lattice at small concentrations, e.g. Nd3+in CaCl2will separate the neodymium ions at large enough distances that they do not interact. Such systems are of prime importance for what can be considered the most sensitive method to study paramagnetic systems:EPR.Systems with interactionsIdealized Curie–Weiss behavior; N.B. TC=θ, but TNis not θ. Paramagnetic regimes are denoted by solid lines. Close to TNor TCthe behavior usually deviates from ideal.As stated above, many materials that contain d- or f-elements do retain unquenched spins. Salts of such elements often show paramagnetic behavior but at low enough temperatures the magnetic moments may order. It is not uncommon to call such materials ‘paramagnets’, when referring to their paramagnetic behavior above their Curie or Néel-points, particularly if such temperatures are very low or have never been properly measured. Even for iron it is not uncommon to say thatiron becomes a paramagnetabove its relatively high Curie-point. In that case the Curie-point is seen as aphase transitionbetween a ferromagnet and a ‘paramagnet’. The word paramagnet now merely refers to the linear response of the system to an applied field, the temperature dependence of which requires an amended version of Curie’s law, known as theCurie–Weiss law:This amended law includes a term θ that describes the exchange interaction that is present albeit overcome by thermal motion. The sign of θ depends on whether ferro- or antiferromagnetic interactions dominate and it is seldom exactly zero, except in the dilute, isolated cases mentioned above.Obviously, the paramagnetic Curie–Weiss description above TNor TCis a rather different interpretation of the word “paramagnet” as it doesnotimply theabsenceof interactions, but rather that themagnetic structureis random in the absence of an external field at these sufficiently high temperatures. Even if θ is close to zero this does not mean that there are no interactions, just that the aligning ferro- and the anti-aligning antiferromagnetic ones cancel. An additional complication is that the interactions are often different in different directions of the crystalline lattice (anisotropy), leading to complicatedmagnetic structuresonce ordered.Randomness of the structure also applies to the many metals that show a net paramagnetic response over a broad temperature range. They do not follow a Curie type law as function of temperature however, often they are more or less temperature independent. This type of behavior isof an itinerant nature and better called Pauli-paramagnetism, but it is not unusual to see, for example, the metalaluminiumcalled a”paramagnet”, even though interactions are strongenough to give this element very good electrical conductivity.SuperparamagnetsSome materials show induced magnetic behaviorthat follows a Curie type law but with exceptionally large values for the Curie constants. These materials are known assuperparamagnets. They are characterized by a strong ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic type of coupling into domains of a limited size that behave independently from one another. The bulkproperties of such a system resembles that of a paramagnet, but on a microscopic level they are ordered. The materials do show an ordering temperature above which the behavior reverts to ordinary paramagnetism (with interaction).Ferrofluidsare a good example, but the phenomenon can also occur inside solids, e.g., when dilute paramagnetic centers are introduced in a strong itinerant medium of ferromagnetic coupling such as when Fe is substituted in TlCu2Se2or the alloy AuFe. Such systems contain ferromagnetically coupled clusters that freeze out at lower temperatures. They are also calledmictomagnets.See also*.Bohr magneton*.Curie temperature*.Diamagnetism*.Ferromagnetism*.MagnetochemistryReferences1.^Miessler, G. L. and Tarr, D. A. (2010)Inorganic Chemistry3rd ed., Pearson/Prentice Hall publisher,ISBN0-13-035471-6.2.^paramagnetism. Encyclopædia Britannica3.^Nave, Carl L.”Magnetic Properties of Solids”.HyperPhysics. Retrieved2008-11-09.4.^Jensen, J. & MacKintosh, A. R. (1991).Rare Earth Magnetism. Oxford: Clarendon Press.5.^Orchard, A. F. (2003)Magnetochemistry. Oxford University Press.Further reading*.Charles Kittel,Introduction to Solid State Physics(Wiley: New York, 1996).*.Neil W. Ashcroft and N. David Mermin,Solid State Physics(Harcourt: Orlando, 1976).*.John David Jackson,Classical Electrodynamics(Wiley: New York, 1999).External links*.http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/MagParticle/Physics/MagneticMatls.htm*.Magnetism: Models and Mechanismsin E. Pavarini, E. Koch, and U.