#Austro-Hungarian Navy

[courseyoulovemeyoudontknowme]

The Sound of Music (1965, Robert Wise)

12/09/2024

[jariv4]

Blessed Charles l Emperor of Austria and as Charles IV King of Hungry in Naval Uniform.

[ltwilliammowett]

Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico - a personal seal as Commander of the Austro-Hungarian Navy, 1854- 1861

[whencyclopedia]

Heinkel He 111

The Heinkel He 111 was a medium two-engined bomber plane used by the German Air Force (Luftwaffe) during the Second World War (1939-45). Heinkel He 111s contributed significantly to such campaigns as the Battle of France, the Battle of Britain, and the London Blitz, but were increasingly replaced from 1941 by the more modern and faster Junkers Ju 88.

Early Designs

The He 111 was first imagined as a civil airliner for Lufthansa, but when the Nazis came to power in Germany in 1933, production turned more openly towards machines of war. The Treaty of Versailles after the First World War (1914-18) had strictly forbidden Germany from possessing a military air force, but the German leader Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) went ahead and formed several secret squadrons anyway. Another way around the restriction was to build civilian craft that could easily be converted into bombers; the He 111 fell into this latter category.

Designed by Siegfried and Walter Günter and based on their earlier He 70 model, the He 111 bomber was manufactured by Heinkel, an aviation company founded and run by Ernest Heinkel (1888-1958). Heinkel had extensive experience with military aircraft, having built planes for the German Navy and the Austro-Hungarian army in the First World War. After much debate between the German high command and Hitler, the Luftwaffe bomber command (Kampfwaffe) was obliged to adopt the position that bombers should primarily be used strategically to assist ground troops. This meant that unlike, say, the British Royal Air Force, the Luftwaffe concentrated not on heavy bombers but building squadrons of more versatile medium bombers. The He 111 was the result of this thinking, that is, an aircraft with multiple tactical uses, but one not capable of carrying very heavy bomb loads that could deliver a significant blow to ground targets. The He 111 was hampered, too, by its short range as the theatre of war expanded and Germany sought to bomb Britain.

The first He 111 prototype model was flown in February 1935 at the Heinkel works at Rostock-Marienehe (now Rostock). Design tweaks included shortening the wings and improving stability. At this stage, the aircraft were powered by BMW engines. By 1936, Lufthansa was flying a number of He 111s as airliners and transport planes. The aircraft achieved the title of 'the world's fastest passenger plane' when a top speed of 250 mph (402 km/h) was recorded.

Meanwhile, military versions were being built, which had a slightly longer nose and machine-gun armaments. The bomber version was not powerful enough for requirements, though, and the BMW engines were replaced with Daimler-Benz engines (later models replaced these again, this time with Junkers Jumos). By 1937, and thanks to a large ministerial order, Heinkel built a dedicated factory for He 111s at Oranienburg close to Berlin. Further developments followed such as increasing the fuel capacity and making the tanks self-sealing, increasing the armour protection, making a straighter wing so that factory production was more efficient, moving the forward gunner a little to the side to give the pilot better visibility, and giving more transparency to the cockpit area and nose section, a distinctive feature of the He 111.

Heinkel He 111s were first used in action by German forces participating in the Spanish Civil War (1936-9) in the Legion Condor units and then throughout the Second World War by the Luftwaffe. Other air forces which used He 111s included the Chinese, Hungarian, Romanian, Slovakian, Spanish, and Turkish.

Continue reading...

[radykalny-feminizm]

Hedy Lamarr (born Hedwig Eva Maria Kiesler; November 9, 1914 – January 19, 2000) was an Austro-Hungarian-born American actress and technology inventor. She was a film star during Hollywood's Golden Age.

Although Lamarr had no formal training and was primarily self-taught, she invested her spare time, including on set between takes, in designing and drafting inventions, which included an improved traffic stoplight and a tablet that would dissolve in water to create a flavored carbonated drink.

During the late 1930s, Lamarr attended arms deals with her then-husband arms dealer Fritz Mandl, "possibly to improve his chances of making a sale." From the meetings, she learned that navies needed "a way to guide a torpedo as it raced through the water." Radio control had been proposed. However, an enemy might be able to jam such a torpedo's guidance system and set it off course. When later discussing this with a new friend, composer and pianist George Antheil, her idea to prevent jamming by frequency hopping met Antheil's previous work. In that earlier work, Antheil attempted synchronizing note-hopping in an avart-garde piece involving multiple synchronized player pianos. Antheil's idea in the piece was to synchronize the start time of identical player pianos with identical player piano rolls, so the pianos would be playing in time with one another. Together, they realized that radio frequencies could be changed similarly, using the same kind of mechanism, but miniaturized.

Based on the strength of the initial submission of their ideas to the National Inventors Council (NIC) in late December 1940, in early 1941 the NIC introduced Antheil to Samuel Stuart Mackeown, Professor of Electrical Engineering at Caltech, to consult on the electrical systems.

Lamarr hired the Los Angeles legal firm of Lyon & Lyon to search for prior art, and to draft the application for the patent which was granted as U.S. Patent 2,292,387 on August 11, 1942, under her legal name Hedy Kiesler Markey.

In 1997, Lamarr and Antheil received the Electronic Frontier Foundation Pioneer Award and the Bulbie Gnass Spirit of Achievement Bronze Award, given to individuals whose creative lifetime achievements in the arts, sciences, business, or invention fields have significantly contributed to society.

In 2014, Lamarr and Antheil were posthumously inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame.

[martinosacchi-blog]

[frnwhcom]

The Von Trapp Family: Beyond The Sound of Music

The Von Trapp family, whose escape from Austria during World War II was immortalized in the beloved musical and film "The Sound of Music," holds a place in both history and popular culture far more nuanced than the idyllic scenes portrayed on screen. Their real story is one of resilience, music, and new beginnings, stretching from the Austrian Alps to the mountains of Vermont. The Patriarch and Matriarch The family's story begins with Baron Georg von Trapp, a decorated naval officer of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Maria Augusta Kutschera, a young postulant at Nonnberg Abbey in Salzburg. Their lives converged not out of romance initially, but necessity, as Maria was sent to tutor the Baron's daughter from his first marriage in 1926. Despite their differing backgrounds, love blossomed, leading to their marriage in 1927. Together, they had seven children, joining the seven from Georg's previous marriage. A Musical Legacy Begins It was Maria who introduced music into the family's routine, turning it from a pastime into a profession. Under her guidance, the Von Trapp Family Choir began performing throughout Europe. Their harmonies enchanted audiences, but as the political landscape darkened with the rise of Nazi Germany, so too did the family's prospects in their homeland. Flight from Oppression In 1938, following the Anschluss, the annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany, the von Trapps faced a moral and existential crisis. Georg von Trapp, a staunch anti-Nazi, refused a commission in the German Navy and declined to perform at Hitler's birthday celebration. The family decided to flee, fearing retribution. Contrary to the dramatic mountain escape depicted in "The Sound of Music," their departure was through a train to Italy, thanks to Georg's citizenship stemming from his birthplace in Dalmatia, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. A New Home in America The family arrived in the United States in 1939, settling in Vermont. There, they bought a farm in Stowe, which they transformed into the Trapp Family Lodge, a venture that would ensure their livelihood and become a cherished site for fans of their story. America offered a fresh start, and the family continued to perform, touring the United States and South America, sharing their music and story with new audiences. The Story Becomes a Sensation The von Trapp family's tale was first immortalized in Maria's memoir, "The Story of the Trapp Family Singers," published in 1949. This book served as the basis for two German films in the 1950s and ultimately the Broadway musical in 1959, with the iconic film adaptation following in 1965. "The Sound of Music," starring Julie Andrews and Christopher Plummer, captured the hearts of millions, albeit with a romanticized version of the family's journey. Legacy and Continuation The legacy of the von Trapp family extends beyond their escape from Austria and musical career. The Trapp Family Lodge remains a testament to their enduring impact, now a world-class resort offering guests a taste of the von Trapp hospitality. The family's descendants continue to manage the lodge, ensuring that the story and the spirit of the von Trapps live on. In remembering the von Trapp family, it's essential to acknowledge the blend of fact and fiction that has made their story a global phenomenon. Their real journey was fraught with challenges and marked by courage, a testament to the power of family, music, and resilience in the face of adversity. Read the full article

[pisupsala]

I love that we discovered so much about Anna in this new chapter. Finding out that Anna was a college student fascinated me. As I have read women in Europe began actively attending college even earlier than women in the United States. By World War II it was already very common for women throughout Europe (at least for the most part) to attend universities composed of both men and women. In the United States, on the other hand, although there were women-only universities, there were still very few women attending. I think it is right that Rooster is not surprised to discover that Anna was a university student and part of the resistance. Because for during WWII the U.S. Navy created the WAVES branch for college women to enter the Navy at officer rank and serve during the war. So I guess Bradley has already met several of those women. Even in England there were all-female aviation squadrons during WWII. I found it so sweet and yet so sad how Anna felt the need to explain to Rooster why she was so nervous at that moment during the night. It was quite melancholy how Anna wanted to let Bradley know that she used to be an ordinary girl before the war, which is true.

You are absolutely right, and just to add a little bit more context for Czechoslovakia specifically (im probably going to write too many words here so i'll put it under a keep reading)

The interwar years, or the First Republic, are broadly considered a time of progress: socially, economically and militarily. In particular, it saw almost all institutions open to women/become co-ed and which resulted in (a relative) surge of in women becoming practicing professionals as medical doctors and lawyers, professors, but also in a number of technical fields and entering the workforce in different vocations. This is in part through the influence of the first First Lady of Czechoslovakia, Charlotte Garrigue Masaryk, who herself was well-educated (and American-born) and was quite clearly a heavy influence on her husband when it came to matters of education equality (even before he became president in 1918). (not to leave out the efforts of other female Bohemian writers, thinkers and activists that were also active and successful during Austro-Hungarian times, but that's another topic)

That said, Anna would have still been part of a minority as a female student, even though a generation of graduates and professionals already preceded her and established a place in society. But the opportunities presented to her, academically and professionally, would be like night a day almost compared to pre-WWI—when girls for example could only take final exams at private schools, when boys could go to public school (and that after almost 200 years of compulsory 8 years of primary education for boys and girls >.> ). Austria-Hungary was actually relatively slow in establishing equal rights to education compared to many western countries, and real change only came about after the break-up of the empire. Anyway, I think that she is conscious of that, and that it's of definite influence on how she acts and perceives the world around her and her place in it.

And I agree on that Rooster would, again in the grand scheme of things, not be that surprised. Definitely through his experiences and what he must have seen in the U.S, and the U.K. of women not only entering the armed forces but also the workforce at large as you pointed out. But at that time at the eastern front, women saw active combat as snipers, in artillery and tank divisions (although, it should be noted that the majority of women in the armed forces there, too, usually served in medical units). And moreover, generally, all through Europe, women played pivotal roles in national resistance movements.

One particular example that always comes to mind is Hannie Schaft, of the best known resistance fighters in the Netherlands, who was executed by Dutch Nazis at only 24 in 1945. (and probably apocryphal, but after the first bullet only grazed her, she told her executioner "I shoot better!" — tbh i want that to be true so badly).

Okay, if you actually made it through that whole word vomit above haha, thanks 🧡 and thanks for reading the story, your comments make me super happy!

[brookstonalmanac]

Events 4.12

240 – Shapur I becomes co-emperor of the Sasanian Empire with his father Ardashir I. 467 – Anthemius is elevated to Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. 627 – King Edwin of Northumbria is converted to Christianity by Paulinus, bishop of York. 1012 – Duke Oldřich of Bohemia deposes and blinds his brother Jaromír, who flees to Poland. 1204 – The Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade breach the walls of Constantinople and enter the city, which they completely occupy the following day. 1606 – The Union Flag is adopted as the flag of English and Scottish ships. 1776 – American Revolution: With the Halifax Resolves, the North Carolina Provincial Congress authorizes its Congressional delegation to vote for independence from Britain. 1807 – The Froberg mutiny on Malta ends when the remaining mutineers blow up the magazine of Fort Ricasoli. 1820 – Alexander Ypsilantis is declared leader of Filiki Eteria, a secret organization to overthrow Ottoman rule over Greece. 1831 – Soldiers marching on the Broughton Suspension Bridge in Manchester, England, cause it to collapse. 1861 – American Civil War: Battle of Fort Sumter. The war begins with Confederate forces firing on Fort Sumter, in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. 1862 – American Civil War: The Andrews Raid (the Great Locomotive Chase) occurs, starting from Big Shanty, Georgia (now Kennesaw). 1864 – American Civil War: The Battle of Fort Pillow: Confederate forces kill most of the African American soldiers that surrendered at Fort Pillow, Tennessee. 1865 – American Civil War: Mobile, Alabama, falls to the Union Army. 1877 – The United Kingdom annexes the Transvaal. 1900 – One day after its enactment by the Congress, President William McKinley signs the Foraker Act into law, giving Puerto Rico limited self-rule. 1910 – SMS Zrínyi, one of the last pre-dreadnought battleships built by the Austro-Hungarian Navy, is launched. 1917 – World War I: Canadian forces successfully complete the taking of Vimy Ridge from the Germans. 1927 – Shanghai massacre of 1927: Chiang Kai-shek orders the Chinese Communist Party members executed in Shanghai, ending the First United Front. 1927 – Rocksprings, Texas is hit by an F5 tornado that destroys 235 of the 247 buildings in the town, kills 72 townspeople and injures 205; third deadliest tornado in Texas history. 1928 – The Bremen, a German Junkers W 33 type aircraft, takes off for the first successful transatlantic aeroplane flight from east to west. 1934 – The strongest surface wind gust in the world at the time of 231 mph, is measured on the summit of Mount Washington, New Hampshire. It has since been surpassed. 1934 – The U.S. Auto-Lite strike begins, culminating in a five-day melee between Ohio National Guard troops and 6,000 strikers and picketers. 1937 – Sir Frank Whittle ground-tests the first jet engine designed to power an aircraft, at Rugby, England. 1945 – U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt dies in office; Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes President upon Roosevelt's death. 1945 – World War II: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg, and reaches Tangermünde—only 50 miles from Berlin. 1955 – The polio vaccine, developed by Dr. Jonas Salk, is declared safe and effective. 1961 – Space Race: The Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin becomes the first human to travel into outer space and perform the first crewed orbital flight, Vostok 1. 1963 – The Soviet nuclear-powered submarine K-33 collides with the Finnish merchant vessel M/S Finnclipper in the Danish straits. 1970 – Soviet submarine K-8, carrying four nuclear torpedoes, sinks in the Bay of Biscay four days after a fire on board. 1980 – The Americo-Liberian government of Liberia is violently deposed. 1980 – Transbrasil Flight 303, a Boeing 727, crashes on approach to Hercílio Luz International Airport, in Florianópolis, Brazil. Fifty-five out of the 58 people on board are killed. 1980 – Canadian runner and athlete, Terry Fox begins his Marathon of Hope Run in St. John's, NF. 1981 – The first launch of a Space Shuttle (Columbia) takes place: The STS-1 mission. 1983 – Harold Washington is elected as the first black mayor of Chicago. 1990 – Jim Gary's "Twentieth Century Dinosaurs" exhibition opens at the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C. He is the only sculptor ever invited to present a solo exhibition there. 1992 – The Euro Disney Resort officially opens with its theme park Euro Disneyland; the resort and its park's name are subsequently changed to Disneyland Paris. 1999 – United States President Bill Clinton is cited for contempt of court for giving "intentionally false statements" in a civil lawsuit; he is later fined and disbarred. 2002 – A suicide bomber blows herself up at the entrance to Jerusalem's Mahane Yehuda Market, killing seven people and wounding 104. 2007 – A suicide bomber penetrates the Green Zone and detonates in a cafeteria within a parliament building, killing Iraqi MP Mohammed Awad and wounding more than twenty other people. 2009 – Zimbabwe officially abandons the Zimbabwean dollar as its official currency. 2010 – Merano derailment: A rail accident in South Tyrol kills nine people and injures a further 28. 2013 – Two suicide bombers kill three Chadian soldiers and injure dozens of civilians at a market in Kidal, Mali. 2014 – The Great Fire of Valparaíso ravages the Chilean city of Valparaíso, killing 16 people, displacing nearly 10,000, and destroying over 2,000 homes.

[nathanalbright151]

Captain Von Trapp's Austro-Hungarian Naval Career: A Historical Analysis

Georg Johannes von Trapp served in the Austro-Hungarian Navy during a fascinating period of naval history, eventually rising to the rank of Korvettenkapitän (Lieutenant Commander). His naval career began when he entered the Naval Academy at Fiume (now Rijeka, Croatia) in 1894 at age 14, following a family tradition of naval service. His most significant military achievements came during World…

[lordmartiya]

I remembered there's another big recurrence on September 11, an event that changed history. I am, of course, talking of the Battle of Vienna on September 11 and 12, 1683.

In 1683 the Ottoman Empire made their second and mightiest attempt at conquering Vienna, reaching the city and starting a siege on July 14. Both sides understood that if the fortress city of Vienna fell, Europe would be wide open to Ottoman conquest and their first and strongest bulwark, the Habsburg monarchy, would simply dissolve as their core territories were centered around Vienna. Knowing the desperate situation, the master of the city Leopold I, Archduke of Austria and Holy Roman Emperor, left before the Ottoman army arrived to assemble a relief force - but he had to hurry, as the Ottomans had demonstrated their mastery of siege warfare by breaching the even stronger walls of Constantinople and it was only a matter of time before the city would fall. And indeed, by September 8 the outer walls of Vienna had been breached and the city, starved of food and ammunition, was on the verge of disaster. And then, the Winged Hussars arrived.

The Polish Winged Hussars were the strongest heavy cavalry in the world at the time, and they were part of the relief force Leopold I had assembled from around the Habsburg lands, the rest of the Holy Roman Empire, Poland, whose king Jan Sobieski was leading the army, and even Cossaks from the Zaporozhian Host and Wallachians, the latter of which were vassals of the Ottomans but striving to reconquer their independence. Their arrival on September 11 forced the Ottomans to stop their offensive operations to take on the relief army, and on September 12 the largest cavalry charge in history, 18,000 strong including 3,000 Winged Hussars, broke the Ottomans. A notable partecipant of the charge was Eugene of Savoy, then a young man at his first battle that would later rise to become the greatest general of his age, the kind that countries honor by naming mighty warships after them (six of them: two ironclads and a battleship from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a light cruiser from the Kingdom of Italy, a monitor from the Royal Navy, and a heavy cruiser from Nazi Germany that the Americans snatched after World War II).

At Vienna the Ottomans suffered their greatest defeat since Tamerlane shattered their nascent empire and left it in eleven years of civil war. And while this time their empire didn't collapse in civil war, the world now knew the Ottomans weren't invincible, and not only their seemingly unstoppable expansion was stopped, at the end of what would be known the Great Turkish War they had actually lost territory, with the Habsburgs retaking the whole of Hungary and conquering Transylvania and various other lands in the Balkans, Venice conquered Morea (now the Peloponnese peninsula) and Inner Dalmatia, Poland annexed the region of Podolia, and the Tsardom of All Russias got the port of Azov, right in position for their future moves against the Crimean Khanate (an Ottoman vassal). At Vienna the Ottoman Empire started its irreversible decline, that would only stop in 1922 when Mustafa Kemal proclaimed the republic in the middle of the Turkish War of Independence (because by that point the Ottoman Empire had declined so much the winners of World War I had partitioned it and were trying to partition it even more).

Yes, I know what even many people, especially Americans, think about when one mention September 11. But I'm a history buff, and this year I've decided to remind everyone that a lot of things happened on that day.

[oddcryptidwrites]

Hello Athens! Read your worldbuilding, loved it, and now you get to know just why.

I am thoroughly impressed by the premise of that 'Dam' part of the navy's duties! Specifically in the US, I believe the term for that would be Defence Support to Civil Authorities [DSCA back when the Federal Government still existed], and it's just something I don't see very often, or at least don't usually see handled as well as I'd say you have! As someone very interested in it myself, and whose very much incorporated that sort of thing into my own Worldbuilding, I just love to see it!

Littoral-riverine-whatever stuff! I'm just fascinated by the military problem posed by having to sustain a military force in an 'ocean' through a river network, and honestly just by a military force for whom actions in a river network are treated as so important. I recall reading some stuff about the Austro-Hungarian / general balkans region and their armed riverine boats, which this reminded me of, and again I'm happy to see these sorts of underappreciated details brought to life!!!

YES YES YES (also I’m tipsy so bear with me if I’m incoherent)

1. Most of the dams are managed by the army corps of engineers here in GA so that’s pretty close to right. But yeah! Military control over the dams! Also they’re located outside of the zones so it’s easier to have trained military people doing stuff than untrained civilians who might freak when a plague victim comes wandering up

2. The presence in the gulf is SUPER important for Georgia’s military appearances and in book two, Georgia goes to war, and Florida cuts off their gulf access so there’s some battles that get fought over that

Also Mareo’s specialty is the ocean bc that’s where he grew ups

[studyingforibhistoryexams]

The course of wwi: a brief summary

1914

The western front The German advance was held up by unexpectedly strong Belgian resistance - it took 2 weeks to take Brussels. Britain entered the war to defend Belgium and prevent German dominance of Europe, as well as preventing the capture and use of the French nacy against them. Niall Ferguson: British intervention is "the biggest error in modern history". Rejects the idea that Britain was forced to act in 1914 to secure its borders and the Channel ports as it had tolerated the exact same situation "when Napoleon overran the European continent, and did not immediately send land forces to Europe ... if Britain had not gone to war in 1914, it would still have the option to intervene later." Britain was unprepared to intervene in 1914 and so it wasn't at all in their best interest as it was a recipe for distastrous losses. England's entry into the war transformed a Continental conflic into a world war, which they badly mishandled, necessitating American involvement. THE BATTLE OF MARNE - ally win The Germans continued advancing into France and approaching Paris. The French commander Joffre commdnded his armies to stop retreating, resulting in battle in which a gap opened up in the German lines, forcing them to retreat as not doing so would risk the enemy flanking them from all sides. Trenches were dug as a result and both sides moved further north trying to outflank each other, ultimately ending in a stalemate. Saw the ruin of the Schlieffen plan. - Germany fought a war on two fronts, which was never the intention - Gave the British Navy time to bring its crippling blockade to bear on Germany's ports. - The war of movement was over - trench warfare

The eastern front The Russians mobilised quicker than Germany expected, but then made the mistake of invading both Austria-Hungary and Germany at the same time. They had successes against Austria-Hungary, occupying Galicia, but were defeated twice by Germany (who had brought Hindenburg out of retirement) THE BATTLE OF TANNENBERG - CP win Russian forces invaded East Prussia and pushed the Germans back until the battle of Tannenberg when the Russian army of General Samsanoc was encircled and defeated by the Germans. Never again did Russian troops seriously threaten the German border, although they did tie down huge numbers of German troops on the Eastern front. - Russia lost vast amounts of equipment and ammunition, which had taken years to build up. Although they had 6 and a quarter million men mobilised by the end of 1914, a third of them were without rifles. Serbs drove out an Austrio-Hungarian invasion in fine style at the end of 1914, resulting in Austio-Hungarian morale reaching rock bottom.

The war in the air Air power did not play a decisive role in the war, but there were huge technological developments in air craft during the war. Initially, aircraft were used solely for reconnaissance. This remained a significant function during the war. The importance of aerial reconnaissance was shown at the Battle of Tannenberg in August 1914 when, as a result of information provided by German/ Austro-Hungarian Rumpler Taube aircraft, outnumbered German troops were able to correctly predict Russian troop movement in order to encircle and defeat the advancing Russian army.

1915

The western front Stalemate and a war of attrition. BATTLES OF YPRES: high casualties, minimal territory gained. Poison gas used by Germans, but when the wind changed directions, it was blown back towards their own lines and suffered more casualties than the Allies. Especially when the allies released some gas of their own. Poison gas introduced: rarely decisive in battle and military effectiveness was limited due to the introduction of gas masks. Casualties were less than 1% of total WWI deaths. The psychological impact of its usage was much greater.

Trench warfare: Advancing infantry must cross no-man's land to attack, and enemy trenches were protected by rolls of thick barbed wire, which made them easy targets for machine-gune or sniper fire. Military technology available gave the advantage to the defenders. Casualty numbers were frequently devastatingly high and decisive breakthroughs were rare. Commanders have frequently been accused of incompetence and callousness.

Machine guns: mainly used for defensive purposes since they lacked manoeuverability. Excellent against infantry (soldiers marching on foot). Later in the war, technological developments led to the creation of machine guns that could be carried by one person, allowing them to be used for offensive purposes.

The eastern front Russia had mixed fortunes: successes against Austria-Hungary, defeats against Germany, and the capture of Poland. THE GALLIPOLI CAMPAIGN - ally loss The allies launched an assault on Ottoman forces to provide a morale boost through an easy success, knock the Ottomans out of the war, open allied supply routes to Russia through the Dardanelles, and weaken Germany by opening another front to their south. The Gallipoli campaign was a total failure: 1st attempt: Anglo-French naval attack failed when ships ran into a series of mines, which ruined the surprise element so that no advancements could be made as the Turks had strengthened their defences. 2nd attempt: British, with New Zealand and Australian troops launched an amphibious assault. They made little progress despite being 1/2 million and eventually had to concede defeat. Consequences: A blow to Allied morale, it was the last chance of helping the Russians via the Black sea - supplying Russia was greatly diminished ITALIANS JOINED THE ALLIES (May 1915) Italy was promised Austrian territory, Tyrol, Trieste etc... and joined the war on the side of the Allies (The secret treaty of London). The Allies hoped that Italy, by keeping thousands of Austrio-Hungarian troops occuptied, would relieve the pressure on the Russians. But the Italians made little headway and their efforts were to no avail: the Russians were unable to stave off defeat.

1916

The western front VERDUN - Ally win An important French fortress town against which the Germans launched a massive attack (in February). They hoped to draw all the best French troops to its defence, destroy them and then carry out a final offensive to win the war. The French helf Verdun, losing about 316k men, as the Germans intended, but they did so too, losing about 280k men and no territorial gains to show for it.

THE BATTLE OF THE SOMME - Ally win A series of attacks by the British to break the stalemate and draw German forces from Verdun, and keep them fully committed so they would be unable to send reinforcements to the eastern front against Russia. British troops walked into deadly machine-gun fire, yet the Commander-in-Chief Haig did not call off the attack. The allies made only limited advances ( 1-11 km along a 50 km front), but the real importance of the battle was the blow to German morale. Casualties: German: 650k; British: 418k; French: 194k. The Allied generals, especially Haig came under severe criticism for persisting with suicidal fronal attacks. A German officer remarked that the British army were "lions led by donkeys". John Terraine: given the fact that the British had no experience of trench warfare, and that they were the junior partners to the French, Haig learned remarkably quickly and proved to be an imaginative and even visionary commander - (a bit of a stretch really...) Contributed to the Allied victory as Hindenburg himself admitted in his memoirs that Germany could not have survived many more campaigns with heavy losses like those at Verdun and the Somme.

LLYOYD GEORGE BECOMES PRIME MINISTER (December) Lloyd George's contribution to the Allied war effort and the defeat of the Central Powers was invaluable. His methods were dynamic and effective. In 1917, he set up a war cabinet so that quick decisions could be taken.

The eastern front THE BRUSILOV OFFENSIVE (June-September) - Ally win? Russians under Brusilov attacked the Austrians in response to a plea from Britain and France for some action to divert German attention away from Verdun and relieve the Italians who were hardpressed fighting Austria-Hungary in Northern Italy. The Russians were initially highly successful and made rapid progress, advancing 160 km, however the momentum of the advance faltered by July due to insufficient supplies and reinforcements, which meant it was impossible to maintain the gains. Ended in September. For Russia, the offensive meant: great casualties (1 million), great strains and great costs The offensive had a detrimental impact on morale on the Russian homefront where discontentment against the war and the government's management of it was increasing due to the substantial privations borne by the population. - REVOLUTION? The offensive did, however, fatally cripple Austria-Hungary's military, which could no longer operate without substantial help from Germany.

The war at sea There were no series of naval battles between the rival dreadnought fleets as both sides were cautious and dared not risk any action which might result in the loss of their main fleets. Number of dreadnoughts in 1914: Germany: 17 Britain: 29 The three aims of the Allies in using their navies: - To blockade the Central Powers, preventing goods from entering or leaving, slowly starving them out. i.e. Block CP/ starve them - To keep trade routes open between Britain, their empire and the rest of the world, so that the Allies themselves would not starve. i.e. trade with empire = no starvation - To transport British troops to the continent and keep them supplied via the channel ports. i.e. transport and supply troops. The Allies were successful in all the above points The naval blockade on Germany had devastating effect on vital food, fuel and raw materials into Germany, which contributed significantly to the German defeat in 1918.

GERMAN SUBMARINE WARFARE - CP loss Germany declared the seas around Britain a war zone and that shipping there would be targetted by German U-boats and sunk without warning. This included attacking civilian ships (that, as suspected by the Germans, carried arms and ammunitions), significantly, the civilian chip Lusitania was sunk with 128 Americans dying as a result. In response, President Wilson warned Germany that another such attack would be "deliberately unfriendly". Germany, to avoid trouble with the USA, refrained for 2 years from making full use of their U-boats. THE BATTLE OF JUTLAND Admiral von Scheer tried to lure part of the British fleet out from its base so that that section could be destroyed by the numerically superior Germans. However, more British ships came out than had been anticipated. After a few hours of furious combat, the Germans decided to retire to base, firing torpedoes as they went. Germany technically won on account of their lesser loss of dreadnoughts, 11 to Britain's 14, but failed to destroy British sea power. In desperation at the food shortages caused by the British blockade, the Germans embarked on 'unrestricted' submarine warfare, and this was to have fatal results for the war as it saw the entry of the US.

UNRESTRICTED SUBMARINE WARFARE - CP loss Germany attempted to sink all enemy and neutral merchant ships in the Atlantic; although they knew that this was likely to bring the USA into the war. The Germans hoped that Britain and France would be starved into surrender. Lloyd George saved the situation by insisting that the Admiralty adopt a convoy system - a large number of merchant ships sailing together, so that they could be protected by escorting warships - this drastically reduced the losses and meant that the Germans had failed. The submarine warfare was significant because it brought the USA into the war.

1917

The western front The stalemate continues... several attempts were made to break the stalemate, but none was decisive.

The eastern front Disaster! Russia's retreat resulted in the entire weight of the German forces against the Western Front. Without the USA, the Allies would have been hard pressed. Britain captured Baghdad and Jerusalem from the Turks, giving them control of vast oil supplies. BATTLE OF CAPARETTO October 1917 - CP win German and Austrio-Hungarian troops launched a major offensive against Italian forces in Northern Italy. Italy suffered a crushing defeat with at leas t 300k dead/wounded/captured. The Central Powers took control over a large portion of Northern Italy and the Italian government contemplated leaving the war. Britain and France were forced to rush reinforcement to prevent a complete collape of Allied lines there.

The Entry of the USA (April) The Zimmerman telegram was intercepted by Britain on its route to Mexico, in it Germany proposed an alliance with Mexico wherein Mexico would declare war on the USA, promising it Texas, New Mexico and Arizona in return. When presented with the telegram, the USA promptly joined the Allies. The USA made an important contribution to the Allied victory by supplying Britain and France with food, merchant ships and credit - though actual military help came slowly. 1917: one American division in action 1918: half a million men were involved in action Most important were the psychological boost which the American potential in resources of men and materials gave the allies, and the corresponding blow it gave to German morale.

1918

The eastern front: THE TREATY OF BRETSK-LITOVSK Germany and its allies agreed to an armistice with Russia on harsh terms, after which Russia withdrew from the war. Russia lost: 2.6 million km^2 of territory including Poland, Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia, Finland and Ukraine. 75% of its iron ore and 90% of its coal Almost half of its industry 55 million people Almost half of its best agricultural land Most of this territory was placed under Germany's control.

The western front THE LUDENDORFF OFFENSIVE - CP loss A last desperate attempt to win the war before too many US tropps arrived, and before discontentment in Germany led to revolution. Made use of new infantry and artillery tactics to break the stalemate: infiltration tactics. - Hurrican barrage (short, intensive artillery bombardment) employed to saturate Allied lines with explosive and gas shells 30 minutes before the infantry attack began - Followed by the rapid movement of small detachmentsof stormtrooper infantry. These were armed with light-weight sub-machine guns and grenades with the objective of penetrating and infiltrating weak points, while avoiding strong point which could then be isolated and attacked by troops with heavier weapons. - A second wave of infantry were sent to consolidate the capture of the Allied line. The advance initially made significant progress, advancing 65km the first week - The Germans broke through on the Somme in March and in May were only 65km from Paris. Under the command of the French Marshal Foch, the Allies managed to hold on as the German advance lost momentum, largely due to a lack of reserve forces and sufficient supplies to exploit the initial success. The Germans were forced to draw back in the face of Allied counterattacks. ALLIED COUNTER-OFFENSIVE: involved hundreds of tanks attacking in short jabs at several different points along a wide front instead of massing on one narrow front. Forced the Germans to withdraw their entire line. The Armistice - signed 11. November Though Germany itself had not been invaded, Ludendorff was convinced they would lose in a year and insisted that the German government ask President Wilson for an armistice. He hoped to get less severe terms based on the 14 point, by asking for peace, he would save Germany from invasion and preserve the army's discipline and reputation.

Why did the Central Powers lose the war? 1. Facing war on two fronts was a strain on the Germans 2. Allied sea power was decisive 3. The German submarine campaign failed in the face of convoys protected by British, American and Japanese destroyers. It brought the USA into the war. 4. The entry of the USA brought vast new resources to the Allies 5. Allied superior commanders 6. The continuous strain of heavy losses on the Germans - lost their best troops in the 1918 offensive and the new troops were young and inexperienced. The spanish flu didn't help... Morale was LOW. 7. Germany was badly let down by its allies and was constantly having to help out the Austrians and Bulgarians.

The combination of military defeat and dire food shortages produced a great war weariness, leading to mutiny in the navy, destruction of morale in the army and revolution at home.

[nesiacha]

Context:

In 1914, although World War I is primarily associated with conflicts in Europe, it had a truly global dimension, involving populations from various regions of the world, including the Middle East, Turkey, and Africa. This globalization of the conflict was largely due to the existence of vast colonial empires, whose competition, though not the direct cause of the war, was a crucial element in understanding the events of the time. This division of the world was unequal and made without regard to local populations, a legacy that persists today, as evidenced by the artificial borders of many African countries.

The United Kingdom held the largest colonial empire, including Canada, India, Australia, and strategic territories in Africa, such as South Africa and Egypt. Control of Egypt ensured access to the Suez Canal, facilitating British dominance over India. Thanks to its powerful navy, the UK was omnipresent worldwide, which generated rivalries and jealousy among other colonial powers.

France, with the second-largest empire, was also present in Africa, where it heavily exploited the resources and populations but did not possess the richest territories. France had also established itself in Indochina for several decades. While often competing with the UK for colonial expansion, it sought to enlarge its empire, as evidenced by the Fashoda Crisis of 1898, a major confrontation with the British in Africa.

Germany, a relatively young nation, had seen the birth of the German Empire in 1871. Due to this delay, it had only acquired the last available colonies in Africa, such as Togo, Cameroon, and possessions in East Africa. Germany harbored a sense of frustration with British and French domination, and the rivalry for control of African territories led to diplomatic tensions, as seen in the Agadir Crisis of 1911, where Germany attempted to challenge France’s control of Morocco, exacerbating international tensions.

Italy, another young nation, aspired to establish a colonial empire but only controlled Libya (then called Tripolitania) and a few possessions in East Africa. Surrounded by French and British empires, Italy felt a growing threat to its imperial ambitions. This quest for new colonies would have a significant influence on Italy’s role during the war, pushing it to enter the conflict in 1915 in the hope of gaining additional territories after the war.

Thus, the struggle for control of these resource-rich lands was fierce. For European powers, colonial competition offered a way to rival one another and demonstrate their power without risking the invasion or destruction of their own national territories. European populations, who were not directly exposed to the ravages of colonial wars, could therefore support this imperialist expansion. However, this struggle for colonies significantly contributed to global tensions, setting the stage for the outbreak of World War I.

In Western Europe, the UK still included Ireland (for a short time), and Alsace-Lorraine, annexed by Germany after the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, remained a source of tension, particularly in France, where the desire to recover this region persisted in political discourse.

Germany, an expanding empire, held territories beyond its current borders, notably in Poland, where the Polish population endured a partition of their country between the great powers, without a say in the matter. The Russian Empire, for its part, extended far beyond present-day Russia, controlling much of Ukraine, Finland, the Baltic States, Belarus, part of Poland, and territories in Central Asia. This vast imperial expanse, echoing the former Russian power, continued to influence Russia’s positions in the years that followed.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire, on the other hand, was a complex and heterogeneous structure, composed of many nationalities (Italians, Croats, Serbs, Poles, etc.), many of whom aspired to form their own nations. This empire sought to expand, particularly in the Balkans, a region that was becoming increasingly tense.

The Ottoman Empire, another major player of the time, was in decline. Once dominant in the Balkans and North Africa, Ottoman power had been driven out of these regions and was now limited to Turkey and the Middle East. The Ottoman Empire was in decline, and its territories were coveted by the great European powers, who awaited its fall to seize its lands. In the years leading up to World War I, several conflicts had already erupted in the Balkans, exacerbating tensions and transforming the region into a powder keg ready to explode at any moment.

The multiplication of alliances and nationalist aspirations in these various empires further aggravated the situation, creating an atmosphere of mistrust and rivalry that would ultimately lead to World War I.

The alliances formed before World War I had a decisive impact on the outbreak of the conflict. On one side, the Triple Entente brought together Russia, France, and the United Kingdom, while on the other side, the Triple Alliance united Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. While these alliances are well-known, the history of their formation is often less studied, even though it is crucial to understanding their dynamics.

The alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary was formed as early as 1879 to counter two threats: on one hand, the possibility of France reclaiming Alsace-Lorraine, and on the other, the threat of Russia in the Balkans. This alliance thus provided security for Germany against France and allowed Austria-Hungary to focus on the Balkans without fearing Russian intervention.

In 1882, Italy joined the Triple Alliance. For Italy, this agreement aimed to secure its position in Libya against France and the UK. However, this alliance was fragile, particularly because Austria-Hungary remained a historical rival to Italy, with contested territories between the two nations. This factor partly explains Italy’s ambiguous behavior during the war.

The Triple Entente, on the other hand, formed more gradually and less deliberately. In 1892, France signed an alliance with Russia to create a geopolitical around Germany and Austria-Hungary. This alliance primarily aimed to strengthen France’s position in case of war while granting generous loans to Russia to modernize its army. Moreover, this alliance was largely pragmatic for France, as Russia was an authoritarian regime, far from the French republican values.

In 1904, France strengthened its relations with the UK through the Entente Cordiale, despite a long rivalry, particularly over colonial issues. Germany’s rising power became too threatening for both countries, prompting this reconciliation. In 1907, to counter Germany’s growing influence, the UK also signed an agreement with Russia, thus completing the formation of the Triple Entente.

These alliances were primarily constructed to counter the other bloc, creating a vicious cycle of pacts and agreements. This process of creating a diplomatic balance, aimed at preventing war, paradoxically led to a tangle of commitments that ultimately contributed to the explosion of the conflict in 1914.

The outbreak of World War I is often seen as a series of inevitable events, but several factors suggest that a different outcome could have occurred. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in June 1914, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, by a Serbian nationalist, provoked a violent reaction from the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Although the assassin had no direct link to the Serbian government (to be honest it's a bit complex with Apis but honestly I have a bit of trouble with the subject so I leave it to people who are more informed than me) , Austria used this event as a pretext to impose an ultimatum on Serbia, which refused one of the conditions (the Austrian police inquiry on its territory). It was clear that Austria used this pretext knowing that Serbia could not accept the last condition, which would infringe on the integrity of the state.Extract from the site Veni Vidi Sensi "it was impossible for the Serbs to accept that the Austrian police could freely investigate and crack down on their territory, which would be an attack on the integrity of the State" . This pushed Serbia to mobilize, leading to Russia’s mobilization on July 29, as it protected Serbia.

This Russian mobilization threatened the Triple Alliance, but Russia could have been deterred if its allies, particularly France, had called for de-escalation. However, France remained diplomatically passive, and Russia received no moderation from its allies. Germany, anticipating a war with Russia, decided to strike France, provided that France did not engage. On August 1, Germany declared war on Russia, and on the same day, France mobilized. On August 3, Germany declared war on France. Both powers could legitimately blame each other, but the situation was complex, as one action triggered the other.

The conflict spread further when Germany invaded Belgium, prompting the UK to enter the war on August 4. Within two weeks, all of Europe was plunged into war. If Italy, despite its alliance with Austria-Hungary, had chosen to remain neutral, the conflict might have been avoided. After a period of neutrality, Italy eventually joined the Allies, hoping to gain colonies, but this hope was disappointed, fueling resentment that would contribute to the rise of fascism after the war. Thus, this war, meant to restore balance in Europe, in fact created the conditions for the next war, marking an inevitable chain of events.

But here is another more interesting reason: the fact that this war could divert populations from the real problems in their countries, preventing them from demanding necessary reforms or fearing revolution, or even attempting to preserve their power.

Let me explain: The outbreak of World War I involved the responsibility of each country. After the war, each nation sought to shift the blame onto others, as shown in post-war textbooks. However, the interest of some regimes in this conflict can also be analyzed. At this time, the elite of European countries, facing growing social tensions and the rise of socialism, saw war as a way to pacify the lower classes. For example, in France, the left had just introduced unpopular reforms like the income tax, which upset the wealthiest. In Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia, authoritarian regimes were under threat, and a war seemed like a way to unite the population behind the state.

The conflict was seen as an opportunity to strengthen national unity and make internal disagreements disappear. The war was supposed to be quick and effective, and propaganda played a key role in this unification, dehumanizing the enemy and presenting them as an irrational aggressor. Despite the efforts of some politicians like Jean Jaurès, who were aware of the manipulations and advocated pacifism to unite workers against the war, he was assassinated on July 31, 1914, by a nationalist, Raoul Villain, inspired by pro-war movements (Some French press are calling for the murder of Jaures, wrongly considered a traitor for refusing war). Jaurès' assassination made it easier for socialists to join the war.

Ultimately, the war did not have the effect the governments hoped for. While it was meant to strengthen the power of existing regimes, it instead led to the collapse of several of them, including the Kaiser and Tsar (though this comparison to the fall of Louis XVI is somewhat anachronistic).

I recommend checking out the excellent Veni Vidi Sensi website ( my post is a recap about what he write) or reading the book Les grandes guerres by Nicolas Beaupré. Here is a link to a video from Histony ( of the site Veni Vidi Sensi) explaining this complex episode, though the subtitles are only in French by Antoine Resche: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=35G_-Di9sYU&ab_channel=Histony

By no means I'm an expert of ww1, but lmao are for real those people who think the war happened because of Francis Ferdinand's assassin and wouldn't have hadn't he been killed?

[proud-spaniard]

1450x1070 Austro-Hungarian predreadnought battleship SMS Babenberg, WWI.

[frnwhcom]

The Von Trapp Family: Beyond The Sound of Music

The Von Trapp family, whose escape from Austria during World War II was immortalized in the beloved musical and film "The Sound of Music," holds a place in both history and popular culture far more nuanced than the idyllic scenes portrayed on screen. Their real story is one of resilience, music, and new beginnings, stretching from the Austrian Alps to the mountains of Vermont. The Patriarch and Matriarch The family's story begins with Baron Georg von Trapp, a decorated naval officer of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Maria Augusta Kutschera, a young postulant at Nonnberg Abbey in Salzburg. Their lives converged not out of romance initially, but necessity, as Maria was sent to tutor the Baron's daughter from his first marriage in 1926. Despite their differing backgrounds, love blossomed, leading to their marriage in 1927. Together, they had seven children, joining the seven from Georg's previous marriage. A Musical Legacy Begins It was Maria who introduced music into the family's routine, turning it from a pastime into a profession. Under her guidance, the Von Trapp Family Choir began performing throughout Europe. Their harmonies enchanted audiences, but as the political landscape darkened with the rise of Nazi Germany, so too did the family's prospects in their homeland. Flight from Oppression In 1938, following the Anschluss, the annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany, the von Trapps faced a moral and existential crisis. Georg von Trapp, a staunch anti-Nazi, refused a commission in the German Navy and declined to perform at Hitler's birthday celebration. The family decided to flee, fearing retribution. Contrary to the dramatic mountain escape depicted in "The Sound of Music," their departure was through a train to Italy, thanks to Georg's citizenship stemming from his birthplace in Dalmatia, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. A New Home in America The family arrived in the United States in 1939, settling in Vermont. There, they bought a farm in Stowe, which they transformed into the Trapp Family Lodge, a venture that would ensure their livelihood and become a cherished site for fans of their story. America offered a fresh start, and the family continued to perform, touring the United States and South America, sharing their music and story with new audiences. The Story Becomes a Sensation The von Trapp family's tale was first immortalized in Maria's memoir, "The Story of the Trapp Family Singers," published in 1949. This book served as the basis for two German films in the 1950s and ultimately the Broadway musical in 1959, with the iconic film adaptation following in 1965. "The Sound of Music," starring Julie Andrews and Christopher Plummer, captured the hearts of millions, albeit with a romanticized version of the family's journey. Legacy and Continuation The legacy of the von Trapp family extends beyond their escape from Austria and musical career. The Trapp Family Lodge remains a testament to their enduring impact, now a world-class resort offering guests a taste of the von Trapp hospitality. The family's descendants continue to manage the lodge, ensuring that the story and the spirit of the von Trapps live on. In remembering the von Trapp family, it's essential to acknowledge the blend of fact and fiction that has made their story a global phenomenon. Their real journey was fraught with challenges and marked by courage, a testament to the power of family, music, and resilience in the face of adversity. Read the full article