#amur region

[blackpilledkremlintsarina5294]

Vladimir Putin visited an endangered species rehabilitation centre in Primorye Territory on September 1, 2013.

[postcard-from-the-past]

Locals from the Amur region of Russia

Russian vintage postcard

[mutant-distraction]

Amur Leopards are a subspecies of leopards that live in the Amur River region of Russia, North Korea, and China. Less than 500 amur leopards remain in the wild.

[libraryofmoths]

Moth of the Week

Chimney Sweeper

Odezia atrata

The chimney sweeper is a part of the family Geometridae. It belongs to a monotypic genus, meaning it’s the only moth species in the genus Odezia, which was created in 1840 by Jean Baptiste Boisduval. It was first described in 1758 by Carl Linnaeus.

Description This moth is mostly black with white on the tips of the forewing (called the “apex”) and on the fringe of the forewing.

There have been a few variations in color:

- Odezia atrata pyrenaica, which is found in Pyrenees and central Italy, the wings are “dusted” in a brownish yellow with a stronger color on the forewing.

- Ab. Odezia atrata nigerrima, described by Paul Thierry-Mieg, was a female with no white apex or fringe.

- This moth’s wings may become brown from wear over time.

Wingspan Range: 23–27 mm (≈0.91 - 1.06 in)

Forewing Range: 12–15 mm (≈0.47 - 0.59 in)

Diet and Habitat The caterpillars of this species mainly eats the flowers and seeds of pignut (Conopodium majus).

This moth is distributed in the Palearctic region. In the west, it’s range reaches the Iberian Peninsula through western and central Europe and the British Isles. In the east, they can be found in Sakhalin and the Amur-Ussuri region. I’m the north, this moth reaches central Fennoscandia. Finally, in the south they are found in Italy to the Balkans.

These moths were once very common in Austria, but now the species is a rare occurrence.

They inhabit ditch edges, meadows, bogs, moors, lake sides, chalk downland, limestone grassland, woodland edges and hedgerows in southern Britain

Mating In Belgium and the Netherlands this moth can be seen flying from June to August. It presumably Nate’s during this timeframe.

Predators This moth flies during the day, especially in sunshine. They are presumably preyed on by birds and other daytime predators.

Fun Fact The chimney sweeper can be confused for the Small Blue butterfly (Cupido minimus), which also lives in the Palearctic region, as its wings may become brown from wear.

(Source: Wikipedia, Butterfly Conservation)

[rjzimmerman]

120 Miles of Russian Forest Couldn’t Keep These Two Tigers Apart. (New York Times)

Amur tigers Boris and Svetlaya, observed by a trail camera in 2018.Credit...ANO WCS

Excerpt from this New York Times story:

When Russian scientists released a pair of orphaned Amur tiger cubs into the wild in a remote corner of Russia’s far east in 2014, they were trying to save a species. While the tigers, sometimes called Siberian tigers and the world’s largest big cat, remain endangered, the scientists created something else: an unlikely love story.

The cubs, Boris and Svetlaya, had been rescued from the wild as unrelated 3- to 5-month-old cubs in the Sikhote-Alin mountains, the animal’s main stronghold. They grew up in captivity and were released at 18 months old. The cats were separated by more than 100 miles with the goal of expanding the distribution of released tigers as much as possible in the Pri-Amur region along Russia’s border with China.

The scientists tracked the cubs until, more than a year after their release, something strange happened: Boris walked over 120 miles, almost in a straight line, to where Svetlaya had made a home.

Six months later, Svetlaya gave birth to a litter of cubs.

While the strategy of releasing rescued cats raised in captivity to restore populations in the wild had proved successful with the Iberian lynx in Spain, it had never been tried with big cats.

[cognitivejustice]

Kazakhstan is actively working to revive and preserve populations of rare animals. It has recently become known that kulans have been released into a natural park to increase their numbers. Earlier, it was reported that Amur tigers were brought from the Netherlands for reintroduction.

In addition to restoring the numbers of kulans, tigers and horses, work is underway to restore the population of houbara bustards. Activities to protect, record and monitor the birds are carried out by the State Enterprise "PO Okhotzooprom" in specially protected natural areas assigned to the enterprise. Every year, birds raised in the nursery are released into the nature of Kazakhstan. From 2009 to 2023, 57,406 Houbara bustards were released. The only breeding center for these birds is located in the Baidibek district of the Turkistan region.

[melchiordahrk]

Apologies. I meant the Erabenimsun of Molag Amur. What of their funerary practices?

For the Erabensimsun, I'll go back to my original concept which inspried the Red Wisdom mod where I associated each of the tribes with a traditional element:

Urshilaku - Earth | Ash / Cairn or Foundation

Ahemmusa - Water | Oblivion / Memory

Zainab - Wind | Storm / Voice

Erabenimsun - Fire | Lava / Destruction

Here's what I wrote about the Erabenimsun:

"Erabenimsun can relatively easily be associated with fire since they live in the Molag Amur region and some of their older members are known to have personalities of a fiery nature. Their burial cavern would have lava pits and magma flows. They place their recently deceased into “heat tubes” to quickly dry out the cadavers. This process imbues the Erabenimsun mummies with a dark, cracked surface. White ash which blasts them from the earth's heat covers the front of the mummies giving them a ghostly appearance. Sometimes their warriors will dawn white ash death masks of their own when going into battle. Particularly with the expectation that they will die."

Obviously the Erabenimsun burial caverns were not shown in Red Wisdom due to time constraints, but this is how I envision them.

[flagwars]

Russian Federal Subject Flag Wars: Round 1

This tournament will focus on the flags of Russia’s 83 federal subjects, which includes 21 republics, 9 krais, 46 oblasts, 2 federal cities, 1 autonomous oblast, and 4 autonomous okrugs. It will not include the flags of the land stolen from Ukraine.

The tournament will be followed by the Regional Flag Wars, a huge competition featuring the flags of regions/administrative divisions, with only one flag per country. Over the past year, I’ve released numerous polls to decide which regional flag will be included for each country. Russia is the final country on the list, and it is receiving its own tournament due to having so many administrative divisions. I hope everyone enjoys this tournament and is looking forward to the Regional Flag Wars! The Russian Federal Subject Flag Wars will begin this week.

Round 1:

1. Tver Oblast vs. Amur Oblast vs. Jewish Autonomous Oblast vs. Kamchatka Krai vs. Karelia

2. Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug vs. Bashkortostan vs. Tambov Oblast vs. Udmurtia vs. Kursk Oblast

3. Samara Oblast vs. Pskov Oblast vs. Adygea vs. Chukotka Autonomous Okrug vs. Khakassia

4. Khabarovsk Krai vs. Kalmykia vs. Altai Krai vs. Zabaykalsky Krai vs. Mordovia

5. Moscow Oblast vs. Dagestan vs. North Ossetia–Alania vs. St. Petersburg vs. Saratov Oblast

6. Primorsky Krai vs. Yaroslavl Oblast vs. Leningrad Oblast vs. Astrakhan Oblast vs. Komi Republic

7. Krasnoyarsk Krai vs. Irkutsk Oblast vs. Omsk Oblast vs. Lipetsk Oblast vs. Kabardino-Balkaria

8. Moscow vs. Ingushetia vs. Kostroma Oblast vs. Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug vs. Tomsk Oblast

9. Perm Krai vs. Orenburg Oblast vs. Stavropol Krai vs. Volgograd Oblast vs. Belgorod Oblast

10. Mari El vs. Kaliningrad Oblast vs. Sverdlovsk Oblast vs. Sakha vs. Arkhangelsk Oblast

11. Krasnodar Krai vs. Penza Oblast vs. Buryatia vs. Nizhny Novgorod Oblast vs. Kurgan Oblast

12. Chelyabinsk Oblast vs. Nenets Autonomous Okrug vs. Karachay-Cherkessia vs. Murmansk Oblast vs. Altai Republic

13. Novosibirsk Oblast vs. Tuva vs. Vologda Oblast vs. Smolensk Oblast vs. Novgorod Oblast

14. Tatarstan vs. Sakhalin Oblast vs. Ulyanovsk Oblast vs. Ryazan Oblast vs. Chechnya vs. Tyumen Oblast

15. Ivanovo Oblast vs. Chuvashia vs. Vladimir Oblast vs. Rostov Oblast vs. Magadan Oblast vs. Bryansk Oblast

16. Kaluga Oblast vs. Kemerovo Oblast vs. Oryol Oblast vs. Kirov Oblast vs. Voronezh Oblast vs. Tula Oblast

[willtheweaver]

A writer’s guide to forests: From the poles to the tropics, part 1

Writers, aspiring writers, and all others who happen upon this, I give you all a big thank you. For those of you that have been following this guide, or have done independent research, I’m sure that you now have a grasp of what makes up a forest, and how one can weave into your story. Now I’d like to get into specific forest types. We’ll be going into detail, learning about each specific region, from the extreme limits, to the equator. So, let’s get into it, shall we?

Boreal forest (the Taiga)

The northernmost forest, it forms a circle around the pole.

Location- at or just below the Arctic Circle in North America and Eurasia, extending as far south as the Amur river basin and the Great Lakes region.

Climate- Polar and Subpolar, with conditions tending towards being wet year round. A day can be as long as 16-20 hours in summer and a short as 3 hours in winter. Winter temperatures fall well below freezing, and fallen snow can linger well into the summer months.

Plant life- Mostly conifers, with spruce, pine, and fir dominating. Aspen and birch mixed in, with oaks, larch, and maples in the southernmost regions. Lichens and moss cling to trees. Shrubs and dwarf willow can be found even beyond the tree line. Trees tend to be small as the growing season can be as short as 3 months.

Animal life- Sparse. Conifer needles are unpalatable to many species of herbivores. Deer such as moose and woodland caribou are among the few that live here year round. Bears and wolves can also found,but generally the animals that live here are small. Voles, lemmings, and hare are preyed upon by foxes, lynx, and various weasels, the largest of which is the wolverine. Many birds live here for part or all of the year, with owls being the main predators. Winter can be especially quiet as many animals either migrate or hibernate.

How the forest affects the story- Any society will have to endure winters that are 7-9 months long. Do people stay in one place, or are they nomadic? Is there some form of limited agricultural or are they hunter-gatherers? Are there any domestic species that aid them, or do your characters do all the labor? How do the seasons affect movement? Areas frozen in the winter can turn to marshland or even rivers in the summer. What kind of structures do your characters live in? They may be temporary or permanent, able to keep one warm in the winter, and can be built out of turf, wood, fur, or snow. Are the beliefs of your characters in any way ,shape, or form influenced by the world around them? How would you best describe all this to anyone not familiar with the environment and its people(s)?

[kove1]

—>It is widespread in East Asia, in Russia it is found in most of the territory of the Primorsky Territory, in the southern regions of the Khabarovsk Territory and the Amur Region.

It turns out, it turns out.. lime is Russian by nation ..

I didn't even know about it until I decided to see where the Amur cats live.. wow.. by the way, this drawing was made for entertainment purposes!

[blackpilledkremlintsarina5294]

April 28, 2016

Vladimir Putin observed the launch of the Soyuz-2.1a carrier rocket from the Vostochny Space Launch Centre. The booster will deliver into orbit three spacecraft – Mikhail Lomonosov, Aist-2D, and SamSat-218.

[forestenjoyer]

(WIP) Rivers of Ehrð

So this has been in the works for several months, and will be likely for several more, but i have been working on a global map showing the river networks of my fictional version of Earth. They are broadly the same as the real world but due to differences in rainfall and climate there are differences. (open for zoomed in images)

There are no endorheic basins, meaning all water eventually reaches the ocean, and global mean sea level is about 20 metres lower.

Anyway, I have just finished mapping and tracing out the basins for every river which is over 1000km long in the real world, as well as some others in areas that are too arid in real life to be true rivers.

Regional Maps

For convenience of reading and because I haven't got names for everything yet, I will use the real life region names. If a river has it's own name in my world I will also use that.

I will list the rivers in a clockwise direction along coastlines, usually starting from the edge of the map. rivers on islands will go after the rest. Green names mean that i have my own name for the river in the fictional world.

Northern North America

Fraser

Kuskokwim

Yukon

Mackenzie

Rest of North America

Misinipi (Churchill)

Nelson

St Lawrence

Mississippi

Brazos

Colorado (Texas)

Grande

Santiago

Colorado (The one with the Grand Canyon)

Columbia

South America

Magdalena

Orinoco

Essequibo

Amaru (Amazon)

São Francisco

Plait/Plate (la Plata)

Europe

Kızıl

Dona (Don)

Dnieper

Dniester

Danube

Tagus

Loire

Rhine

Elbe

Blac/Black (river draining what would be the Baltic Sea)

Northern Dvina

Pexohra (Pechora)

I'm not listing the ones on the island next to Britain, which is named Fairixant

North Africa

Niger

Volta

Gambia

Senegal

Tamanrasset

Hamra (Saguia el-Hamra)

Draa

Chott el Djerid

Sahabi

Nile

Southern and Central Africa

Jubba

Zambezi

Limpopo

Orange

Congo

Ogooué

India and Middle East

Patma (Ganges-Brahmaputra)

Godavari

Krishna

Narmada

Indus

Helmand

Minab

Shatt al-Arab (Arab)

Matti

East and Southeast Asia

Songhua

Huwan (Huang He/Yellow)

Yangtze

Pehrl (Pearl)

Red/Hong

Mekong

Lapaina (Irriwaddy/Salween)

Western Siberia

Corta (Ob)

Onesi (Yenisei)

Eastern Siberia

Khatanga

Lena

Suluma (Kolyma)

Anian (Anadyr)

Amur

Oceania and Borneo

Mamberamo

Sepik

Fly

Murray

Kati Thanda

Flinders

Kapuas

Barito

[verdaneart]

Amur Leopard

Panthera Pardus Orientalis, Critically Endangered

(Note: this version is Glazed for protection, it might look a bit funky up close :3)

More info on Amur Leopards under cut

With less than 100 individuals left in the wild, the Amur Leopard is the rarest cat in the world. Native to the Amur region of Eastern Russia and Northern China, they are threatened by poaching and a lack of prey across their range.

(image taken by Vladimir Medvedev)

"The Amur leopard is solitary. Nimble-footed and strong, it carries and hides unfinished kills so that they are not taken by other predators. It has been reported that some males stay with females after mating, and may even help with rearing the young. Several males sometimes follow and fight over a female. They live for 10-15 years, and in captivity up to 20 years. The Amur leopard is also known as the Far East leopard, the Manchurian leopard or the Korean leopard." - World Wildlife Fund

[mindblowingscience]

Russia reignited its moon exploration program today (Aug. 10), sending a lander toward Earth's nearest neighbor. The Luna-25 mission lifted off today at 7:10 p.m. EDT (2310 GMT) atop a Soyuz-2.1b rocket from the Vostochny Cosmodrome in Russia's far eastern Amur Region. The launch picked up where the former Soviet Union left off in 1976, when Luna-24 successfully delivered about 6.2 ounces (170 grams) of moon samples to Earth. But that was then. Luna-25 is the first domestically produced moon probe in modern Russian history.  If all goes according to plan, Luna-25 will spend the next five days journeying to the moon, then circle the natural satellite for another five to seven days. The spacecraft will then set down in the moon's south polar region, near Boguslawsky Crater. (Two backup landing spots are also in play: southwest of Manzini Crater and south of Pentland A Crater.) Once down safe and sound, Luna-25 will work on the lunar surface for at least one Earth year.

Continue Reading.

[dailyanarchistposts]

Introduction

Two aspects of animal life impressed me most during the journeys which I made in my youth in Eastern Siberia and Northern Manchuria. One of them was the extreme severity of the struggle for existence which most species of animals have to carry on against an inclement Nature; the enormous destruction of life which periodically results from natural agencies; and the consequent paucity of life over the vast territory which fell under my observation. And the other was, that even in those few spots where animal life teemed in abundance, I failed to find — although I was eagerly looking for it — that bitter struggle for the means of existence, among animals belonging to the same species, which was considered by most Darwinists (though not always by Darwin himself) as the dominant characteristic of struggle for life, and the main factor of evolution.

The terrible snow-storms which sweep over the northern portion of Eurasia in the later part of the winter, and the glazed frost that often follows them; the frosts and the snow-storms which return every year in the second half of May, when the trees are already in full blossom and insect life swarms everywhere; the early frosts and, occasionally, the heavy snowfalls in July and August, which suddenly destroy myriads of insects, as well as the second broods of the birds in the prairies; the torrential rains, due to the monsoons, which fall in more temperate regions in August and September — resulting in inundations on a scale which is only known in America and in Eastern Asia, and swamping, on the plateaus, areas as wide as European States; and finally, the heavy snowfalls, early in October, which eventually render a territory as large as France and Germany, absolutely impracticable for ruminants, and destroy them by the thousand — these were the conditions under which I saw animal life struggling in Northern Asia. They made me realize at an early date the overwhelming importance in Nature of what Darwin described as “the natural checks to over-multiplication,” in comparison to the struggle between individuals of the same species for the means of subsistence, which may go on here and there, to some limited extent, but never attains the importance of the former. Paucity of life, under-population — not over-population — being the distinctive feature of that immense part of the globe which we name Northern Asia, I conceived since then serious doubts — which subsequent study has only confirmed — as to the reality of that fearful competition for food and life within each species, which was an article of faith with most Darwinists, and, consequently, as to the dominant part which this sort of competition was supposed to play in the evolution of new species.

On the other hand, wherever I saw animal life in abundance, as, for instance, on the lakes where scores of species and millions of individuals came together to rear their progeny; in the colonies of rodents; in the migrations of birds which took place at that time on a truly American scale along the Usuri; and especially in a migration of fallow-deer which I witnessed on the Amur, and during which scores of thousands of these intelligent animals came together from an immense territory, flying before the coming deep snow, in order to cross the Amur where it is narrowest — in all these scenes of animal life which passed before my eyes, I saw Mutual Aid and Mutual Support carried on to an extent which made me suspect in it a feature of the greatest importance for the maintenance of life, the preservation of each species, and its further evolution.

And finally, I saw among the semi-wild cattle and horses in Transbaikalia, among the wild ruminants everywhere, the squirrels, and so on, that when animals have to struggle against scarcity of food, in consequence of one of the above-mentioned causes, the whole of that portion of the species which is affected by the calamity, comes out of the ordeal so much impoverished in vigour and health, that no progressive evolution of the species can be based upon such periods of keen competition.

Consequently, when my attention was drawn, later on, to the relations between Darwinism and Sociology, I could agree with none of the works and pamphlets that had been written upon this important subject. They all endeavoured to prove that Man, owing to his higher intelligence and knowledge, may mitigate the harshness of the struggle for life between men; but they all recognized at the same time that the struggle for the means of existence, of every animal against all its congeners, and of every man against all other men, was “a law of Nature.” This view, however, I could not accept, because I was persuaded that to admit a pitiless inner war for life within each species, and to see in that war a condition of progress, was to admit something which not only had not yet been proved, but also lacked confirmation from direct observation.

On the contrary, a lecture “On the Law of Mutual Aid,” which was delivered at a Russian Congress of Naturalists, in January 1880, by the well-known zoologist, Professor Kessler, the then Dean of the St. Petersburg University, struck me as throwing a new light on the whole subject. Kessler’s idea was, that besides the law of Mutual Struggle there is in Nature the law of Mutual Aid, which, for the success of the struggle for life, and especially for the progressive evolution of the species, is far more important than the law of mutual contest. This suggestion — which was, in reality, nothing but a further development of the ideas expressed by Darwin himself in The Descent of Man — seemed to me so correct and of so great an importance, that since I became acquainted with it (in 1883) I began to collect materials for further developing the idea, which Kessler had only cursorily sketched in his lecture, but had not lived to develop. He died in 1881.

In one point only I could not entirely endorse Kessler’s views. Kessler alluded to “parental feeling” and care for progeny (see below, Chapter I) as to the source of mutual inclinations in animals. However, to determine how far these two feelings have really been at work in the evolution of sociable instincts, and how far other instincts have been at work in the same direction, seems to me a quite distinct and a very wide question, which we hardly can discuss yet. It will be only after we have well established the facts of mutual aid in different classes of animals, and their importance for evolution, that we shall be able to study what belongs in the evolution of sociable feelings, to parental feelings, and what to sociability proper — the latter having evidently its origin at the earliest stages of the evolution of the animal world, perhaps even at the “colony-stages.” I consequently directed my chief attention to establishing first of all, the importance of the Mutual Aid factor of evolution, leaving to ulterior research the task of discovering the origin of the Mutual Aid instinct in Nature.

The importance of the Mutual Aid factor — “if its generality could only be demonstrated” — did not escape the naturalist’s genius so manifest in Goethe. When Eckermann told once to Goethe — it was in 1827 — that two little wren-fledglings, which had run away from him, were found by him next day in the nest of robin redbreasts (Rothkehlchen), which fed the little ones, together with their own youngsters, Goethe grew quite excited about this fact. He saw in it a confirmation of his pantheistic views, and said: — “If it be true that this feeding of a stranger goes through all Nature as something having the character of a general law — then many an enigma would be solved. “He returned to this matter on the next day, and most earnestly entreated Eckermann (who was, as is known, a zoologist) to make a special study of the subject, adding that he would surely come “to quite invaluable treasuries of results” (Gespräche, edition of 1848, vol. iii. pp. 219, 221). Unfortunately, this study was never made, although it is very possible that Brehm, who has accumulated in his works such rich materials relative to mutual aid among animals, might have been inspired by Goethe’s remark.

Several works of importance were published in the years 1872–1886, dealing with the intelligence and the mental life of animals (they are mentioned in a footnote in Chapter I of this book), and three of them dealt more especially with the subject under consideration; namely, Les Sociétés animales [Animal Societies], by Espinas (Paris, 1877); La Lutte pour l’existence et l’association pout la lutte [The struggle for existence and the association for the struggle], a lecture by J.L. Lanessan (April 1881); and Louis Böchner’s book, Liebe und Liebes-Leben in der Thierwelt [Love and love life in the animal world], of which the first edition appeared in 1882 or 1883, and a second, much enlarged, in 1885. But excellent though each of these works is, they leave ample room for a work in which Mutual Aid would be considered, not only as an argument in favour of a pre-human origin of moral instincts, but also as a law of Nature and a factor of evolution. Espinas devoted his main attention to such animal societies (ants, bees) as are established upon a physiological division of labour, and though his work is full of admirable hints in all possible directions, it was written at a time when the evolution of human societies could not yet be treated with the knowledge we now possess. Lanessan’s lecture has more the character of a brilliantly laid-out general plan of a work, in which mutual support would be dealt with, beginning with rocks in the sea, and then passing in review the world of plants, of animals and men. As to Büchner’s work, suggestive though it is and rich in facts, I could not agree with its leading idea. The book begins with a hymn to Love, and nearly all its illustrations are intended to prove the existence of love and sympathy among animals. However, to reduce animal sociability to love and sympathy means to reduce its generality and its importance, just as human ethics based upon love and personal sympathy only have contributed to narrow the comprehension of the moral feeling as a whole. It is not love to my neighbour — whom I often do not know at all — which induces me to seize a pail of water and to rush towards his house when I see it on fire; it is a far wider, even though more vague feeling or instinct of human solidarity and sociability which moves me. So it is also with animals. It is not love, and not even sympathy (understood in its proper sense) which induces a herd of ruminants or of horses to form a ring in order to resist an attack of wolves; not love which induces wolves to form a pack for hunting; not love which induces kittens or lambs to play, or a dozen of species of young birds to spend their days together in the autumn; and it is neither love nor personal sympathy which induces many thousand fallow-deer scattered over a territory as large as France to form into a score of separate herds, all marching towards a given spot, in order to cross there a river. It is a feeling infinitely wider than love or personal sympathy — an instinct that has been slowly developed among animals and men in the course of an extremely long evolution, and which has taught animals and men alike the force they can borrow from the practice of mutual aid and support, and the joys they can find in social life.

The importance of this distinction will be easily appreciated by the student of animal psychology, and the more so by the student of human ethics. Love, sympathy and self-sacrifice certainly play an immense part in the progressive development of our moral feelings. But it is not love and not even sympathy upon which Society is based in mankind. It is the conscience — be it only at the stage of an instinct — of human solidarity. It is the unconscious recognition of the force that is borrowed by each man from the practice of mutual aid; of the close dependency of every one’s happiness upon the happiness of all; and of the sense of justice, or equity, which brings the individual to consider the rights of every other individual as equal to his own. Upon this broad and necessary foundation the still higher moral feelings are developed. But this subject lies outside the scope of the present work, and I shall only indicate here a lecture, “Justice and Morality” which I delivered in reply to Huxley’s Ethics, and in which the subject has been treated at some length.

Consequently I thought that a book, written on Mutual Aid as a Law of Nature and a factor of evolution, might fill an important gap. When Huxley issued, in 1888, his “Struggle-for-life” manifesto (Struggle for Existence and its Bearing upon Man), which to my appreciation was a very incorrect representation of the facts of Nature, as one sees them in the bush and in the forest, I communicated with the editor of the Nineteenth Century, asking him whether he would give the hospitality of his review to an elaborate reply to the views of one of the most prominent Darwinists; and Mr. James Knowles received the proposal with fullest sympathy. I also spoke of it to W. Bates. “Yes, certainly; that is true Darwinism,” was his reply. “It is horrible what ‘they’ have made of Darwin. Write these articles, and when they are printed, I will write to you a letter which you may publish.” Unfortunately, it took me nearly seven years to write these articles, and when the last was published, Bates was no longer living.

After having discussed the importance of mutual aid in various classes of animals, I was evidently bound to discuss the importance of the same factor in the evolution of Man. This was the more necessary as there are a number of evolutionists who may not refuse to admit the importance of mutual aid among animals, but who, like Herbert Spencer, will refuse to admit it for Man. For primitive Man — they maintain — war of each against all was the law of life. In how far this assertion, which has been too willingly repeated, without sufficient criticism, since the times of Hobbes, is supported by what we know about the early phases of human development, is discussed in the chapters given to the Savages and the Barbarians.

The number and importance of mutual-aid institutions which were developed by the creative genius of the savage and half-savage masses, during the earliest clan-period of mankind and still more during the next village-community period, and the immense influence which these early institutions have exercised upon the subsequent development of mankind, down to the present times, induced me to extend my researches to the later, historical periods as well; especially, to study that most interesting period — the free medieval city republics, of which the universality and influence upon our modern civilization have not yet been duly appreciated. And finally, I have tried to indicate in brief the immense importance which the mutual-support instincts, inherited by mankind from its extremely long evolution, play even now in our modern society, which is supposed to rest upon the principle: “every one for himself, and the State for all,” but which it never has succeeded, nor will succeed in realizing.

It may be objected to this book that both animals and men are represented in it under too favourable an aspect; that their sociable qualities are insisted upon, while their anti-social and self-asserting instincts are hardly touched upon. This was, however, unavoidable. We have heard so much lately of the “harsh, pitiless struggle for life,” which was said to be carried on by every animal against all other animals, every “savage” against all other “savages,” and every civilized man against all his co-citizens — and these assertions have so much become an article of faith — that it was necessary, first of all, to oppose to them a wide series of facts showing animal and human life under a quite different aspect. It was necessary to indicate the overwhelming importance which sociable habits play in Nature and in the progressive evolution of both the animal species and human beings: to prove that they secure to animals a better protection from their enemies, very often facilities for getting food and (winter provisions, migrations, etc.), longevity, therefore a greater facility for the development of intellectual faculties; and that they have given to men, in addition to the same advantages, the possibility of working out those institutions which have enabled mankind to survive in its hard struggle against Nature, and to progress, notwithstanding all the vicissitudes of its history. It is a book on the law of Mutual Aid, viewed at as one of the chief factors of evolution — not on all factors of evolution and their respective values; and this first book had to be written, before the latter could become possible.

I should certainly be the last to underrate the part which the self-assertion of the individual has played in the evolution of mankind. However, this subject requires, I believe, a much deeper treatment than the one it has hitherto received. In the history of mankind, individual self-assertion has often been, and continually is, something quite different from, and far larger and deeper than, the petty, unintelligent narrow-mindedness, which, with a large class of writers, goes for “individualism” and “self-assertion.” Nor have history-making individuals been limited to those whom historians have represented as heroes. My intention, consequently, is, if circumstances permit it, to discuss separately the part taken by the self-assertion of the individual in the progressive evolution of mankind. I can only make in this place the following general remark: — When the Mutual Aid institutions — the tribe, the village community, the guilds, the medieval city — began, in the course of history, to lose their primitive character, to be invaded by parasitic growths, and thus to become hindrances to progress, the revolt of individuals against these institutions took always two different aspects. Part of those who rose up strove to purify the old institutions, or to work out a higher form of commonwealth, based upon the same Mutual Aid principles; they tried, for instance, to introduce the principle of “compensation,” instead of the lex talionis [The law of retaliation], and later on, the pardon of offences, or a still higher ideal of equality before the human conscience, in lieu of “compensation,” according to class-value. But at the very same time, another portion of the same individual rebels endeavoured to break down the protective institutions of mutual support, with no other intention but to increase their own wealth and their own powers. In this three-cornered contest, between the two classes of revolted individuals and the supporters of what existed, lies the real tragedy of history. But to delineate that contest, and honestly to study the part played in the evolution of mankind by each one of these three forces, would require at least as many years as it took me to write this book.

Of works dealing with nearly the same subject, which have been published since the publication of my articles on Mutual Aid among Animals, I must mention The Lowell Lectures on the Ascent of Man, by Henry Drummond (London, 1894), and The Origin and Growth of the Moral Instinct, by A. Sutherland (London, 1898). Both are constructed chiefly on the lines taken in Büchner’s Love, and in the second work the parental and familial feeling as the sole influence at work in the development of the moral feelings has been dealt with at some length. A third work dealing with man and written on similar lines is The Principles of Sociology, by Prof. F.A. Giddings, the first edition of which was published in 1896 at New York and London, and the leading ideas of which were sketched by the author in a pamphlet in 1894. I must leave, however, to literary critics the task of discussing the points of contact, resemblance, or divergence between these works and mine.

The different chapters of this book were published first in the Nineteenth Century (“Mutual Aid among Animals,” in September and November 1890; “Mutual Aid among Savages,” in April 1891; “Mutual Aid among the Barbarians,” in January 1892; “Mutual Aid in the Mediæval City,” in August and September 1894; and “Mutual Aid amongst Modern Men,” in January and June 1896). In bringing them out in a book form my first intention was to embody in an Appendix the mass of materials, as well as the discussion of several secondary points, which had to be omitted in the review articles. It appeared, however, that the Appendix would double the size of the book, and I was compelled to abandon, or, at least, to postpone its publication. The present Appendix includes the discussion of only a few points which have been the matter of scientific controversy during the last few years; and into the text I have introduced only such matter as could be introduced without altering the structure of the work.

I am glad of this opportunity for expressing to the editor of the Nineteenth Century, Mr. James Knowles, my very best thanks, both for the kind hospitality which he offered to these papers in his review, as soon as he knew their general idea, and the permission he kindly gave me to reprint them.

Bromley, Kent, 1902.

[kitsumeo]

Febroary day 22 - Amur tiger

Here are my Amur tigers! Hope you like them!

Did you know? That the Amur tiger is also called Siberian tiger, there names depended on the region were they were observed from.

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