#basic oxygen furnace

[supplyside]

charging the basic oxygen furnace, Tata Steel

[indofgl]

Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) steel making involves blowing oxygen through molten pig iron that is heated to more than 1,600℃ to convert it into steel. Different types of refractories play an important role to maximize furnace life and yield. IFGL Refractories offers specialized BOF refractory solutions for enhanced furnace performance.

[foone]

random pet peeve:

the odorless deadly chemical which can be in your house if you have a leaky stove or furnace is CO: Carbon Monoxide.

You have carbon monoxide detectors for that, because it's deadly and can build up without you noticing.

That deadly gas is NOT CO2. CO2 is Carbon Dioxide. You breathe it out, it feeds plants, it's what makes soda drinks fizzy.

So you don't usually have a "CO2 detector" in your home (they exist, though).

Now don't get me wrong: CO2 isn't super healthy either, but since humans emit CO2, we're pretty good at handling low levels of it. Too much of it will asphyxiate you, but that's super rare. It really needs to happen because of things like "nearby volcanic eruptions" and "deep lake water disruptions". Basically CO2 kills you by getting in the way of oxygen that you're trying to breathe in, and it kills you the same way any other gas does: you can't breathe in much oxygen if all the air is something besides oxygen.

CO (Carbon Monoxide), on the other hand, directly fucks up your hemoglobin. You breathe it in, and your blood starts carrying carbon monoxide around, rather than oxygen (in) and carbon dioxide (out). It basically suffocates you at the blood level, rather than the lungs level: You can breathe in all the oxygen you want, but if your blood can't move oxygen, you die.

This also bypasses the "I NEED TO BREATHE!" feeling. You don't notice that your blood is failing to move oxygen, you just get headaches, dizzy, nauseous, and confused, then die.

So, to sum up:

Carbon Dioxide (CO2): Relatively common, makes drinks fizzy, not dangerous unless there's a a ton of it. If you walk into a room full of CO2, you start choking because you can't breathe.

Carbon Monoxide (CO): Rare poisonous gas, comes from leaky combustion appliances, quite dangerous. If you walk into a room full of CO, you get a headache, act weird, then die.

[quitealotofsodapop]

Wouldn't it be hilarious if stone monkeys actually can give birth or lay stone eggs naturally? Like... if they have a partner it'll be a regular old birth the same as how MK and the twins came into the world... but say a stone monkey didn't have a partner. Stone Monkey are a rare and critically endangered species afterall (even if they don't have the protections of an endangered species).

So what if, as a biological advantage, a stone monkey actually can lay a stone egg and give birth to a little baby stone monkey the same way as how Wukong and Macaque were born. But it's risky since creating life without a partner is beyond dangerous and most don't survive to even see the egg hatch, so most can only have one at a time and have to REALLY want a kid since, well, they'd basically be trading their life for the kids'. A kid that probably wouldn't even be hatched until long after their parent is dead.

I think with Wukong, it'd be a bit different because, well, 7 times over immortal monkey. But he'd still experience the negative effects and basically be completely vulnerable for a long time afterwards if he ever did it.

Just a little headcanon I thought up that I thought you'd be interested in.

Oh like parthenogenesis! Like some reptiles do when theres no available mates. I figure in a similar sense, the baby Stone Monkey would be a near-genetic clone of the parent; with the environment the "womb" is in adding life energy/qi/dao and affecting the appearance/abilities of the developing monkey within. Wukong likely popped out the way he did cus his egg was at the top of a mountain - his egg absorbing the violent life energy of what was once an active volcano over thousands of years.

Considering a certain few lines in Jttw, it's suggested that Wukong and Macaque are the last of their kind (with Six Eared being a variant/subspecies) - or they're just the only ones in that hemisphere. Like ancient human relatives the great Stone Monkeys became lost to time or were drowned in the Great Flood, or in the case of the Gibbon and Baboon; left Earth entirely.

The idea of a Stone Monkey deciding one day "I want a baby" and their body taking from there if there wasn't a viable mating option is really interesting. Their body's becoming like golems, weathered down into boulders if damage comes to them. And also very sad cus they know that theres a really good chance that they will never meet their baby. :(

Though imagine what the potiential "trigger" for it could be...

Guanyin: "The Monkey King is currently held beneath the Five Point Mountain. It will act as his prison for the next five centuries." Gold Star: "Ah. Make sure he's watered frequently and has plenty of oxygen." Guanyin: "But of course, it is only humane. However, doesn't he possess many forms of immortality?" Gold Star: *is so old that he witnessed the first Stone Monkeys, some even developing on his planet* Gold Star: "Not unless you want him to make another of himself." Guanyin: "Pardon?" Gold Star: "In my observations; when a Stone Monkey without a mate wished to reproduce, they would bury themselves and abstain from all biological needs until their bodies returned to the stone from whence they came. A new stone egg formed within their body as if it were a womb. The process is very taxing, and many died if another was not present to "wake" them afterwards. Though even in the case of parental death; the egg within the body would live on to hatch forth an infant to be raised by the familial troop." Guanyin, panicking: "I... I will be back in a moment." Wukong, beneath the mountain: "...why am I thinking about having kids?" Guanyin: *busts in holding molten copper and iron cus it was the only thing next to her at the time*

Of course it is unlikely for Wukong to actually *die* if his body decided to Copy/Paste him into an egg. But the possible way it could occur to him accidentally in any universe would be scary.

Like say... being trapped in a (newly) air-tightened Furnace by spiteful past enemy...

Lets just say I thought of another way that Luzhen is created >:)

Macaque: *pops open the lid to the airless Furnace* "Oh thank Buddha! You're intact. Drink some water dummy." Wukong, "awakened" by the fresh air and water: "...I think I'm pregnant." Macaque: "Uh... congrats?" Wukong: "No, like. Being cooked in there with no air made me pregnant." Macaque, only vaguely familar with their species: "...we should really ask Gold Star about this."

Luzhen in the TMKATI au would be celebrated as an adored, if not odd, new member to the family. His egg pops out after a long time of just sitting in SWK's body like his swallowed a rock. Luzhen "hatched" in a way that triggered something akin to labor. After all, Wukong's egg split open his Rock-mother (possibly the body of his parent) when it was his time to hatch. Wukong decides it is the worst pain he's ever felt in all his immortal life. Luzhen blinks slowly when his shell finally cracked all the way, confused on where he was.

The bit of dao Luzhen absorbed from his enviroment allowed him to develop just a tiny difference to his father; a pair of moon-silver eyes. Macaque smugly declares Luzhen's beautiful eyes are clearly a trait he inherited from him - and likely *did* depending on if any part of Macaque ended up in the Furnace with Wukong too. Like lets say the bones from an arm grapsing deperately before the lid of the Furnace slammed shut...

Hilariously, if Sun Wukong couldn't breath and/or wasn't able to crawl towards the Wind Trigram his first time cooking in the Furnace; there was a good chance that Lao Tzu would have opened the Furnance to a statue-like Monkey King with an egg inside of it. Wukong finally reawakening 500 years later with a heavy stomach and *many* questions.

[rjzimmerman]

Excerpt from this story from Canary Media:

One of the world’s dirtiest industries is beginning to embrace cleaner methods.

Most planned new steelmaking capacity will use lower-emissions electric arc furnace technology rather than the historically dominant but emissions-intensive basic oxygen furnaces, per a new report from the nonprofit Global Energy Monitor.

Steel is, quite literally, a pillar of our world. It props up skyscrapers, reinforces bridges, and is crucial to cars, planes, trains, and ships. It’s also incredibly dirty: As much as 11 percent of global carbon dioxide emissions come from the iron and steel industries.

The primary steelmaking process generally starts with producing iron in a superhot and extremely carbon-intensive coal-based blast furnace. The resulting iron is then typically put into a basic oxygen furnace, where it becomes steel.

But recent trends suggest that more-sustainable electric arc furnaces (EAF) are starting to replace basic oxygen furnaces, helping slash emissions. In 2023, nearly all newly announced steelmaking capacity — 93 percent — planned to use EAFs, per the Global Energy Monitor report.

As it stands, about 32 percent of global steelmaking happens in these lower-emissions electric furnaces, but that’s set to rise to more than 36 percent by the end of the decade as more EAFs come online and more oxygen furnaces retire, per the report. That growth rate nearly puts the industry on track to meet the International Energy Agency’s target for EAFs to make up 37 percent of steelmaking by 2030.

The picture is less clear for iron production, the step in the steelmaking process that is responsible for the vast majority of carbon emissions.

More than 90 percent of the world’s iron is still made in extremely dirty coal-based blast furnaces. The primary alternative to these furnaces, direct reduction iron (DRI), is beginning to gain ground. But coal-based blast furnace capacity is still being built faster than DRI capacity.

[lensman-arms-race]

Inspired by this post by striderl, here are the explanations for my characters' serials.

Cygnus (5022)

Inspired by a Cheapshow (podcast) episode in which a character mangled some bingo calls, calling 22 as 'two little swans' instead of the traditional 'two little ducks'. Instantly I knew I had to use that for a character somehow: give them a serial ending in 22 and call them Cygnus (the genus of swans).

The 'Fifty' came later just because I liked the sound of 'Fifty-Twenty-Two'.

Phaeton (1842)

This one actually gets explained in-universe. As Phaeton is a human, they weren't automatically assigned a serial, so they had the opportunity to choose their own one. Phaeton chose 1842 because the atomic numbers of hydrogen, oxygen and molybdenum are 1, 8 and 42. The chemical abbreviations of those elements are H, O and Mo, which can be put together to spell Homo (the genus of humans).

In this way, Phaeton and Cygnus have 'matching' serials; Cygnus's name is an organic genus derived from their serial, whereas Phaeton's serial is digits derived from their organic genus.

Engineer 1668 (lead engineer on the TV Titan's maintenance crew)

It's the melting point (in degrees Celsius) of titanium. (Geddit, titan-ium?)

I wanted to use the Kelvin temperature because Kelvin seems more Science than Celsius, but 1668°C is 1941°K, and 1668 was just a more pleasing number.

Agent 1791 (TV Titan's identity pre-upgrade)

(Yes, the Titan's not actually my character, but [fart])

It's the year of discovery of the element titanium. (Although it was initially named maccanite, and didn't receive the name titanium until 1795.)

Primus (1153) and Icarus (1566) (TV Matriarch's bodyguards)

(Also not actually my characters. But also it appears to be fanon that these two are the Matriarch's bodyguards at all! We've never seen them since their first appearance.)

I devised their nicknames and serials concurrently; I wanted to give them serials that Phaeton could turn into nicknames.

I decided I wanted one of them to be called Primus, so I looked up 4-digit primes looking for one that was both 'pleasing' and was splittable into a pair of 2-digit primes.

For Icarus I looked up asteroid names and numbers until I found one that was both a reasonable character name and had a pleasing number.

Fornax (4304)

The number was just one I found pleasing. The hard part was later coming up with a nickname, after I decided I'd got attached to this character enough to name them.

I initially wanted to carry over Cygnus's theme of 'bird name that's also a constellation'. Unfortunately the birb constellations don't have terribly pleasing names. Besides Cygnus, there's Apus (bird of paradise), Aquila (eagle), Columba (pigeon), Corvus (crow), Grus (crane), Pavo (peafowl), Phoenix (not a real birb), and Tucana (toucan).

Corvus is admittedly kinda cool-sounding, but was a bit too close to Cygnus for my liking. I initially wanted to go with Grus, because I noticed that so far all my named TVs had names ending in -us (Cygnus, Primus, Icarus) and I wanted to continue that theme, but I just couldn't make myself like it as a name, plus it just didn't feel like something Phaeton would pick for them.

In the end I threw out the bird link and kept just the constellation link. Phaeton chooses Fornax as a name just because of that and because 'four' and 'for' sound similar.

(Fornax means 'furnace', and Phaeton means 'one who shines'. So the trio are basically called Shiny, Swan and Oven.)

Other engineers

I literally used random.org to generate numbers, and picked the first 15 that fulfilled my criterion of 'last digit can't be 0' (see link below for why not).

I wanted to give myself a little challenge of coming up with nicknames for existing numbers that I didn't pick, instead of picking numbers that would fit a specific name.

I ended up with two characters with serials ending in 07, so they'll get nicknames to tell them apart. 5007 and 9807 both work on the Titan's propulsion systems and are collectively referred to as 'the Sevens'; 5007 is nicknamed 'Stannum' (Latin for tin, which has atomic number 50) and 9807 is nicknamed 'Ianthe' (for the asteroid 98-Ianthe).

Engineer 9779 is nicknamed Palindrome for obvious reasons.

Unfortunately, one of the numbers random.org gave me was 6918. I considered not using that one, because people will likely assume I added the 69 to be funny, then I thought 'nah, just add it, things like this would be inevitable with procgenned serials'.

There are two engineers with nearly identical serials (because that happens with true randomness): 7672 and 7678. They'll probably get nicknames at some point.

That's the Doylist explanation. The Watsonian explanation of how TV serials are generated is in this post I made earlier this year.

[materialsscienceandengineering]

High-temperature flames are used to create a wide variety of materials -- but once you start a fire, it can be difficult to control how the flame interacts with the material you are trying to process. Researchers have now developed a technique that utilizes a molecule-thin protective layer to control how the flame's heat interacts with the material -- taming the fire and allowing users to finely tune the characteristics of the processed material. "Fire is a valuable engineering tool -- after all, a blast furnace is only an intense fire," says Martin Thuo, corresponding author of a paper on the work and a professor of materials science and engineering at North Carolina State University. "However, once you start a fire, you often have little control over how it behaves. "Our technique, which we call inverse thermal degradation (ITD), employs a nanoscale thin film over a targeted material. The thin film changes in response to the heat of the fire, and regulates the amount of oxygen that can access the material. That means we can control the rate at which the material heats up -- which, in turn, influences the chemical reactions taking place within the material. Basically, we can fine-tune how and where the fire changes the material."

Read more.

[sailorsol]

So most of this is true. We are very good at making things boil to create steam to make the spinny thing give us power. But. We are also very good at making things EXPLODE to make the spinny thing give us power.

This was touched on briefly in regards to internal combustion engines, but this is true for any gas turbine engine. If you cram a bunch of oxygen into a small space and add some fuel and then EXPLODE it, you get a lot of hot air pushing out of that area really quickly, which will make your turbine spin as well. This is a gas turbine, most commonly seen in jet engines, but there are also industrial gas engines (as seen at natural gas power plants, for example) that are basically GIANT jet engines that don't fly.

Part of the reason natural gas is more efficient for energy generation is because you don't have to heat the water to make the steam to turn the turbine to get the power, you just explode the gas. You also get a lot fewer problems with the turbine when steam isn't involved, because steam has a habit of causing pitting on the turbine blades if it isn't dry enough. (Yeah, dry steam is a thing. Try not to think about it too hard else you'll break your brain.) This means having to replace the turbine a lot more often--which is fine if your cooling loop is separate from your primary heating loop, like in most types of nuclear reactors, but if you've got a boiling water reactor, your turbine is exposed to irradiated steam so maintenance becomes a lot harder.

All that being said--we have been using water and wind to generate power for thousands of years. Not electricity, but power, which is really what we're talking about when we talk about making the spinny thing go. Because the spinny thing is creating mechanical power, which is then used to make an electric engine go WEEEEEEEE to give us electric power. But mechanical power can be used directly for things like pumping water or grinding grain or operating bellows to fuel really huge blast furnaces for smelting iron.

Humans have been really good at finding ways to make mechanical power and reduce the amount of energy we are personally required to put into getting that mechanical power. Because humans are relatively weak and generally lazy in the sense that we're always looking for an easier way to do something difficult.

Steam power, in the grand scheme of things, is relatively new, and frankly it took a lot of trial and error (and explosions) before it could be used reliably and efficiently, which is also partly why we don't see things like steam powered cars or nuclear powered jet engines (though they tried, for both). It just isn't efficient or practical. And inherently one of the ways to make steam power more efficient is to pressurize all that lovely boiling water (whatever the heat source), which is where the explosions come in. Think about a bottle of soda exploding, but now imagine that with a giant metal tank and boiling water, and you have the horror of late 19th century steam power. The number of trains and ships that exploded was not inconsequential. There was an entire insurance company created just to deal with steam boilers because no one else wanted to touch them. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers was basically created because a bunch of engineers got together and said "right, there has to be some way to do this without blowing people up" and the pressure vessel regulations came into existence. But that was in 1880, and if you look at the development of steam powered energy, not much has changed except the source of the heat.

(Yes, Vitruvius created a bladeless radial steam engine in ~30 BCE, but you'll note that it never really took off, mostly because it lacked a good way to do anything with all the spinning, like turning a gear shaft.)

So yes. Nuclear power is really no different from coal power, they just use different sources to make sources hot. And steam power is great, but at the end of the day, we have come up with lots of better ways to create power. Steam is just the best way we've found so far to create a lot of power all at once. And with nuclear power in particular, we can get a lot of electrical power out of the system with very little energy being put into it. One uranium fuel pellet that can fit in your hand is equivalent to 40 tons of coal, the size of a large dump truck.

So if you need lots of electrical power, steam is one of your best options. But if you're just looking for mechanical power, there are lots of better options.

nuclear power is impressive until you get up to why. "we use the most precisely engineered machinery ever created to split atoms to release energy" oh yeah how come? "boil water to turn a fan" get the fuck out

[ivareriksson78]

Rust-Resistant Concrete Formulations: The Need for Long-Term Infrastructure Solutions

Concrete is arguably the most reliable and widely employed construction material. Whether it's a highway or a skyscraper, concrete is at the base of modern infrastructure. However, placing reinforcing steel inside concrete structures has always been one significant challenge: corrosion. Rust, which develops from the corrosion of steel reinforcement, can potentially severely reduce both the strength and lifespan of concrete, leading to costly repairs and, in some cases, catastrophic structural failure. In this context, rust-resistant concrete formulations become a potential answer to protect reinforced concrete from the adverse effects of rust.

Formation of Rust within Concrete

Rust formation occurs when the steel reinforcement embedded in concrete reacts with water, oxygen, and chloride ions. The result of this corrosion interaction is the formation of iron oxide, known as rust, thus causing the steel to expand and crack the concrete around it. More water and contaminants penetrate those cracks and amplify the corrosion processes. Eventually, this can create structural damage and compromise load-carrying capability as well as create safety concerns. In particular, rust-induced damage is alarming in humid areas, near coastal areas, or industrial sites, where the salts and corrosive substances become highly effective on concrete structures.

The Importance of Rust-Resistant Concrete Compositions

Concrete formulations against rust are especially designed to fight corrosion problems related to steel rebar. Special mixtures used here contain an assortment of additives and materials, which greatly strengthen the defences of the concrete structure against the causative agents for rust formation. The basic objective of these formulations is to ensure that the concrete formulation developed not only minimizes water and chemical penetrations but also provides additional layers of protection for the embedded steel pieces.

Among key members of the formulation of rust-resistant concrete here:

Corrosion inhibitors are chemical products that can be added to the concrete mix design to prevent or mitigate the corrosion of steel reinforcement. These additives work by forming a protective film around the steel and preventing the access of water and chloride ions responsible for initiating corrosion. A popular type of such corrosion inhibitors is calcium nitrite, which is heavily used in concrete to protect it against chloride-induced corrosion, especially in marine or de-icing salt environments.

Pozzolanic Materials

The addition of the following pozzolanic materials to the mix of concrete improves its durability: fly ash, silica fume, and ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS). The pozzolanic materials react chemically with the dissolved calcium hydroxide in cement to form supplementary cementitious compounds filling the pores in the concrete matrix, thereby making it denser and less permeable. Such a reduction in the porosity of the concrete reduces the entry of water and aggressive chemicals, thus lowering the chances of corrosion.

Epoxy-Coated Reinforcement Among the most effective methods against rusting of concrete is epoxy-coated rebar. The epoxy coating acts as a protective covering to the steel, thus preventing moisture and salts from reaching it. It is very effective for structures that are subjected to harsh environmental conditions, like bridges, parking garages, and coastal buildings, where corrosion risks are higher.

Stainless Steel Reinforcement

Not being strictly a "formulation" per se, the use of stainless steel rebar instead of carbon steel is a very effective way of preventing rust. Stainless steel is resistant to corrosion, making it the best choice for high-risk applications where rust would be a big problem. Being more expensive than regular rebar, stainless steel pays for itself over time through savings in maintenance and repairs.

Water-Repellent Admixtures

The water-repellent admixtures are mostly silane or siloxane-based, added to the mix of concrete for the reduction of its water absorption rate. They function by altering the chemical structure of the surface of the concrete, hence forming a hydrophobic layer that cannot allow water penetration into the material. The moisture available for the corrosion processes will be reduced since the rate of water infiltration has been decreased; hence, reinforced concrete structures will be more durable.

Benefits of Rust-Resistant Concrete Mixtures

Many significant benefits can be achieved from the addition of rust-resistant additives to concrete mixes, including:

Increased Durability One of the benefits of using rust-resistant compositions is that the operational life of concrete structures increases and costly repairs or replacements are avoided because rust-resistant compositions inhibit corrosion of reinforcing bars.

Economic Benefits

Though an initial cost penalty accompanies rust-resistant concrete formulations, the long-term savings are highly significant. With fewer repair and maintenance activities, the lifecycle cost for infrastructure projects is also reduced, thereby making these formulations a good investment in the long term.

Safety Improvement

Damage due to corrosion may lead to the failure of structures of buildings, bridges, and other infrastructures. Since these structures retain their strength and stability for long periods, the formulations used for them are rust-resistant, and hence safe.

Environmental Benefits

The use of materials such as fly ash or slag in rust-resistant concretes allows concrete manufacturers to reduce the ecological footprint resulting from concrete manufacturing. These pozzolanic materials enhance not only the longevity of the concrete but also its carbon emissions due to the use of industrial by-products.

Conclusion

Rust-resistant concrete formulations are a landmark step in construction technology. In these formulations, corrosion inhibitors, pozzolanic materials, and special reinforcement options are added to protect the steel reinforcement against the harmful effects of rust and ensure the longevity and safety of concrete structures. With the increasing requirements for infrastructure, rust-resistant concrete formulations will remain an essential resource for engineers and contractors who want to build more long-lasting, durable, and economically feasible concrete structures.

[laurazukerman-blog]

Steel-Making

Steelmaking is the process of producing steel from iron ore or scrap through two primary methods: Blast Furnace and Electric Arc Furnace (EAF). Blast Furnace Process: Iron ore, coke, and limestone are melted to produce pig iron. This is then refined in a Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) by blowing oxygen to remove impurities, creating steel[1][3][4]. Electric Arc Furnace (EAF): Scrap steel or direct…

[etimaterials-blog]

Preparation of metal molybdenum powder

The method is basically the same as the method for preparing tungsten powder. The hydrogen reduction method of molybdenum oxide is still the only method for producing molybdenum powder.

The raw material for the production of molybdenum powder is generally ammonium paramolybdate 3(NH4)O·7MoO3·4H2O. Ammonium paramolybdate can be converted to MoO3 or MoO2 by calcination or hydrogen reduction. When using MoO3 as a raw material, first-stage, second-stage and third-stage method is used to produce molybdenum powder. Most plants adopt second-stage method. The first stage of the reduction temperature is performed at 450-650 ° C, and the second stage is performed at 900-950 ��.

The factors that affect the quality of molybdenum powder are mainly the quality of raw materials, loading of the boat, reduction temperature, hydrogen flow and humidity, and the residence time of the material in the furnace. The purity of the raw material molybdenum dioxide determines the purity of the product molybdenum powder. The amount of material in the reduction boat, the thickness of the material layer, and the tightness of the material will affect the penetration of hydrogen and the elimination of reducing water and gas, and therefore the quality of the molybdenum powder. The reduction temperature is low, the reduction reaction is incomplete, and the reaction speed is slow. The obtained molybdenum powder has high oxygen content and fine particle size; the high reduction temperature is the opposite. Molybdenum powder has a high humidity, and the molybdenum powder has an increased oxygen content and a coarse particle size; a large hydrogen flow rate increases the reduction reaction speed, and the molybdenum powder has a reduced oxygen content, but the material and heat loss taken away increase. The material stays in the furnace for a long time, the oxygen content of the product molybdenum powder decreases and the particle size becomes coarse. In the reduction process, trying to avoid the introduction of other impurities and prevent the molybdenum powder from oxidizing during cooling can also improve the quality of the product molybdenum powder.

In order to further reduce the oxygen content in the molybdenum powder of the product, it is sometimes necessary to put the molybdenum powder produced by the reduction in a muffle furnace or other reduction furnace during the production to replenish it with dry hydrogen at a temperature of 1273 ~ 1373K. When using high-purity molybdenum dioxide raw materials, strict control of milling conditions and impurity pollution can produce 99.9999% high-purity molybdenum powder.

molybdenum powder is divided into F.S.S.S. = 0.5-1μm, 1-2μm, 2-4μm, 4-6μm, 6-10μm according to different particle size. 2-4μm range is the most common one.

molybdenum powder applications: used as raw materials for making molybdenum blanks which will be forged, rolled and machined for all kinds of molybdenum metal products, used to molybdenum silicide electric heating elements, as raw materials for thyristor wafers, molybdenum heads, etc.

[supplyside]

basic oxygen furnace

[news365timesindia]

[ad_1] As India’s steel sector accounts for 12% of the country’s total carbon emissions—around 240 million tonnes of CO2 annually—the rapid expansion of coal-based production is expected to exacerbate emissions in the near term, potentially doubling the sector’s emissions by 2030. India’s ongoing investments in new coal-based steelmaking, coupled with a young fleet of emissions-intensive blast furnaces that is set to have its operations extended, jeopardize the country’s Net Zero by 2070 target and risk saddling the country with upwards of US$187 billion in stranded assets, finds a new report from Global Energy Monitor. Data in the Global Steel Plant Tracker show that India has the world’s largest pipeline of steelmaking capacity in development, with projects that have been announced or are in the construction phases totalling around 258 million tonnes per annum (mtpa). Emissions-intensive basic oxygen furnaces total over two-thirds of in-development capacity, and less emissions-intensive electric arc furnaces sit at a marginal 13%. In addition, over 75 mtpa of operating blast furnace capacity was developed in the last two decades, meaning over 43 mtpa is due for relining before 2030. This relatively young fleet of blast furnaces increases the risk of emissions lock-in and poses a challenge to transitioning India’s coal-based steelmaking fleet, as many of these units may still be recovering initial investment costs. The widespread adoption of coal as the reducing agent in direct reduced iron production is another barrier to cutting emissions in India’s steel sector. Of the direct reduced iron capacity tracked by the Global Steel Plant Tracker, more than half uses coal as the reducing agent and is sourced from domestic high-ash coal, which, while less expensive, comes with a higher emissions intensity. India already hosts one of the world’s most emissions-intensive steel sectors. Over 87% of India’s operating ironmaking capacity and 90% of capacity in development is dependent on coal. The steel industry in India currently accounts for over 240 million tonnes of CO2 emissions annually, about 12% of the country’s total carbon emissions, and that number is expected to double by 2030. While India’s short-term solutions to reduce emissions without significant modifications to existing production may lower emissions intensities, India will need to make the grand switch away from coal to fully decarbonize the industry and sustain its production in the long run. Khadeeja Henna, Heavy Industry researcher at Global Energy Monitor, said, “India’s ‘build now, decarbonize later’ approach to achieving a net-zero steel industry will backfire in the long run. While the 2024 roadmap and action plan for greening the steel sector is a positive step forward, transitioning away from coal-based production is more urgent. Substantial investments are needed to build a robust green steel ecosystem, not betting on emerging decarbonization technologies that have yet to prove their mettle.” The writer of this article is Dr. Seema Javed, an environmentalist & a communications professional in the field of climate and energy [ad_2] Source link

[news365times]

[ad_1] As India’s steel sector accounts for 12% of the country’s total carbon emissions—around 240 million tonnes of CO2 annually—the rapid expansion of coal-based production is expected to exacerbate emissions in the near term, potentially doubling the sector’s emissions by 2030. India’s ongoing investments in new coal-based steelmaking, coupled with a young fleet of emissions-intensive blast furnaces that is set to have its operations extended, jeopardize the country’s Net Zero by 2070 target and risk saddling the country with upwards of US$187 billion in stranded assets, finds a new report from Global Energy Monitor. Data in the Global Steel Plant Tracker show that India has the world’s largest pipeline of steelmaking capacity in development, with projects that have been announced or are in the construction phases totalling around 258 million tonnes per annum (mtpa). Emissions-intensive basic oxygen furnaces total over two-thirds of in-development capacity, and less emissions-intensive electric arc furnaces sit at a marginal 13%. In addition, over 75 mtpa of operating blast furnace capacity was developed in the last two decades, meaning over 43 mtpa is due for relining before 2030. This relatively young fleet of blast furnaces increases the risk of emissions lock-in and poses a challenge to transitioning India’s coal-based steelmaking fleet, as many of these units may still be recovering initial investment costs. The widespread adoption of coal as the reducing agent in direct reduced iron production is another barrier to cutting emissions in India’s steel sector. Of the direct reduced iron capacity tracked by the Global Steel Plant Tracker, more than half uses coal as the reducing agent and is sourced from domestic high-ash coal, which, while less expensive, comes with a higher emissions intensity. India already hosts one of the world’s most emissions-intensive steel sectors. Over 87% of India’s operating ironmaking capacity and 90% of capacity in development is dependent on coal. The steel industry in India currently accounts for over 240 million tonnes of CO2 emissions annually, about 12% of the country’s total carbon emissions, and that number is expected to double by 2030. While India’s short-term solutions to reduce emissions without significant modifications to existing production may lower emissions intensities, India will need to make the grand switch away from coal to fully decarbonize the industry and sustain its production in the long run. Khadeeja Henna, Heavy Industry researcher at Global Energy Monitor, said, “India’s ‘build now, decarbonize later’ approach to achieving a net-zero steel industry will backfire in the long run. While the 2024 roadmap and action plan for greening the steel sector is a positive step forward, transitioning away from coal-based production is more urgent. Substantial investments are needed to build a robust green steel ecosystem, not betting on emerging decarbonization technologies that have yet to prove their mettle.” The writer of this article is Dr. Seema Javed, an environmentalist & a communications professional in the field of climate and energy [ad_2] Source link

[theaenetworks]

List of Abbreviations

APPA Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act

BOF Slag Basic Oxygen Furnace Slag

BOFSDS Basic Oxygen Furnace Slag Disposal Site

ECA Environment Conservation Act

NEM: WA National Environmental Management: Waste Act

NEM: WAA National Environmental Management: Waste Act Amendment Act

NEMA National Environmental Management

SCA Supreme Court of Appeal

WA Water Act

WML Waste Management License

FACTUAL BACKGROUND

The SCA Judgment handed down in the matter of Minister of Environmental Affairs & Another v ArcelorMittal South Africa Limited[1] concerned ArcelorMittal’s treatment and management of its BOF Slag at one of its Newcastle operations. ArcelorMittal manufactured steel products since the 1970’s and one of its by-products was BOF slag which was either immediately sold to third parties (“current arisings”) or stored at the BOFSDS and sold at a later stage (“reclaimed slag”).[2] An environmental management inspector for the Department of Water Affairs conducting an inspection with the view of determining whether ArcelorMittal complied with the newly issued authorisations found that ArcelorMittal was operating without WML issued in terms of s 49(1)(a) of the NEM:WA.[3] A compliance notice was given, which required ArcelorMittal to cease its BOF slag disposal operations until such a time that the Department agreed in writing that the activities could recommence.[4] Dissatisfied, ArcelorMittal instituted legal proceedings in the High Court which found in its favour and accordingly, the Minister of Environmental Affairs (“first appellant”) appealed against the High Court’s order to the SCA.

ISSUES OUTLINED

The following issues will be discussed herein below, namely:

Whether ArcelorMittal was subject to the prescripts of the ECA[5], NEMA[6], and the NEM: WA[7] even if it commenced with its Newcastle operations long before the enactment of these Acts;[8]

Whether material that is earmarked for recycling but that has not yet been recycled (“reclaimed slag”) fall within the ambit of the definition of waste in terms of NEM: WA;

Why the court dismissed the directive issued by the Department in terms of section 28 of NEMA.

RULE OF LAW: WASTE MANAGEMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA

Various pieces of legislation were put into place over the past decades in order to try and regulate waste management in South Africa, including the ECA, the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa[9] (“Constitution”), NEMA, and the NEM: WA. The study will discuss the evolution of waste management legislation by briefly looking at the historical and thereafter the current legal framework with regard to waste management in South Africa. Accordingly, the discussion will follow with regard to the pre-1970s and post-1970s environmental legislation. The study will discuss in broad detail the definition of waste as provided in these pieces of legislation to determine whether the interpretation of the definition in the Judgment of ArcelorMittal[10] was indeed correct or not.

Pre-1970 Environmental Legislation:The Water Act[11]

Up until at least the 1970s, there was no “integrated framework legislation” for environmental management with specific reference to waste management in South Africa. The WA did not specifically regulate waste management, but provided for the regulation of waste-related aspects as far as it related to the disposal / treatment of effluent.[12] The WA was the first piece of legislation that was aimed at the control of the industrial use of water and the treatment / disposal of effluent. The WA required that all effluent be returned to the water body from which the water was originally drawn. Later amendments in terms of the Water Amendment Act,[13] broadened water quality management in the form of uniform effluent standards. The WA was repealed by the National Water Act,[14] . [15]

Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act[16]

The APPA did not specifically provide for waste management regulation, but certain waste management aspects were regulated as far as they related to air quality emissions by means of the licensing of scheduled processes or specific conditions contained as part of registration certificates. It is clear that although waste management was not specifically defined and regulated in terms of the APPA nor the WA, waste materials were regulated as part of the APPA by listed schedule processes that regulated waste related activities that could have had an impact on the environment with specific reference to atmospheric emissions, or as part of conditions contained in provisional/final registration certificates dealing with other aspects, such as the disposal of certain waste streams connected with scheduled processes. The APPA was repealed in its entirety by the National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act.[17]

Post-1970 Environmental Legislation:Environmental Conservation Act[18]

The ECA was the first piece of legislation formally regulating waste management in South Africa. The ECA, whose main objective was to provide for the effective protection and controlled utilisation of the environment, came into operation on 9 June 1989.[19] The ECA provided for a definition of ‘waste’ and also regulated the disposal of waste at disposal sites. In terms of the ECA, waste was initially defined as ‘Any matter whether gaseous, liquid or solid or any combination thereof, originating from any residential, commercial or industrial area or agricultural area identified by the Minister as an undesirable or superfluous by-product, emission, residue or remainder of any process or activity’.[20]

The aforementioned definition of waste was only functional in relation to the operation

of a waste disposal site. In terms of Section 20(1) of the ECA – ‘no person may establish, provide or operate a disposal site without a permit’. The words ‘disposal’, ‘disposing of’ and ‘treatment’ are not defined in the ECA. The act of disposing involves some measure of permanence and a disposal site means the ultimate destination of such waste.[21] As a result, temporary storage areas of waste for other purposes than treatment of waste for final disposal were not included in the interpretation of disposal.

The ECA does not, pertaining to the identification of matters of a waste, make any reference whatsoever to ‘store’ or ‘the storage of waste’ and are silent on this subject. In view of the aforesaid, it speaks for itself that storage cannot be construed as disposal, and therefore a site which is utilised for the storage of waste cannot be construed as a disposal site within the meaning of the ECA. As a result of the above, it is clear that the ECA (in terms whereof only waste disposal was regulated), did not make provision for the temporary storage of waste and other waste management related aspects. The aforementioned, was not contended in the case of ArcelorMittal. The contention dealt with whether the entire provisions of the section 20(1) of the ECA were applicable to the Newcastle operations which had commenced before the enactment of this Act.

The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa[22]

The Constitution instructs and informs all other legislative laws and policy guidelines, by setting the framework for the administration of environmental laws by national, provincial and local spheres of government.[23] This forms the legal backbone of all the legislation. The promulgation of the Constitution had major implications for environmental management in South Africa. The main effects are the protection of environmental rights. This aspects provide general and overarching support, and are of major assistance in the effective implementation of the environmental management principles and structures of the NEMA. The promulgation of the Constitution was the first step towards the provision of an integrated framework legislation for the management of the country’s natural resources and other environmental-related issues. Furthermore, it contains an environmental right[24] and also provides for the allocation of responsibilities amongst the different spheres of government in the country.[25]

National Environmental Management Act[26]

NEMA did not per se regulate waste management as part of the Act, but regulated waste management-related aspects as part of the EIA listed activities[27], promulgated in terms of the NEMA. The NEMA therefore did not only regulate the disposal of waste but also other waste management-related aspects, such as the recycling and recovery of waste. The NEMA does not provide for a separate definition of waste and as a result, reference was still made to the definition of waste as envisaged in terms of the ECA, and therefore many recycling and recovery activities were not regulated. The term ‘waste’ was never defined in terms of the NEMA, and as a result, reference was made to the definition of ‘waste’ as defined in terms of the ECA. The terms ‘recycling’ and ‘re-use’ were also not defined in terms of the ECA, and as a result, these terms remained opened for interpretation. This situation was, however, rectified by the NEM: WA.

National Environmental Management: Waste Act[28]

Whereas the Constitution and NEMA have been shown to serve as framework environmental legislation,[29] the Specific Environmental Management Act’s regulate sector-specific environmental concerns, including but not limited to: NEM: WA. NEM: WA fundamentally reformed the law regulating waste management in South Africa, and for the first time provided a coherent and integrated legislative framework for addressing all the steps in the waste management hierarchy. The NEM: WA repealed the ECA to a large extent, as well as NEMA as far as it related to waste management issues. With the promulgation of the NEM: WA, a new emphasis was put on waste management in South Africa. One of the most significant principles that NEM: WA is giving effect to is sustainable development which requires that the generation of waste is avoided, or where it cannot be avoided, that it is reduced, re-used, recycled or recovered, and only as a last resort treated and safely disposed of.[30]

The NEM: WA thus ultimately seeks, inter alia, to encourage the prevention and reduction / minimisation of waste generation through legislated ‘command and control’ mechanisms, whilst promoting the justifiable re-use and re-cycling of the waste, and only considers disposal of waste, as well as the remediation of land affected by poor waste management practices, as a last resort.

NEM: WA changed the definition of waste significantly and for the first time in waste management legislation in South Africa, NEM: WA provides for definitions for the re-use, recovery and recycling of materials and also provides for a definition for a by-product since these concepts are now also regulated in terms of the NEM: WA. Currently waste as defined in terms of NEM: WA is ‘any substance, whether or not that substance can be reduced, re-used, recycled and recovered that is surplus, unwanted, rejected, discarded, abandoned or disposed of.’[31] ‘Whether or not that substance can be recycled’ will form the crux of this discussion herein below to which the SCA failed to consider this aspect of the definition[32] and consequently erred in its findings.

APPLICATION: CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE CASE

Applicability of retrospectivity

Prior to NEM: WA, waste management was fully regulated by the ECA[33] which required a permit for the operation of a waste disposal facility. The ECA, however, commenced on 9 June 1989 and the court found that it did not retrospectively regulate waste management or waste disposal established and operated since the 1970’s.[34] The ECA did not provide for transitional arrangements for disposals sites that were in existence before the ECA came into effect.[35] The Judgment does make mention that there is, of course, a legal presumption that new legislation is not intended to be retroactive,[36] nor retrospective in the sense that it takes effect only from its date of commencement, and does not it impairs existing rights and obligations.[37] The rationale for this presumption is that a person should be able to know the law and be able to conform his/her conduct to the law.[38]

The appellants in the ArcelorMittal case accepted that ArcelorMittal’s BOFSDS at its Newcastle operations had been in existence since the 1970s and did not require a permit under section 20 of the ECA.[39] While there is no authority for the proposition that retrospective environmental legislation would survive constitutional scrutiny, it is the findings of this study that the ECA should have been interpreted to apply retrospectively. Even though a matter may be moot as between the parties, that does not necessarily constitute an absolute bar to justiciability.[40] A court has discretion whether or not to hear a matter.[41] This will be the case where it will either benefit the lager public or achieve legal certainty.[42] The reasons the ECA should have been interpreted to apply retrospectively are that although it may be unfair to compel a company to pay for alternatively remedy pollution that occurred when protection of the environment was not a priority, it can be also argued that it is even more unfair to expect the government to pay for clean-up activities when they derived no benefit from the business. The legal culture leaning against retrospectivity where there is unfairness.[43]

Further reasonable measures must be taken, not only where activities are currently causing pollution or where they may in the future but also where past activities have caused contamination, which contamination remains evident in the environment. ArcelorMittal accepted that had it not been for the fact that its Newcastle plant had been operational since the 1970’s, its activities there would have required authorisation under section 22(1) of the ECA,[44] meaning its activities were contributing to the pollution and indeed needed to be properly regulated. In Sayers v Minister of Local Government Environmental Affairs & Development Planning & Others[45], the court held that while section 20 of the ECA did not operate retrospectively, NEM: WA repealed section 20 of the ECA and fortified against the view against retrospectivity.[46]

The interpretation of the definition of waste

Defining a material as a waste involves treading a very thin line between ‘resource’ and ‘waste’. In addition, the classification of a material as ‘waste’ has fundamentally important commercial consequences; for instance, disposal requirements, and transportation of hazardous substances.[47] Therefore, there is a need for a clear definition of waste, and perhaps more importantly, clarity on when a substance is waste and when it will cease to be a waste. This study provides a brief overview of the legal definitions of waste adopted abroad and a detailed discussion of the interpretation of the definition of waste as contained in South African legislation and the interpretation adopted in the ArcelorMittal case.

International definition of waste: European Union

Generally, the definition of waste is defined according to the type of waste being disposed by the possessor. The basic requirements are usually licenses for the disposal of any kind of waste, at specified sites.[48] It is however found that, even at international level, it is hard to give a clear-cut definition of waste.[49] Even at international level waste management has proved a “hard task to master”, noting that this issue has for a long time been a major part of the European Union (EU) environmental policy.

International comparative standards aid in guiding local assessments as an indication of what waste management should include. Europe has had a strong influence on the policy and legislation that has emerged in South Africa since the late 1990’s.[50] Hence it becomes imperative to briefly illustrate international law, to be able to comprehend the legal framework within which South Africa negotiates and manages its environmental and solid waste practices. The Waste Framework Directive[51] defines waste as ‘any substance or object in the categories set out in Annex I [of the Directive] which the holder discards or intends or is required to discard’. While simple, this definition is problematic in its interpretation and inconsistent in its enforcement.[52] There is no consensus about when material is discarded or intended to be discarded. This uncertainty in the definition of waste has been argued to have implications for human rights.[53]

The definition of waste should allow for responsible waste recovery, recycling and re-use, while at the same time, not ignoring the potential environmental and human health impacts associated with these activities. European case law gives a legal resolve on when waste is no longer considered waste. If material can be re-used without further processing and if there is financial advantage to be gained from the re-use, the substance in question should not be regarded as waste, but as a legitimate product. The reasoning applicable to by-products should be confined to situations in which the re-use of the goods, materials or raw materials is not a mere possibility but a certainty.[54] Internationally, a serious emerging terminological and regulatory problem is being raised by increased controversy regarding potentially recyclable waste. In most existing legal definitions, the term ‘waste’ includes material that is technically suitable for recovery and re-use.[55] By including these waste-streams in the definition of waste, the material becomes subject to the same regulations as other waste-streams that are not (or currently not) suitable for recovery.

South African definition of waste

South Africa’s legal definitions of waste according to the NEM: WA and the NEMWAA[56] is that waste is any superfluous, discarded, abandoned, rejected and unwanted substance whether or not such substance, material or object can be re-used, recycled or recovered.[57] This definition perceives waste as useless and material that is unwanted but most importantly, it is waste regardless of its potential to be recycled or re-used.[58]

The problem question that arises within industry is whether a material, suitable for re-use or further processing should be regarded as waste, and whether it should be regulated as such. Thus, to what extent should material that can be re-used, recovered or recycled be regulated in terms of NEM: WA? It was contended by the appellants that inasmuch as ArcelorMittal would in future recycle and later sell the BOF slag to third parties, it was consequently dealing with waste and therefore required a WML to lawfully do so as required by legislation.[59] ArcelorMittal on the other hand argued that reclaimed slag, once it is recovered from the BOFSDS – where it is temporarily deposited because it could not be sold immediately – and recycled, it ceases to be waste if it meets any one of the requirements of s 1(b)(i) to (iv) of NEM:WA. Consequently, ArcelorMittal contended that it did not require a WML in order to dispose of ‘soon to be recycled’ BOF slag.[60] The court found the contentions advanced on behalf of ArcelorMittal to have considerable force.[61]

On a fair reading thereof, it becomes readily apparent that any substance, material or object that is not ‘unwanted, abandoned, or disposed of’ does not fall within the ambit of the definition. [62] Further, any waste that is recycled, and re-used ceases to be waste.[63] Consequently, ArcelorMittal’s reclaimed BOF slag self-evidently fall outside the terms of the definition of waste.[64] However, the definition of waste in NEM: WA[65] and NEM: WAA[66], as amended does not end there. The definition continues to include the following: ‘waste means any substance whether or not that substance can be reduced, re-used, recycled and recovered’. The court accordingly failed to read and carefully consider the full definition of waste and accordingly erred in its findings. Whether the reclaimed slag will be recycled and sold in the future is irrelevant. At the time that it is stored in the BOFSDS, it is waste and accordingly requires WML.

The correct interpretation of waste is accordingly imperative for the regulation of waste and the control of possible negative impacts of waste on the environment and human health if not properly managed. It is therefore important to define waste in a way that will support the regulation of environmental impacts, as well as support the principles of integrated waste management, as defined through the waste hierarchy.[67] The decision of ArcelorMittal has far-reaching implications. The courts dicta that in recycling its waste, i.e., reclaimed BOF slag, ArcelorMittal was in fact promoting one of the principal objects of the NEMA, that is, to protect the environment from degradation,[68] the court failed to consider the environmental degradation caused during the storage process. The court was incognizant to the pollution as result of the BOFSDS. The court failed to take into consideration that recyclable material also needs to be controlled in order to limit the risks to the environment and to ensure that principles such as the ‘polluter-pays-principle’, the ‘cradle-to-grave principle’, as well as the ‘duty-to-care principle’ as envisaged in the NEMA[69] continues to apply, irrespective of the after-use of the material. Far from being obscure, the definition is clear and unequivocal,[70] therefore what led to the court’s confusion in the case of ArcelorMittal[71] is inexcusable.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

It is necessary to critically review the definition of ‘waste’ as contained in the NEM: WA and the possible implications of such interpretation(s) on the steel making industry in South Africa and to make certain recommendations with regard to future regulation of waste. The steelmaking industry is a very intricate, diverse and dynamic industry which provides for many possible recycling, recovering and re-use opportunities for various materials produced as part of the steelmaking process. The current interpretation of the definition of waste by the court in the ArcelorMittal case is simply not viable in achieving the principles as envisaged in terms of the waste hierarchy, which forms part of section 2 as contained in the NEM: WA.[72]

However, cognisance should be taken of the fact that the court, by accepting the narrow interpretation, was not suggesting that the use of the materials should not be regulated at all but in a sense, it seemed to implied that. It must be understood by the courts that government needs to regulate the use of these materials to make sure that the use of the materials complies with sound environmental principles. The slags that are currently not being regarded as a waste by the court are in no way obligated to comply with waste-related regulations, as well as other regulations with regard to dangerous goods and other product-related legislation. The courts decision that the materials be regulated as a by-product, and thus excluded from the definition of ‘waste’ does not align with the Constitution and does not help resolve the environmental degradation.

Accordingly, the net effect of the Judgment has far-reaching implications for waste management. The Judgment confirms the legitimacy of a waste disposal site which operated “lawfully” before the commencement of the ECA and NEM: WA respectively, and that issuing decommissioning WML for such a waste disposal site doesn’t triumph what already existed. This will negatively impact our already degrading environment. It is for this reason that this study supports the need for “greening the judiciary.”[73] The development of a coherent and robust South African environmental jurisprudence depends on it.[74] This does not necessarily mean all cases are to favour the environment, however, judges are expected to give appropriate deliberation when making judgments.[75] It could have been that the court deliberately misconstrued the definition of waste in terms of the NEM: WA in order to ensure its decision was socially and politically appropriate or its flawed interpretation of waste due to plain and simple judicial error or the court’s failure to utilise its discretion, however one expects a lot more from the SCA. It is recommended that the BOF slag that is disposed into the BOFSDS be regarded as waste in terms of NEM: WA and accordingly WML should be obtained, however BOF slag that is immediately sold to third parties need not be defined as waste and accordingly no WML are required.

Principle references

Primary Sources

Cases

ArcelorMittal South Africa Limited v Minister of Environmental Affairs and Another (86171/2016) [2018] ZAGPPHC 577 (8 June 2018).

Bareki NO and Another v Gencor Ltd and Others (2006) 1 SA 432 (T).

Gcaba v Minister of Safety and Security 2009 12 BLLR 1145 (CC); 2010 1 BCLR 35 (CC).

Minister of Environmental Affairs & Another v ArcelorMittal South Africa Limited (Case no 342/2019) [2020] ZASCA 40 (17 April 2020).

National Director of Public Prosecutions v Carolus and Others (2000) (a) SA 1127 (SCA).

President of the Republic of South Africa and Another v Hugo (1997) (4) SA 1 (CC).

S v Mhlungu and Others 1995 (3) SA 867 (CC).

Sayers v Minister of Local Government Environmental Affairs & Development Planning & Others Unreported judgment (7860/2010) Western Cape High Court, Cape Town 19 July 2011.

Statutes

Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act 45 of 1965.

Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 108 of 1996.

Environmental Conservation Act 73 of 1989.

National Environmental Management Act 107 of 1998.

National Environmental Management: Waste Act 59 of 2008.

National Environmental Management: Waste Amendment Act 26 of 2014.

National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act 39 of 2004.

National Environmental Management Act 107 of 1998: EIA listed activities Notice No. No. R. 983 in Gazette No. 38282 dated 4 December 2014.

National Water Act 36 of 1998.

The Water Act 54 of 1956.

Water Amendment Act 96 of 1984.

Foreign Legislation

European Union

Waste Framework Directive Council Directive 75/442/EEC on Waste (1975). Official Journal of the European Communities, L 194/39, 15 July 1975, subsequently amended by Council Directive 91/156/EEC.

Secondary sources

Books

Kidd M “Environmental Law” (Juta Cape Town 2008).

Kidd M “Environmental Law: 2nd Ed (Juta Cape Town 2011).

Garbutt, J. ‘Waste Management Law a practical handbook’ 2nd Ed (Wiley 1995).

Glazewski, J. “Environmental Law in South Africa” 2nd Ed (LexisNexis, Butterworths, Cape Town, SA 2005).

Home, R. ‘Papers in Land Management: No. 4” in A Guide to European Environmental Law.’ (Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge and Chelmsford 2007).

Journal Articles and Conference Papers

Kidd M “Greening the Judiciary” (2006) Vol 9 PER/PELJ 3.

Bainbridge T. (2006). ‘Secondary materials: Will new rules make a new beginning for the end-of-waste?’ Conference proceedings of the Waste 2006 conference held in Statford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, U.K.

Staker C. ‘The definition of ‘waste’ in the Waste Framework Directive.’ (2005) Eur. Curr. Law, March.

Twardowska I. and Szczepanska J. ‘Solid waste: terminological and long-term environmental risk assessment problems exemplified in a power plant fly ash study.’ (2002) Sci. Tot. Environ. 285, 29–51.

Online Publications

Dlamini, S., Simatele, M., & Kubanza, M. (2019). Municipal solid waste management in South Africa: From waste-to-energy recovery through waste-to-energy technologies in Johannesburg. Local Environment, 24(3), 249–257. doi:10.1080/13549839.2018.1561656.

Oelofse, S.H.H. & Godfrey, L. ‘Defining waste in South Africa: Moving beyond the age of waste’ South African Journal of Science (2008) 104 2 http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0038-23532008000400001 (Accessed 26 April 2022).

Oelofse, S.H.H. & Godfrey, L. ‘Historical Review of Waste Management and Recycling in South Africa’ Resources 2017, 6, 1 doi:10.3390/resources6040057 www.mdpi.com/journal/resources (Accessed 13 May 2022).

South Africa. Department of Water and Environmental Affairs. (2011). Water Quality Management in South Africa. http://www.dwa.gov.za/Dir_WQM/wqm.asp, 3 (Access: 22 February 2022).

South Africa. Department of Environmental Affairs. 2010 (a). National Waste Management Strategy. Pretoria: Government Printer. 155p, 27. https://www.dffe.gov.za/sites/default/files/docs/nationalwaste_management_strategy.pdf (Accessed 14 May 2022).

[1] Minister of Environmental Affairs & Another v ArcelorMittal South Africa Limited (Case no 342/2019) [2020] ZASCA 40 (17 April 2020).

[2] Ibid, para 9.

[3] Ibid, para 11 and 13.

[4] Ibid, para 13.

[5] Environment Conservation Act, 1989 (Act No. 73 of 1998).

[6] National Environmental Management Act, 1998 (Act No. 107 of 1998).

[7] The National Environmental Management: Waste Act, 2008 (Act No. 59 of 2008).

[8] Minister of Environmental Affairs & Another v ArcelorMittal South Africa Limited (Case no 342/2019) [2020] ZASCA 40 (17 April 2020) para 27.

[9] Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (Act No. 108 of 1996).

[10] Minister of Environmental Affairs & Another v ArcelorMittal South Africa Limited (Case no 342/2019) [2020] ZASCA 40 (17 April 2020).

[11] The Water Act 1956 (Act No. 54 of 1956).

[12] Section 21(1)(a) of the Water Act 1956 (Act No. 54 of 1956).

[13] Water Amendment Act, 1984 (Act No. 96 of 1984).

[14] National Water Act, 1998 (Act No. 36 of 1998).

[15] South Africa. Department of Water and Environmental Affairs. (2011) Water Quality Management in South Africa. http://www.dwa.gov.za/Dir_WQM/wqm.asp, 3 (Access: 22 February 2022).

[16] Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act 1965 (Act No. 45 of 1965).

[17] National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act, 2004 (Act No. 39 of 2004).

[18] Environmental Conservation Act, 1989 (Act No. 73 of 1989).

[19] Minister of Environmental Affairs & Another v ArcelorMittal South Africa Limited (Case no 342/2019) [2020] ZASCA 40 (17 April 2020) para 23.

[20] Section 1(xxii) of the Environment Conservation Act 1989 (Act No.73 of 1989).

[21] Dispose of – to make a disposition, ordering, or arrangement of, and to get rid of, to get done with, settle, furnish or to make over or part with by way of sale, bargain, sell.

[22] Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (Act No. 108 of 1996).

[23] Glazewski, J. (2005) “Environmental Law in South Africa” (Second Edition). LexisNexis, Butterworths, Cape Town, SA, 68.

[24] Section 24 of the Constitution, 1996.

[25] M Kidd ‘Environmental Law: A South African Guide’ (2008) (Juta: Cape Town), 18.

[26] National Environmental Management Act 1998 (Act No. 107 of 1998).

[27] National Environmental Management Act 1998 (Act No. 107 of 1998): EIA listed activities Notice No. No. R. 983 in Gazette No. 38282 dated 4 December 2014.

[28] National Environmental Management: Waste Act, 2008 (Act No. 59 of 2008).

[29] M Kidd ‘Environmental Law’ 2ed 2011 (Juta: Cape Town) 20.

[30] South Africa. Department of Environmental Affairs. 2010 (a). National Waste Management Strategy. Pretoria: Government Printer. 155p, 27. https://www.dffe.gov.za/sites/default/files/docs/nationalwaste_management_strategy.pdf (Accessed 14 May 2022).

[31] Section 1 of National Management: Waste Act 2008 (Act No. 59 of 2008).

[32] Minister of Environmental Affairs & Another v ArcelorMittal South Africa Limited (Case no 342/2019) [2020] ZASCA 40 (17April 2020) Para 41.

[33] Section 20 of the Environment Conservation Act 1989 (Act No. 73 of 1989).

[34] Minister of Environmental Affairs & Another v ArcelorMittal South Africa Limited (Case no 342/2019) [2020] ZASCA 40 (17April 2020) para 29.

[35] ArcelorMittal South Africa Limited v Minister of Environmental Affairs and Another (86171/2016) [2018] ZAGPPHC 577 (8 June 2018) para 22.

[36] S v Mhlungu and Others 1995 (3) SA 867 (CC) para 65.

[37] National Director of Public Prosecutions v Carolus and Others 2000 (a) SA 1127 (SCA) para 35 -35

[38] President of the Republic of South Africa and Another v Hugo 1997 (4) SA 1 (CC) para 102.

[39] Minister of Environmental Affairs & Another v ArcelorMittal South Africa Limited (Case no 342/2019) [2020] ZASCA 40 (17April 2020) para 36.

[40] ArcelorMittal South Africa Limited v Minister of Environmental Affairs and Another (86171/2016) [2018] ZAGPPHC 577 (8 June 2018) para 83.

[41] ArcelorMittal South Africa Limited v Minister of Environmental Affairs and Another (86171/2016) [2018] ZAGPPHC 577 (8 June 2018) para 83.

[42] Gcaba v Minister of Safety and Security 2009 12 BLLR 1145 (CC); 2010 1 BCLR 35 (CC) para 18.

[43] National Director of Public Prosecutions v Carolus and Others 2000 (1) SA 1127 (SCA) at 1139C – D.

[44] Minister of Environmental Affairs & Another v ArcelorMittal South Africa Limited (Case no 342/2019) [2020] ZASCA 40 (17April 2020) para 24.

[45] Sayers v Minister of Local Government Environmental Affairs & Development Planning & Others Unreported judgment (7860/2010) Western Cape High Court, Cape Town 19 July 2011.

[46] Ibid, para 20, 23, and 25.

[47] Oelofse, S.H.H. & Godfrey, L. ‘Defining waste in South Africa: Moving beyond the age of waste’ South African Journal of Science (2008) 104 2 http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0038-23532008000400001 (Accessed 26 April 2022).

[48] Garbutt, J. (1995) ‘Waste Management Law a practical handbook’ (Second Edition). Wiley, 123.

[49] Home, R. (2007) “Papers in Land Management: No. 4” in A Guide to European Environmental Law. Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge and Chelmsford 14.

[50] Oelofse, S.H.H. & Godfrey, L. ‘Historical Review of Waste Management and Recycling in South Africa’ Resources 2017, 6, 1 doi:10.3390/resources6040057 www.mdpi.com/journal/resources (Accessed 13 May 2022).

[51] Waste Framework Directive Council Directive 75/442/EEC on Waste (1975). Official Journal of the European Communities, L 194/39, 15 July 1975, subsequently amended by Council Directive 91/156/EEC.

[52] Bainbridge T. (2006). ‘Secondary materials: Will new rules make a new beginning for the end-of-waste?’ Conference proceedings of the Waste 2006 conference held in Statford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, U.K.

[53] Staker C. ‘The definition of ‘waste’ in the Waste Framework Directive.’ (Eur. Curr. Law, March 2005).

[54] Oelofse, S.H.H. & Godfrey, L. ‘Defining waste in South Africa: Moving beyond the age of “waste”.’ South African Journal of Science, (2008) 104 2 http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0038-23532008000400001 (Accessed 26 April 2022).

[55] Twardowska I. and Szczepanska J. (2002). Solid waste: terminological and long-term environmental risk assessment problems exemplified in a power plant fly ash study. Sci. Tot. Environ. 285, 29–51.

[56] National Environmental Management: Waste Act Amendment Act 2014 (Act No. 26 of 2014).

[57] Section 1(i) National Environmental Management: Waste Act Amendment Act 2014 (Act No. 26 of 2014).

[58] Dlamini, S., Simatele, M., & Kubanza, M. (2019). Municipal solid waste management in South Africa: From waste-to-energy recovery through waste-to-energy technologies in Johannesburg. Local Environment, 24(3) 249–257. doi:10.1080/13549839.2018.1561656

[59] Minister of Environmental Affairs & Another v ArcelorMittal South Africa Limited (Case no 342/2019) [2020] ZASCA 40 (17April 2020) para 36.

[60] Ibid, para 38.

[61] Minister of Environmental Affairs & Another v ArcelorMittal South Africa Limited (Case no 342/2019) [2020] ZASCA 40 (17April 2020) para 41

[62] Ibid.

[63] Section 1(b)(i) to (iv) of National Environmental Management: Waste Act 2008 (Act No. 59 of 2008).

[64] Minister of Environmental Affairs & Another v ArcelorMittal South Africa Limited (Case no 342/2019) [2020] ZASCA 40 (17April 2020) para 41.

[65] National Environmental Management: Waste Act 2008 (Act No. 59 of 2008).

[66] National Environmental Management: Waste Amendment Act 2014 (Act. 26 of 2014).

[67] Oelofse, S.H.H. & Godfrey, L. ‘Defining waste in South Africa: Moving beyond the age of “waste”.’ South African Journal of Science, (2008) 104 9 http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0038-23532008000400001 (Accessed 26 April 2022).

[68] Minister of Environmental Affairs & Another v ArcelorMittal South Africa Limited (Case no 342/2019) [2020] ZASCA 40 (17April 2020) para 42.

[69] Section 2 of National Environmental Management Act, 1998 (Act No. 107 of 1998).

[70] Minister of Environmental Affairs & Another v ArcelorMittal South Africa Limited (Case no 342/2019) [2020] ZASCA 40 (17April 2020) para 41.

[71] Minister of Environmental Affairs & Another v ArcelorMittal South Africa Limited (Case no 342/2019) [2020] ZASCA 40 (17April 2020).

[72] Section 2 of National Environmental Management: Waste Act 2008 (Act No. 59 of 2008).

[73] M Kidd ‘Greening the Judiciary’ 2006 (3) PER, 1.

[74] M Kidd ‘Greening the Judiciary’ 2006 (3) PER/PELJ 13.

[75] Ibid 1.

https://anthonyemmanuel.com/far-reaching-implications-for-waste-management-a-critical-analysis-of-minister-of-environmental-affairs-another-v-arcelormittal-south-africa-limited-unreported-342-2019-2020-zasca-40-17apr/

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[m-arathe]

Smart Polymers Market Key Drivers and Innovations Shaping the Industry

Smart Polymers Market Growth Strategic Market Overview and Growth Projections

The global graphite electrode market size was valued at USD 9.22 billion in 2022. It is estimated to reach USD 13.58 billion by 2031, growing at a CAGR of 4.40% during the forecast period (2023–2031).

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Resonac Holdings Corporation

Fangda Carbon New Material Co.Ltd.

Zhongze Group

Dan Carbon

Kaifeng Pingmei New Carbon Materials Technology Co.Ltd

Nantong Yangzi Carbon Co.Ltd.

Nippon Carbon Co Ltd.

SANGRAF International Inc.

SEC CARBON LIMITED.

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Non-Steel Applications

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What is the overall size and scope of the Smart Polymers Market market?

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Straits Research is dedicated to providing businesses with the highest quality market research services. With a team of experienced researchers and analysts, we strive to deliver insightful and actionable data that helps our clients make informed decisions about their industry and market. Our customized approach allows us to tailor our research to each client's specific needs and goals, ensuring that they receive the most relevant and valuable insights.

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