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yamayuandadu · 1 year

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Ishkur, Baal, and others: a guide to the weather gods of Mesopotamia and ancient Syria

I received an ask recently which was difficult to answer in the conventional way: Is there any difference between Adad, Hadad, Ugaritic Baal, and Ishkur? What aspects would be specific to each? Was Dagan said to be the father of Ugaritic Baal or Hadad? Also, what sources would you recommend on the subject? After much consideration and multiple failed attempts to write a short response I decided to present the information in the form of a proper article. You can find it under the cut.

Recommended reading I’ll reverse the usual formula and start with literature recommendations. The most comprehensive treatment of this matter is quite literally a 1000+ pages long monograph, Daniel Schwemer’s Die Wettergottgestalten Mesopotamiens und Nordsyriens im Zeitalter der Keilschriftkulturen. Materialien und Studien nach den schriftlichen Quellen. It’s available for free, and remains reliable basically 99% of the time. I am aware reading hundreds of dense pages of academic German might be a bit much, but luckily the same author effectively wrote a two part abridged edition in English, The Storm-Gods of the Ancient Near East: Summary, Synthesis, Recent Studies. It is similarly available for free, see here for part 1 and here for part 2. Other literature which is worth checking out, and which I also utilized here, includes Lluís Feliu’s monograph The God Dagan in Bronze Age Syria and his article Two brides for two gods. The case of Šala and Šalaš; Alfonso Archi’s Hadda of Ḫalab and his Temple in the Ebla Period; and Shana Zaia’s Adad in Assyria: Royal Authority in the Neo-Assyrian Period. Furthermore, a new desertion which seems relevant was published recently, Albert Dietz’s Der Wettergott im Bild: diachrone Analyse eines altorientalischen Göttertypus im 3. und 2. Jahrtausend v. Chr., but I did not have the opportunity to read it yet. To properly answer the rest of the questions, the historical and environmental context of the worship of weather deities has to be addressed first. Ishkur in Mesopotamia in the Uruk and Early Dynastic periods At the dawn of recorded history, in lower Mesopotamia weather gods did not enjoy particular prominence. This has a lot to do with the environment - the importance of weather deities typically stems from reliance on rainfall in agriculture. As through a solid chunk of Mesopotamia irrigation mattered more, there was no real need for a major weather deity to arise. Canals were often handled by local tutelary gods, for example Shara in Umma. The oldest attested weather deity in Mesopotamia is Ishkur, who pretty clearly already worshiped in the Uruk period, but his importance was comparatively minor. His two main spheres of influence were seemingly providing water for land which was not irrigated (for example the steppe) and presiding over the destructive side of the weather - not just heavy rainfall, but also dust storms. Ishkur was also the main god of the city of Karkar, which has not yet been located with certainty, but presumably is to be found close to Adab on the banks of the Tigris. The fact that the logogram read as “storm” also represented this toponym in the Uruk period already is how it was possible to establish that the city was already a cult center of Ishkur at this time, and presumably earlier. The same logogram was also used to represent Ishkur’s name, for obvious reasons. However, the etymology of his proper name is unknown. It might be a Sumerian word which fell out of use before the start of recorded history otherwise, or it might come from a substrate language; this is ultimately irrelevant and has no real bearing on the tangible early history of this god. In addition to Karkar Ishkur was worshiped in nearby Adab and even further south in Lagash, but that’s about it for the earliest sources. Worth noting that for example in Ur there was virtually no cult of any weather deity until the late third millennium BCE, and even then, in the Ur III period it was of no interest to rulers. We also do not know much about the circle of deities associated with him. Based on later evidence it is presumed that his wife might have been the goddess Medimsha (“possessing beautiful limbs”), and god lists indicate his sukkal (attendant deity) was the deified lightning, Nimgir, but that’s about it. Adad ("Hadda") in early Syrian sources

The situation was diametrically different in upper Mesopotamia and across northern Syria. In these regions agriculture did depend on rainfall, which naturally meant weather gods were present in many local pantheons for as long as evidence is available. The best early sources we have are the texts from Ebla, which are roughly contemporary with the Early Dynastic sources mentioned in the previous paragraphs. The Eblaites evidently recognized Aleppo as the cult center of a weather god, who they referred to as Adad - or rather by a cognate of this name, which can be romanized as something like “Hadda” or "'Adda", but you get the point. It’s a derivative of the root *hdd, “to thunder”, which appears in some capacity in virtually every single language from the Semitic family. The Akkadian spelling, which is firmly Adad, seemingly reflects the weakening of the h present in Eblaite and later in a number of other languages (Ugaritic, Aramaic etc) into a glottal stop. Despite the root *hdd itself appearing in languages spoken as far south as Ethiopia, weather gods with names derived from it were seemingly initially basically restricted to northern Syria and upper Mesopotamia. Therefore, this is another piece of evidence indicating there is hardly such a thing as a “Semitic pantheon”; languages are not religions. It is not possible to tell when his cult was originally established, and claims linking any neolithic object with worship of weather gods require a healthy dose of skepticism. What is clear is that he was already well established by the third millennium BCE. Interestingly, despite Adad’s high status in the Eblaite pantheon, his original cult center, Aleppo, was hardly a political power in its own right in the third millennium BCE. In that regard he resembles many of the other major members of the local pantheon, like Hadabal (formerly read as Nidakul; no etymological relation to Adad or Baal) or Dagan, whose cult centers likewise did not form kingdoms in their own right .

A map of ancient Syria, showing the location of Ebla, Aleppo, Mari and other nearby cities (wikimedia commons)

All we can tell about the associations between Adad and other deities in the Ebla-Aleppo area is that he definitely had a wife, Halabatu, possibly to be understood as “she of Aleppo”. This name likely later morphed into better known Hebat. There’s no real evidence for a link between Adad and Dagan at this point in time, and Alfonso Archi went as far as arguing Dagan was not yet regarded as a senior, fatherly figure in the third millennium BCE, but this is ultimately speculative. Adad was also worshiped midway between Ebla and lower Mesopotamia, in Mari. Local scribes were the first people on record to associate him with Ishkur, and utilized the logographic writing of the latter’s name to represent the former. Curiously in Ebla this convention was entirely unknown, even though in other cases logograms borrowed from Mesopotamia did see some usage in a similar context. Adad and Ishkur in Mesopotamia through third and second millennia BCE In the Sargonic period Adad started to spread to new areas. He is well attested as far east as Gasur (later Nuzi) near modern Kirkuk. Since no comparable evidence is available for the Early Dynastic period, it can be safely assumed that he was restricted to western areas earlier. However, how exactly his cult entered the east and the south remains poorly understood. A major development for Adad in Mesopotamia was the merge between him and Ishkur. Presumably it started developing right as the southern scribal culture started to expand into areas where Adad was worshiped, like Mari. The details of this process are poorly known, but by the Ur III period Adad and Ishkur were effectively the same god in Mesopotamia. The worship of Adad was subsequently promoted by kings of the Isin and Larsa dynasties, and by the Old Babylonian period he was recognized as a major deity. He acquired some new roles, being invoked as a god of justice and divination - perhaps these offset the environmental factors responsible for Ishkur’s lack of popularity? However, many sources also indicate that even as a weather god he was recognized in a positive, rather than exclusively destructive role, acting as a bringer of abundance. He also came to be known as the "canal inspector of the gods", ie. as a god of irrigation. Adad's family in lower Mesopotamia

Frans Wiggermann's drawing of a seal impression showing a weather god and his spouse; reproduced here for educational purposes only. In lower Mesopotamia, the composite “Ishkur-Adad” kept a genealogy most likely originally developed with Ishkur in mind. His father was Anu, the sky god. The relationship between them is hardly explored in myths, though an Old Babylonian flood myth has a funny passage where, to cite Schwemer, “Adad (...) is to bring about a famine for humanity through lack of rainfall, and (...) then has to be guarded in heaven by Anu because of his corruptibility”. Alas, the audience presumably didn’t think that giving him the role of a failson was funny, and this element is absent from later flood myths. There is apparently only one source from the south which directly refers to Adad’s mother, and it places Urash in this role. This is hardly unexpected. My impression is that among online hobbyists Urash gets the least recognition of all three of Anu’s wives, but honestly prior to the “antiquarian theology” rising in late sources from Uruk, literally mere centuries before the death of cuneiform, she was -the- wife of Anu, with Ki bordering on being a non-personified concept and Antu hardly mattering. If a deity was defined as a child of Anu chances are very high Urash was the mother, basically. In the Old Babylonian period the southern version of Adad also gained a spouse, Shala, a fellow weather deity. This goddess must be categorically distinguished from Shalash known from earlier sources, who will be discussed later. We do not really know particularly well where she came from. Today the most common assumption is that her name is Hurrian and can be translated as “daughter”. This would point at origin in some part of Upper Mesopotamia. Lluis Feliu suggests that she might have originally been the spouse of the Hurrian weather god Teshub in a tradition perhaps centered on hitherto unidentified cities on the Tigris, though while plausible, this is ultimately purely speculative. Shala is very sparsely attested in Hurrian context, but to be fair most evidence we have comes from the west of the Hurrian sphere, and not from the east where she theoretically would be present. Mesopotamian god lists indicate that Shala was equated with Medimsha, presumably in a similar manner as Adad was with Ishkur. There is no independent evidence for Medimsha being Ishkur’s wife beyond texts which equate them with Adad and Shala, but the conclusion she held such a status even before the conflation is widely accepted, and I see no real reason to dispute it. Adad and Shala also had a number of children. The best attested ones are Misharu (“justice”), originally an independent god perhaps integrated into Adad’s circle because his name sounds similar to the akkadian word for wind, and Usur-amassu (“heed his - ie. Adad’s - word”). There isn’t much of a reason to discuss them in detail here since they were not weather deities; Usur-amassu is a fascinating figure though, and while initially male, they are mostly notable due to switching gender in the first millennium BCE as a new courtier of Inanna/Ishtar in Uruk, without losing the connection to her parents.

Western views on Adad’s genealogy and marital status While Shala was firmly the wife of the Mesopotamian Adad in Babylonia and Assyria, and Anu was equally firmly his father, the situation was different over in Aleppo and around it. As I mentioned before, the weather god of Aleppo already had a wife in the third millennium BCE, Halabatu. While many deities worshiped in Syria in the third millennium BCE later vanished, she remained a member of the local pantheon under the shortened name Hebat, and her position did not change. To my best knowledge the eastern limit for her recognition as the spouse of the weather god was Mari. The west is more complicated, though she pretty firmly appears in this role in Alalakh. The complex case of Ugarit will be discussed later. The different circles of associated deities make it pretty easy to separate Mesopotamian and western traditions. I would argue that a formal distinction between the Mesopotamian Adad and the “Aleppine” original is attested in the god list K 2100 (no catchier name for now), which lists “Ilhallabu”, “god of Aleppo”, among Adad’s foreign counterparts. Mari is somewhat of an oddity in that western and southern traditions pertaining to the weather god of Aleppo and the Mesopotamian Adad probably coexisted there. The Mariote kings recognized the weather god of Aleppo, but we also have some evidence that his peer from Karkar had some presence in the kingdom. For instance, Shala appears in personal names, and a seal refers to Anu as the weather god’s father. However, it is possible that a distinct western tradition regarding his parentage was followed in this area. While we do not know if Dagan was regarded as the father of the weather god of Aleppo in the third millennium BCE, it does appear that a connection between them was recognized in the Old Babylonian period. A mystery which for now cannot be solved is whether Dagan became the father of the weather god because his Hurrian counterpart Kumarbi was, or the other way around. Until more textual sources dealing with the theology of northern Syria surface it probably will remain impossible to answer this question for certain. Regardless of how the weather god came to be Dagan’s son, his mother in this situation would be Shalash. Her name is accidentally similar to Shala’s, but she has a distinct origin. In a ritual preserved in the Mari corpus but originating in Aleppo, Dagan and Shalash both appear alongside Hebat, which is generally taken as an indication they were regarded as members of one family.

Weather gods of Kumme and Arrapha in Mari (and beyond): enter Teshub

A late Bronze Age relief depicting Teshub (center left) and his wife Hebat (center right) alongside their family and court (wikimedia commons)

A further Mariote curiosity are references to weather gods of Kumme and Arrapha, to whom kings also paid respect. Both of these cities were Hurrian, and it is quite likely that the deity designated by the logogram normally read as Adad was in fact Teshub in these cases. Teshub was seemingly also starting to approach on the turf of the original weather god of Aleppo in the Old Babylonian period, as Hebat already shows up as his wife at this time. Eventually he fully replaced him, becoming the new weather god of Aleppo due to growing Hurrian cultural influence in Syria, though he did not hold this title forever. After the bronze age collapse local Luwian princes referred to the weather god of Aleppo as Tarhunza, and eventually the old name returned, with Arameans in the first millennium BCE worshiping Hadad in Aleppo. It’s worth noting a Neo-Assyrian treaty invokes the god of Aleppo separately from the Mesopotamian Adad, which indicates in this period the two were also viewed as separate. As a further Assyrian curiosity it might be worth bringing up “Adad of Kumme”, more or less the last reference to Teshub; see here for more information, in addition to Schwemer’s monograph. It is agreed the pairing Hebat with Teshub was adopted by Hurrians from northern Syria based on parallels between him and the local weather god, but it is not clear if he had a wife earlier. There is a theory that Shaushka, who in later sources firmly appears as his sister, was originally his spouse, but I will admit I do not fully get the reasoning, it’s not like anyone sensible advocates that Utu and Inanna were originally a couple. Feliu’s Shala theory strikes as much more plausible: Shaushka is firmly unmarried, Shala is firmly the wife of a weather god.

Coastal novelties, or the rise of Baal in Ugarit

Detail of the Baal stele from Ugarit (wikimedia commons).

The overlap between the weather god of Aleppo and Teshub was not the only western development in the second millennium BCE. Thai was the creation of Baal. The title designated the western weather god from the Mediterranean coast to roughly the middle Euphrates, though it only replaced the basic name, Hadad, in coastal areas. While the epithet Baal -or rather its cognates - already occurs in the third millennium BCE (for example in titles of Dagan), its use to specifically designate a distinct weather god was a novelty. While it seems the use of the title Baal to designate a god derived from Hadad was widespread on the Mediterranean coast, this phenomenon is best attested from Ugarit. Baal had the standard responsibilities of a weather deity there, but also acquired the unique role of a protector of sailors. Rather fittingly, in the Baal Cycle his enemy is the personified sea, Yam. We know there already was a myth dealing with the conflict between a weather god and the sea before in the tradition of Aleppo, but I do not think there’s any real consensus over what it entailed. I’m under the impression that since Dagan was ultimately the supreme deity, and there’s no real indication his relationship with his children was negative, it is not impossible that what unfolded was more similar to the various myths about Ninurta’s exploits, where the hero acts on behalf of his father. This is ultimately pure speculation, though. Baal was associated neither with Shala nor with Hebat. The latter was only worshiped in Ugarit as the spouse of Teshub, recognized as the god of Aleppo. Baal himself seemingly had no permanent spouse, though Ugaritic literature might point at informal links between him and Anat and/or Ashtart. Ugaritic tradition recognized Dagan as his father, in line with the views popular further inland, though the matter is pretty complicated as the supreme coastal god El could also be referred as his father. This remains a matter of heated debate, and the fact “father” was also effectively a generic honorific does not really help. Multiple nondescript minor goddesses were recognized as Baal’s daughters, though their mother is left unspecified. Pidray is by far the best attested, and a recent discovery indicates she was already worshiped by Amorites in the Old Babylonian period, presumably in relation to the weather god of Aleppo. Aramaic Ramman

The last distinct name which needs to be briefly discussed here is Ramman(u), which in Mesopotamia earlier on was primarily a title of the god Amurru, who can be best described as a divine redneck stereotype. However, in the first millennium BCE Arameans used to refer to their version of Hadad, worshiped in Damascus arguably effectively as a distinct deity. For more on this topic, which I am actually not very well-versed in, see here. Other Mesopotamian weather deities While Adad was obviously THE Mesopotamian weather god, a second figure of analogous character, Wer, was worshiped in the north and west. The origin of his name is uncertain. The first consonant behaves in wildly unpredictable ways which do not really match the phonology of any known language spoken in ancient Mesopotamia which might mean it originates in a hitherto unknown extinct substrate. Wer is relatively sparsely attested in literature, but in the Old Babylonian version of the Epic of Gilgamesh he is referenced as the master of Humbaba, something unparalleled both in earlier and later versions of Gilgamesh narratives. We never actually encounter him in the surviving fragments, but Enkidu basically hypes him up as if he was an overarching shonen antagonist:

This passage is sourced from Andrew R. George's edition.

There’s a back and forth argument in scholarship over whether Wer/Mer can be identified with Itur-Mer, the tutelary god of Mari. I personally lean towards the view that he cannot, and that the competing view is more plausible. Said alternative relies on the structure of the name, which seems to be theophoric; in the light of this peculiarity it has been argued Itur-Mer was a deified ancestor or culture hero simply bearing a theophoric name invoking Mer. For a detailed discussion of this god see here. In the Lament for Sumer and Ur, the destructive aspects of the weather are “outsourced” to a deity named Kingaludda, “director of the storm”. He is otherwise pretty much only attested in An = Anum, where he occurs far away from Adad’s section. He gets glossed as “evil god”, ilu lemnu. Another antagonistic figure related to the weather is Bilulu from the myth Inanna and Bilulu. The rainbow was deified separately from other weather phenomena under the name Manzat. She for the most part had no real connection to Adad and his circle, though it has been noted temples dedicated to Adad and Shala and to Manzat were juxtaposed in Chogha Zanbil in Elam in modern Iran. All three appear there presumably because they were worshiped in heavily Mesopotamia-influenced Susa. I wrote about her extensively in the past, both here and on wikipedia, so while she is one of my favorite minor goddesses I do not think there is a need to say more here. A mistaken assumption common in older publications and online is that Enlil, the standard head of the pantheon, was a weather god. For his character see this article and this monograph in particular. Another common mistake is interpreting gods poetically compared to storms or fighting using weather phenomena in a single myth or two as weather gods. These are just poetic topoi and there’s no real reason to assert Ninurta, Tishpak or Inanna had much to do with the weather.

#mesopotamian mythology #sumerian mythology #hurrian mythology #ugaritic mythology #mythology

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bagdemagus · 2 years

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Stone tablet with proto-cuneiform inscription Mesopotamia (Iraq), probably Girsu (modern Tello) Early Dynastic period, ca. 2750-2500 BCE

The text records allocations of land to various individuals, and it mentions the name of a certain Enhegal, who seems to bear the title “king (lugal) of Lagash,” but who is otherwise not attested in historical sources.

Penn Museum, Philadelphia, PA, CBS 10000

https://www.penn.museum/collections/object/347463

#sumerian #cuneiform #mesopotamia #enhegal #lagash #girsu #early dynastic #penn museum #archaeology

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haggishlyhagging · 1 year

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It is characteristic of leadership in this early period that there is a merging of divine and secular power personified by the ruler. The king list, a document written down in about 1800 B.C., traces the successive dynasties for the major cities in Mesopotamia back into the third millennium. While the chronologies are somewhat inflated, archaeologists have verified some of the data with other evidence. The earliest Sumerian dynasties were based in the cities of Kish, Warka, and Ur. According to the king list, the founder of the dynasty of Kish was Queen Ku-Baba, who is listed as having reigned a hundred years. She is identified as having formerly been a tavern-keeper, an occupation which puts her at the margins of society. She was later identified with the goddess Kubaba, who was worshiped in Northern Mesopotamia. She is the only woman listed in the king list as reigning in her own right, but the merging of her historic personality with that of a divinity is not unlike that of the mythical demigod Gilgamesh, ruler of Warka, who supposedly reigned in the Early Dynastic period, but for whose historical existence there is no hard evidence, and whose exploits are immortalized in the epic of Gilgamesh.

-Gerda Lerner, The Creation of Patriarchy

#Gerda Lerner #mesopotamia #Sumer #kubaba #goddess kubaba

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uchidachi · 8 months

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A while ago I saw an exhibit that included this carving, the oldest known piece of art that bears the artist’s signature.

It’s thousands of years old, and we know the name of the artist: Enhegal

That just gets me so emotional

(Transcript of the text is below the cut)

WOMEN OF PROMINENCE

38 Stele of Shara-igizi-Abzu

Mesopotamia, Sumerian, possibly Umma (modern Tell Jokha)

Early Dynastic I-II period, ca. 2900-2600 BC

Cuneiform inscription identifying Shara-igizi-Abzu; her father, Ushumgal; and four other represented figures, including: IGI.RU?.NUN, daughter of Mesi; Ag, chief of the assembly; Nanna, the foreman of the assembly; X.KU.EN, chief herald; Enhegal, the maker of the stele

Gypsum alabaster

This stele, bearing the earliest known signature of an artist, records one of the first transactions involving land, livestock, and houses. The two principal figures - Ushumgal, a priest of the god Shara, and his daughter Shara-igizi-Abzu - face one another on two sides. They are identified by inscriptions carved on their bodies. Shara-igizi-Abzu, who holds a vessel in her right hand, is shown taller than her father. Behind her appears a smaller female figure, and behind Ushumgal are three male figures in two registers, all of whom may have witnessed the transaction that takes place in front of a monumental building. Shara-igizi-Abzu's prominent appearance suggests that the stele documents Ushumgal's donation of an estate on her behalf.

THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK, FUNDS FROM VARIOUS DONORS, 1958; 58.29

#art #ancient art #mesopotamian art

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bestiarium · 2 years

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The Imdugud [Sumerian/Mesopotamian mythology]

Hybrid creatures have been a staple in mythology from around the world for as long as there have been myths and stories. In ancient Sumerian mythology, there were tales about the Imdugud, a species of mythical creatures that resembled a cross between a lion and a large bird. These beings had the body and wings of a gigantic bird with the head of a lion, but I want to point out that their Akkadian counterpart (which was called Anzu) was said to have a saw-like beak rather than a lion’s maw.

In either case, an Imdugud was a huge creature. When it flapped its wings, it created sandstorms and whirlwinds.

In one myth, a mighty Imdugud steals the mystical tablet of destiny from the deity Enki (who was called Enlil in Akkad). The hero Ninurta sets out on a quest to retrieve this item and ends up slaying the monster.

In Sumerian, the word ‘Imdugud’ is used to spell the word ‘mist’ so these beings might have been a personification of wind and mist.

Source: Black, J. and Green, A., 1992, Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: an illustrated dictionary, University of Texas Press, 192 pp. (image source 1: Reos-Empire on Deviantart, it depicts an OC character based on the Imdugud) (image 2: drawing of a stone relief from Girsu (which is now Tello) from the Early Dynastic Period. Image taken from Black and Green, 1992)

#Sumerian mythology #Mesopotamian mythology #Akkadian mythology #monsters #mythical creatures #creatures #mythology

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sag-dab-sar · 1 year

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Deity Dagan

Originally a god of West Semitic speakers from the Levant, but worshipped widely throughout the Near East, including Mesopotamia.

Deity of grain, as well as its cultivation and storage. Indeed, the common word for "grain" in Ugaritic and Hebrew is dagan. According to one Sumerian tradition and to the much later Philo of Byblos, Dagan invented the plow. In the north, he was sometimes identified with Adad. Thus, he may have had some of the characteristics of a storm god. In one tradition his wife was Ishara, in another Salas, usually wife of Adad. Salas was originally a goddess of the Hurrians. Dagan also had netherworld connections. According to an Assyrian composition, he was a judge of the dead in the lower world, serving with Nergal and Misa-ru(m), the god of justice. A tradition going back at least to the fourth century BCE identified Dagan as a fish god, but it is almost certainly incorrect, presumably having been based upon a false etymology that interpreted the element "Dag" in Dagan as deriving from the Hebrew word dag "fish."

The earliest mentions of him come from texts that indicate that, in Early Dynastic times, Dagan was worshipped at Ebla. Dagan was taken into the Sumerian pantheon quite early as a minor god in the circle of Enlil at Nip-pur. Kings of the Old Akkadian peri-od, including Sargon and Narām-Sin, credited much of their success as conquerors to Dagan. Sargon recorded that he "prostrated (himself in prayer before Dagan in Tutul [sic]" (Oppen-heim, ANET: 268). At the same time, he gave to the god a large area of the country he had just conquered, including Mari, Ebla, and larmuti in western Syria. A number of letters from the Mari archives, dated mainly to the reign of Zimri-Lim, record that Dagãn was a source of divine revela-tion. The letters reported prophetic dreams, a number of which came from Dagan, conveyed by his prophets and ecstatics. In his law code, Hammu-rapi credits Dagan with helping him subdue settlements along the Euphrates.

The Assyrian king Samsi-Adad I commissioned a temple for him at Terqa, upstream from Mari, where funeral rites for the Mari Dynasty took place.

In the Old Babylonian period, kings of the Amorites erected temples for Dagan at Isin and Ur. In the Anzû(m) myth, Dagan was favorably coupled with Anu(m). At Ugarit Dagan was closely associated with, if not equated to, the supreme god El/I(u). Although he is mentioned in the mythic compositions of Ugarit as the father of the storm god Ba'lu/ Had(d)ad, Dagan plays only a very minor role. His popularity is indicated by his importance in offering and god lists, one of which places him third, after the two chief gods and before the active and powerful god Ba'lu/ Had(d)ad. Dagan is attested in Ugaritic theophoric names. In Ugaritic texts the god is often referred to as "Dagan of Tuttul." It might also be the case that one of the two major temples of the city of Ugarit was dedicated to him, and he might there have been identified with the chief god I(u) / El.

Festivals for Dagãn took place at Ter-ga and Tuttul, both of which were cult centers of the god. He was certainly worshipped at Ebla and also at Mari.

At Mari, in Old Babylonian times, he appears as fourth deity on a god list; that is, he was very important. He was venerated also at Emar. There a "Sacred Marriage" ritual between Dagan and the goddess Nin-kur was celebrated.

At the same city, a festival was held in honor of "Dagan-Lord-of-the-Cattle," at which the herds of cattle and prob. ably sheep were blessed.

According to the Hebrew Bible, Dagan was the national god of the Philistines. I Samuel:5-6 tells of the capture of the Ark of the Covenant by the Philistines. It was customary in the Ancient Near East for the conquerors to carry off the deity statues of the conquered to mark the surrender not only of the people, but also of their deities.

So the Philistines took the Ark, the symbol of the god of the Israelites, into the temple of Dagan at Ashdod. Since the Israelites had no statues of their deity, the much revered Ark was an obvious substitute. In this way, the Philistines marked the submission of the Israelite god to Dagan. However, on the next day, the people of Ashdod found the statue of Dagan lying face down in front of the Ark. The following day the same thing happened except that the head and hands of Dagan's statue lay broken on the temple threshold. This biblical account seems to be an etiology for a practice of the priests of the temple of Dagan at Ashdod, for it states that for this reason it is the custom of the priests of Dagan not to tread on the threshold as they enter the temple of Dagan. The best-known of the biblical stories that mention Dagan is in Judges 16, the tale of Samson and Delilah. After Delilah arranged for the Philistines of Gaza to capture Samson, they blinded him, shackled him, and made him a slave at a mill. During a festival to Dagan, the Philistines took Samson to be exhibited in Dagan's temple, where thou sands of Philistines had gathered for the celebrations. After praying to the Israelite god, the now long haired Samson got back his old strength. By pushing against two central pillars, he brought the temple crashing down on himself and on more Philistines than he had killed in his whole lifetime of killing Philistines.

— From a Handbook to Ancient Near Eastern Gods & Goddesses by Frayne & Stuckey page 67-69

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ollieofthebeholder · 10 months

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🌹

“Seriously, though, in my case it’s usually research rabbit holes. I get started looking for something, I find a reference to something else that catches my attention, I start looking at that, and next thing I know the library’s closing and I have zero notes for the essay due tomorrow on the Corn Laws but I do have an almost excessive level of knowledge about the symbolism of pottery in the early dynastic period of ancient Mesopotamia.”

Send me a 🌹 to get a line from a WIP!

#ask games for ts #wip game #ellieloves2read

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zevordofzeday · 1 year

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El (deity)

ʼĒl (also 'Il, Ugaritic: 𐎛𐎍 ʾīlu; Phoenician: 𐤀𐤋 ʾīl;[6] Hebrew: אֵל ʾēl; Syriac: ܐܺܝܠ ʾīyl; Arabic: إل ʾīl or إله ʾilāh; cognate to Akkadian: 𒀭, romanized: ilu) is a Northwest Semitic word meaning "god" or "deity", or referring (as a proper name) to any one of multiple major ancient Near Eastern deities. A rarer form, 'ila, represents the predicate form in Old Akkadian and in Amorite.[7] The word is derived from the Proto-Semitic *ʔil-, meaning "god".[8]

Specific deities known as 'El, 'Al or 'Il include the supreme god of the ancient Canaanite religion[9] and the supreme god of East Semitic speakers in Mesopotamia's Early Dynastic Period.[10] Among the Hittites, El was known as Elkunirsa.

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whencyclopedia · 3 months

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The History of the Ancient World: From the Earliest Accounts to the Fall of Rome

This comprehensive and engaging narrative covers many ancient civilizations, including Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus Valley, early China, Greece, and Rome. Bauer's accessible writing and use of primary sources make complex historical events understandable and interesting. Ideal for history enthusiasts and general readers, this book offers a balanced and detailed overview of ancient history.

The History of the Ancient World: From the Earliest Accounts to the Fall of Rome by Susan Wise Bauer is a sweeping and well-researched work that endeavours to present a coherent narrative of ancient history from its earliest beginnings to the fall of the Roman Empire. Bauer, a historian and seasoned author, undertakes the formidable task of chronicling the development of human civilisations across the globe, weaving together historical events, cultural evolutions, and significant personalities.

The book is organised into 70 chapters, each serving as a vignette illuminating specific eras, events, and figures in ancient history. Bauer's narrative is both chronological and thematic, a dual approach that allows readers to follow the progression of historical events while also understanding each period's broader cultural and societal developments.

Bauer begins her journey in Mesopotamia, exploring the rise and fall of ancient societies such as Sumer, Akkad, Babylon, and Assyria. She delves deeply into the development of writing with cuneiform, the establishment of legal codes exemplified by Hammurabi's Code, and the growth of urbanization and statecraft under rulers like Sargon of Akkad. Her detailed descriptions provide a vivid picture of how these early societies laid the groundwork for future civilisations.

The narrative then shifts to ancient Egypt, where Bauer traces the history from the early dynastic periods through the heights of the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms. Her portrayal of Egyptian pharaohs such as Ramses II and Cleopatra pays particular attention to the complexities of their reigns. Bauer's exploration of Egyptian religion, monumental architecture like the pyramids and the temples at Karnak, and the daily life of its people enriches the reader's understanding of this ancient culture.

Bauer also examines the ancient civilizations of the Indus Valley and China. She discusses the sophisticated urban planning and social organization of the Harappan culture, as well as the early Chinese dynasties of Shang and Zhou, highlighting their contributions to writing, philosophy, and governance. Bauer's ability to interweave these diverse cultures into a single narrative thread is a testament to her skill as a historian and storyteller.

The book provides an in-depth look into ancient Greece and the Roman Republic and Empire. Bauer details impactful philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, military and political exploits executed by figures like Alexander the Great, the legacies of Julius Caesar and Constantine, and many other topics. Readers should pay attention to the discussion on the administrative and military structures that enabled Rome to maintain its dominance and its defining cultural and technological innovations. Bauer then concludes with the fall of Rome, marking the end of ancient history as traditionally defined and setting the stage for the medieval period.

Having published over six books, Bauer's writing style and storytelling skills to cover such a large timeline are evident, making complex concepts understandable and lively to a broad audience without sacrificing depth or accuracy. Her narrative is richly detailed while avoiding overwhelming readers with excessive minutiae. The book is well-supported by maps, timelines, and illustrations that contextualize the narrative and provide visual aids. Bauer's use of primary sources and quotations adds depth to her account, bringing the voices of ancient peoples into the modern narrative.

However, the book's scope also presents challenges. Some readers may find certain sections too brief, as Bauer moves quickly through some significant events and figures to maintain the narrative's momentum. Despite her efforts to include non-Western civilisations, the book still feels like it leans heavily towards a Eurocentric perspective, particularly in its treatment of the later chapters on Greece and Rome.

Overall, The History of the Ancient World is an impressive and highly readable account of ancient history. Susan Wise Bauer's synthesis of a vast array of historical data into a coherent narrative is commendable. While the book's scope means that some areas are covered more briefly than others, it remains an invaluable resource for anyone interested in the history of the ancient world.

#History #Sumer #RomanEmpire #Mesopotamia

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athis333 · 3 months

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Weekly Recap (17th – 23rd June 2024)

Study

Read wh.org articles – Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)

Read 12 articles

14 shorter readings

Reading (non-fiction)

Read Genghis Khan: His Conquests, His Empire, His Legacy – ch 11-14

Read SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome – prologue, ch 1

Read The Third Reich in Power – ch 6

Read Spoken Here: Travels Among Threatened Languages – ch 3

Read Alpha Beta: How 26 Letters Shaped the Western World – ch 4

Read Rough Magic: Riding the World's Wildest Horse Race – ch 16-38

Reading (fiction)

Finished reading Learwife (J. R. Thorp) – parts 2-3

Music

Listened to Spanish Zarzuelas CD

Exercise

Monday – Exercycle 4km (12min)

Flat (etc)

Gathered up kitchen rubbish (Monday)

Dishes (Monday)

Cooking (Monday)

Put washing on (Tuesday)

Cleared kitchen bench (Thursday)

Other

Shopping list (Monday)

Puzzle books list (Monday)

Supermarket (Tuesday & Wednesday)

Looked at new frypans (Tuesday)

Looked at new beds (Wednesday)

Crossed out clues in Code Crackers book

Rubbed out older mistakes in 1 puzzle book

Puzzles

Special Monthly Loop

1 Killer Sudoku

8 Kakuro

3 Suguru

8 Code Crackers (Clueless)

1 Wheel Words (online)

#studyblr #weekly recaps #personal

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dan6085 · 7 months

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Mesopotamia is the region in southwestern Asia where the world's earliest civilization developed. The name comes from a Greek word meaning "between rivers," referring to the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers¹. Mesopotamia has a long and rich history that spans from the prehistoric period to the Arab conquest in the 7th century CE. Here is a brief timeline of some of the major events and periods in Mesopotamian history:

- **Prehistoric period (c. 10,000-3500 BCE)**: The earliest human settlements in Mesopotamia date back to the Paleolithic era. During the Neolithic era, agriculture and animal domestication were introduced, leading to the development of villages and towns. The Ubaid period (c. 6500-3800 BCE) saw the emergence of the first temples, irrigation systems, and social stratification. The Uruk period (c. 4000-3100 BCE) witnessed the rise of the city of Uruk, the invention of writing (cuneiform), and the formation of the first states.

- **Early Dynastic period (c. 2900-2350 BCE)**: This period is characterized by the emergence of city-states, each ruled by a king who claimed divine authority. The most prominent city-states were Uruk, Ur, Lagash, Kish, and Nippur. They often competed and fought with each other for resources and prestige. The Sumerian King List, a legendary record of kingship, dates from this period. The Sumerians also developed a rich literature, art, mathematics, astronomy, and law.

- **Akkadian period (c. 2350-2150 BCE)**: The Akkadian Empire was the first empire in history, founded by Sargon the Great, who conquered most of Mesopotamia and parts of Syria, Anatolia, and Iran. The Akkadians adopted the Sumerian culture and language, but also introduced their own innovations, such as the use of seals and the development of a postal system. The Akkadian Empire collapsed after a series of invasions by the Gutians, a nomadic people from the Zagros Mountains.

- **Neo-Sumerian period (c. 2112-2004 BCE)**: The Neo-Sumerian period saw the revival of the Sumerian city-states, especially Ur, which became the capital of the Third Dynasty of Ur. The kings of Ur, such as Ur-Nammu and Shulgi, restored the Sumerian civilization and expanded their territory to include most of Mesopotamia and parts of Elam and Syria. They also built monumental ziggurats, temples, palaces, and canals, and codified the laws and administration. The Neo-Sumerian period ended with the invasion of the Elamites and the Amorites, who destroyed Ur and established their own kingdoms.

- **Old Babylonian period (c. 2000-1595 BCE)**: The Old Babylonian period is marked by the rise of Babylon, a city founded by the Amorites, who adopted the Akkadian language and culture. The most famous king of Babylon was Hammurabi, who unified most of Mesopotamia under his rule and issued the Code of Hammurabi, one of the oldest and most influential legal codes in history. The Old Babylonian period also saw the flourishing of literature, science, art, and religion, as well as the emergence of the Old Assyrian Empire in the north, which was known for its trade and diplomacy. The Old Babylonian period ended with the invasion of the Hittites, who sacked Babylon and weakened its power.

- **Kassite and Middle Assyrian period (c. 1595-1155 BCE)**: The Kassites were a people from the Zagros Mountains who conquered Babylon and ruled it for about 400 years. They adopted the Babylonian culture and religion, but also introduced the use of horses and chariots, and established diplomatic relations with other powers, such as Egypt and the Hittites. The Middle Assyrian period saw the expansion of the Assyrian Empire, which reached its peak under Tiglath-Pileser I, who conquered parts of Anatolia, Syria, and Babylonia. The Assyrians were known for their military prowess, brutality, and monumental architecture.

- **Neo-Babylonian period (c. 626-539 BCE)**: The Neo-Babylonian period was a time of cultural and political revival for Babylon, which regained its independence from the Assyrians and rose to prominence under the Chaldean dynasty. The most famous king of this period was Nebuchadnezzar II, who rebuilt Babylon into a magnificent city, with the Hanging Gardens, the Ishtar Gate, and the Tower of Babel. He also conquered Jerusalem and deported many Jews to Babylon. The Neo-Babylonian period ended with the conquest of Cyrus the Great, the founder of the Persian Empire, who captured Babylon and freed the Jews.

- **Achaemenid period (c. 539-331 BCE)**: The Achaemenid period was the time when Mesopotamia was part of the Persian Empire, the largest empire in history at that time. The Persians respected the cultures and religions of their subjects, and allowed a degree of autonomy and self-government. They also built roads, canals, and postal systems, and promoted trade and commerce. The most famous Persian kings were Cyrus the Great, Darius I, and Xerxes I, who fought against the Greeks in the Greco-Persian Wars. The Achaemenid period ended with the invasion of Alexander the Great, who defeated the Persians and conquered most of their empire.

- **Hellenistic period (c. 331-141 BCE)**: The Hellenistic period was the time when Mesopotamia was under the influence of Greek culture and language, following the conquest of Alexander the Great. After Alexander's death, his empire was divided among his generals, and Mesopotamia became part of the Seleucid Empire, which ruled most of Asia Minor, Syria, and Iran. The Seleucids faced resistance from the native peoples, such as the Parthians, who eventually broke away and established their own empire in the east. The Seleucids also faced competition from the Romans, who gradually expanded their power in the west.

- **Parthian period (c. 141 BCE-224 CE)**: The Parthian period was the time when Mesopotamia was part of the Parthian Empire, which ruled most of Iran, Iraq, and parts of Central Asia. The Parthians were of Iranian origin, and revived the Persian culture and religion, especially Zoroastrianism. They also adopted elements of Greek and Babylonian culture, and fostered a rich and diverse civilization. The Parthians were famous for their cavalry and archery, and resisted the Roman attempts to conquer them. The most famous Parthian kings were Mithridates I, who expanded the empire to its greatest extent, and Vologases I, who restored the city of Seleucia and made it his capital.

- **Sasanian period (c. 224-651 CE)**: The Sasanian period was the time when Mesopotamia was part of the Sasanian Empire, which replaced the Parthian Empire and claimed to be the successors of the Achaemenids. The Sasanians were also of Iranian origin, and promoted the Persian culture and religion, especially Zoroastrianism. They also developed a sophisticated administration, legal system, art, and architecture. The Sasanians were the main rivals of the Byzantine Empire, and fought several wars with them over the control of Mesopotamia and Syria. The most famous Sasanian kings were Shapur I, who captured the Roman emperor Valerian, and Khosrow I, who reformed the empire and patronized science and literature.

- **Arab period (c. 651-1258 CE)**: The Arab period was the time when Mesopotamia was conquered by the Arab Muslims, who brought a new religion, Islam, and a new language, Arabic, to the region. The Arabs established the Umayyad Caliphate, which ruled most of the Middle East, North Africa, and Spain. The Umayyads were succeeded by the Abbasid Caliphate, which moved the capital from Damascus to Baghdad, and made Mesopotamia the center of the Islamic world. The Abbasids presided over a golden age of culture, science, and learning, known as the Islamic Golden Age. The Abbasid period ended with the Mongol invasion, which destroyed Baghdad and much of Mesopotamia.

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