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Juniper Publishers-Open Access Journal of Environmental Sciences & Natural Resources

Assessment of Ambient Air Quality in Terms of PM2.5 and PM10 at Batangas Port Phase I

Authored by Alvert V Calingasan

Abstract

Air is one of the most essential compositions of Earth. It is a mixture of invisible gases such as nitrogen and oxygen that freely travels in the atmosphere. In addition, with these gases, air also contains dust particles, pollen grains, bacteria, ashes, soot, and some other fine particles. Air has no definite shape or volume nor color and smell. A good quality of air is needed to keep humans, animals and even plants alive. Atmospheric dust from natural sources are innately present in the atmosphere including those from volcanoes, smoke, ash from fires and pollens from plants and even meteorite dust that enters the Earth upper layer of atmosphere are rarely harmful and partly beneficial. Air pollution is said to be one of the serious problem in the world today. Particulate matter is a composition of air pollution that triggers not just the natural environment but even human’s health. It is classified as course particles and fine particles. Fine 2.5μm particulate matter (PM2.5) is a type of air pollutant that can harm human health when presence in air is very high. When in open air, fine particles can be found primarily from truck, bus and off-road vehicle (e.g., construction equipment, snowmobile, locomotive) exhausts, and other operations that involve the burning of fuels such as wood, heating oil or coal and natural sources such as forest and grass fires. Particulate matters that pass in the PM2.5 can travel into the respiratory tract, reaching the lungs. When exposed to fine particles it can cause short term illness such as nose, throat and lung irritation, coughing, sneezing, runny nose and shortness of breath. It can also affect lung condition and worse medical conditions like asthma and heart disease. Scientific studies show that daily exposure to PM2.5 increases respiratory and cardiovascular hospital admissions. Coarse particulate matter (PM10) are inhalable particles, with diameters that are generally 10 micrometers and smaller. Particles in this size range make up a large proportion of dust that can be drawn deep into the lungs. Larger particles tend to be trapped in the nose, mouth or throat.

Introduction

Air is most abundant element contained by Earth. It is composed of 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.04% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. Some small amounts of other gases contain dust particles, pollen grains, bacteria, ashes, and some fine particles. One of the major problems still experienced today is air pollution. Pollution in air makes it harmful to the health of the public. It is regained by volcanic eruptions, wind erosion, pollen dispersal, emissions from industries and manufacturing activities and burning fossil fuels. Air Quality issues are extremely important for both occupational and environmental health. In port cities and coastal areas, many sources of air pollution can be found. Only little is known about the magnitude and effects of air pollution due to marine vessels. According to WHO (2013), outdoor air pollution is carcinogenic to human. Findings from the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries and Risk Factors Study (2010) shows that air pollution is a major health risk factor. Ports have long been gateways for global trade and are critical to economies around the world; they are also a contributor of major air pollution in the world. Shipping vessels have an engine that runs heavy fuel oil. Heavy fuel oil is much cheaper than the petrol used in land transport.

The sulfur dioxide (SO2) content of Heavy Fuel Oil is 2700 times higher than the road fuel. In addition, ports contain a vast array of diesel powered machinery: straddle carriers, terminal tractors and, reach lifters. Diesel powered engines result in elevated emission of various pollutants. This pollution causes an array of environmental impacts that can seriously affect the health of workers, and passengers, and it contributes significantly to regional air pollution. Major air pollutants generated by port activities include carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx), and particulate matter (PM). The health effects of prolonged exposure to these compounds include respiratory diseases, cardiovascular disease, lung cancer and premature death. Particulate matter (PM), also known as particle pollution, is a complex mixture of extremely small particles and liquid droplets that get into the air. Some particles, such as dirt, dust, soot, or smoke, are large or dark enough to be seen with the naked eye. Once inhaled, these particles can affect the heart and lungs and may cause serious health effects. In Europe, sulfate and organic matter are the main components of particulate matter. On days when the level of particulate matter in air are high (PM10 exceeds 50 μg/m3), nitrate is also major component of PM10 and PM2.5

Objectives of the Study

This study aims to assess the ambient air quality of the Batangas Port Phase I handled by the Asian Terminals Incorporated – Batangas.Furthermore, the following objectives are to be achieved:

a. Determine the concentration of Particulate Matter 10μm (PM10) and Particulate Matter 2.5μm (PM2.5) at the Batangas Port Phase I.

b. Determine the correlation of the concentration of particulate matter with the following:

i. Populace in the area

ii. Traffic volume

iii. Wind speed

iv. Humidity

c. Assess the air quality compliance with that of the WHO, USEPA and DAO standards.

Significance of the Study

This will be information to know about the air quality with regards to PM2.5 and PM10 concentration within the Port area and for them to know what actions or preventions should be taken to maintain or improve the present air quality in the area. For future researchers to have an awareness on the air quality of the port area and what are the best actions or improvements should be undergo to secure the health of their passengers and employees that are exposed to this kind of air quality in Port area.

Go to

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework of the study on the assessment of air quality in Batangas City Port Phase I. The input will be the determination of Site characteristics and site development plan on the proposed location of the study. Process includes ocular inspection for sampling stations, air sampling, comparison to WHO, USEPA, and DENR standards, and statistical analysis of the results obtained. The output of the study will be Ambient Air Quality concentration of PM2.5 and PM10. , then the correlation of concentration with the selected factors, lastly, the compliance of the acquired concentration to WHO, USEPA and DENR. Standards.

Scope and Delimitation

This study will investigate the concentration of particulate matter 10μm (PM10) and particulate matter 2.5μm (PM2.5) which are major components of air pollution that could threaten both health and environment. The study was conducted at the Phase I of Batangas City Port. The air sampling was done in four (4) days from October 31 to November 3, 2017 with 20 minutes sampling per hour for twelve hours per day. The instrument used for the study was a handheld particle counter, the Aerotrak Handheld Particle Counter 9306-V2. This study only covers the PM10 and PM2.5 outside concentration of the area of Batangas Port Phase I and does not include the restricted areas of the port.

Conceptual Literature

Particulate Matter

Particulate Matter is a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in the air. Particulate matter contains microscopic solids or liquid droplets that are so small that they can be inhaled and cause serious health problems. Particles less than 10 micrometers in diameter pose the greatest problems, they can get deep into your lungs, and some may even get into your bloodstream. Fine particles (PM2.5) are the main cause of reduced visibility. These particles come in many sizes and shapes and can be made up of hundreds of different chemicals. Some are emitted directly from a source, such as construction sites, unpaved roads, fields, smokestacks or fires. Most particles from in the atmosphere as a result of complex reactions of chemicals such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, which are pollutants emitted from power plants, industries and automobiles.

Exposure over both the short term (hours, days) and long term (months, years) include respiratory and cardiovascular morbidity, such as aggravation of asthma, respiratory symptoms and an increase in hospital admissions, mortality for cardiovascular and respiratory diseases and from lung cancer. All cause daily mortality is estimated to increases by 0.2-0.6% per 10μg/m3of PM10. Long term exposures to PM2.5 are associated with an increase in the long term risk of cardiopulmonary mortality by 6-3% per 10μg/m3of PM2.5. The chemical properties vary depending on sources of particles. It is important to note that particulates are not one particular chemical substance but a classification of particles by size rather then chemical properties. Figure 1 shows the comparison PM2.5 and PM10 to human hair and fine beach sand.

Coarse Particulate Matter (PM10): Coarse particulate matter (PM10) are inhalable particles, with diameters that are generally 10 micrometers and smaller. Particles in this size range make up a large proportion of dust that can be drawn deep into the lungs. Larger particles tend to be trapped in the nose, mouth or throat (Figure 1).

Particulate Matter (PM2.5): Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is an air pollutant that is a concern for people’s health when levels in air are high. PM2.5 are tiny particles in the air that reduce visibility and cause the air to appear hazy when levels are elevated. Outdoor PM2.5 levels are most likely to be elevated on days with little or no wind or air mixing. PM2.5 refers to the tiny particles or droplets in the air that are two and a half microns or less in size. Particles in the PM2.5 size range are able to travel deeply into the respiratory tract, reaching the lungs. Exposure to fine particles can cause short-term health effects such as eye, nose, throat and lung irritation, coughing, sneezing, runny nose and shortness of breath. Exposure to fine particles can also affect lung function and worsen medical conditions such as asthma and heart disease. Scientific studies have linked increases in daily PM2.5 exposure with increased respiratory and cardiovascular hospital admissions, emergency department visits and deaths.

Shipping Port/Sea Port

A port can be defined as a harbor or an area that is able to provide shelter to numerous boats and vessels, and can also allow constant or periodic transaction of shipment. The port can be a natural establishment or an artificial construction, which provides a place for the loading and unloading of cargo. Sea ports are the most common types of ports around the world which are used for commercial shipping activities. These ports are built on a sea location and enable the accommodation of both small and large vessels. Numerous seaports are situated along the coastline and actively handle the ongoing cargo transactions.

Related Readings

Republic Act 8749: Also known as “Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999.” An act that provides quality framework for the country’s air quality management program. This act aims to uphold the rights of every citizen to breathe clean air by addressing the air pollution from stationary and mobile sources.

DENR Administrative Order 2000–81 and 2013– 13: DAO 2000-81 is known as the “Implementing Rules and Regulation of the Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999.” Its purpose is to provide guidelines on the operationalization of RA 8749. This administrative order provides the guideline values for coarse particulate matter (PM10) and other pollutants aside from fine particulate matter (PM2.5). DAO 2013-13 is another administrative order released by DENR to provide a provisional guideline value for fine particulate matter (PM2.5) for the evaluation of outdoor air quality in a surrounding area.

US Environmental Protection Agency Standard for Particulate Matter: The Clean Air Act of the US, which was last amended in 1990, required the EPA to set standards for pollutants which are considered harmful to public health and environment. Those standards are known as the NAAQS or National Ambient Air Quality Standards. There are also two types of national ambient air quality standards as identified by the Clean Air act: Primary and Secondary standards. Primary standards provide public health protection while Secondary standards provide public welfare protection, including protection against decreased visibility and damage to animal, crops, vegetation, and buildings. The Tables 1 & 2 below states the standards given by the USEPA.

Foreign Literature

The study of Bathmanabhan, et. al (2010) entitled “Analysis and interpretation of particulate matter - PM10, PM2.5 and PM1 emissions from the heterogeneous traffic near an urban roadway” conducted an analysis and interpretation of the daily, weekly and seasonal cycles of particulate matter (PM10, PM2.5, and PM1) concentrations in a roadway located in Chennai city, India within a 1 hour average. According to the study, the daily highest concentrations of particulate matter were observed during the peak traffic hours while the light traffic hours showed the lowest concentrations. The seasonal analysis showed that higher concentrations were observed in the post monsoon season with results of PM10 = 189 μg/m3 PM2.5 = 84 μg/m3 PM1 = 66 μg/m3 compared to results obtained during winter season (PM10 = 135 μg/m3 PM2.5 = 73 μg/m3 PM1 = 59 μg/m3) and summer season (PM10 = 102 μg/m3 PM2.5 = 50 μg/m3 PM1 = 34 μg/m3). A study done by Pandolfi, et al. (2011) entitled “Source apportionment of PM10 and PM2.5 at multiple sites at the strait of Gibraltar by PMF: impact of shipping emissions” done in 2010 studied the effect of shipping emissions on surrounding urban settlements of major ports and vessel routes. The study was done in a multi-year data collection of PM10 and PM2.5 at four sampling locations located around the Bay of Algericas and positive factorization matrix which is used to identify major PM sources with particular attention paid to the qualification of total shipping emissions. It was found that the direct contribution from shipping in the Bay of Algericas was estimated at 1.4–2.6μg PM10/m3 (3-7%) and 1.2–2.3μg PM2.5/ m3 (5-10%). The study of Polla Mattiot, et al. (1999) entitled “ The effect of rain on suspended particulate matter and other pollutants in an urban area” done in 1999 focused on the effects of rain on atmospheric pollutants in the city of Rome from 1994 to 1996 by using the data from government monitoring stations situated in different parts of the city. It is found that abatement in the three years is about 10% and that in a single event of heavily rainy days showed a 50% reduction on the hourly concentration. Particulate matter, CO and NOx concentrations were correlated to precipitation using working days and low wind speed conditions.

Local Literature

The study of Claveria, et al. (1998) entitled “Quantitative Determination of Selected Air Pollutants in Ambient Air in Agricultural and Industrial Areas of Batangas City” focused on the air quality agricultural and industrial areas in Batangas City during the time of its growth and development and was at an accelerating point of trading, commercial and industrial activities in the locality. The study determined the concentrations of selected air pollutants namely, sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), total suspended particulates (TSP), and lead (Pb), in Batangas City among the stations located along the agricultural areas and industrial areas. The air quality was evaluated by comparing it with the limits or standards set by the DENR. Air sampling was done from three (3) different stations in agricultural areas and four (4) different stations in industrial areas. Sampling was done from August 1997 to November 1997 between the time ranges of 6:30 AM to 6:30 PM. Analysis was done at the Environmental Fuel Laboratory of NPC – Batangas Coal-Fired Thermal Power Plant located in Calaca, Batangas. With the results of the study, it was concluded that the concentration of SO2, NO2, and TSP in both agricultural and industrial areas fall within the set limit of the DENR while the lead concentration exceeded that of the standard.

Another study done by Ilagan, et. al. (2013) entitled “ Ambient Air Quality Analysis of Selected Areas in Lipa City” assessed the ambient air quality of selected areas of Lipa City in terms of total suspended particulates (TSP),sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), lead (Pb), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). The study was conducted at three (3) sampling points known as the “Hotspot environments” namely, Highway Bugtong na Pulo, Marauoy and Balintawak. Factors considered was the population density in the area, number and type of vehicle, and number and type of industrial establishments per location. The ambient air quality was compared to the air quality standards set by the Department of Natural Resources (DENR). Sampling was done from January 15 to January 16, 2013 with a one (1) hour sampling time done three (3) times per day; morning (5am – 6am), noontime (12pm – 1pm), and afternoon (5pm – 6pm). The methods of sampling used were the TE-5000 High-volume Air Sampler for TSP and Pb, SKC Handy Sampler for SO2 and NO2, and Bacharach CO meter for CO. It was found that the ambient air quality in Lipa city can be affected by population density, number of vehicles and number of establishments located in the area. It was also determined that the air quality can still be considered of god quality in terms of SO2, NO2, Pb and CO except for TSP which exceeded the standards set by the DENR.

A study conducted by De Jesus, Tuiza, and Yabyabin (2017) entitled ”Investigation of PM2.5Concentration in Batangas State University Main Campus” focused on the concentration of PM2.5 at Batangas State University Main Campus during the time of construction and renovation of the campus. They monitored the effects and correlation of PM concentrations to the number of pedestrians, temperature, humidity, and traffic volume in the said area. The study was conducted by setting five (5) sampling points in the area and collecting air samples for five (5) days. The results obtained from the five (5) sampling points in average concentration are as follows: 70μg/m3, 80 μg/m3, 30 μg/m3, 30 μg/m3, 30μg/m3, respectively. It was found that the concentrations obtained from the station points did not conform to the standards.

Synthesis

The study of Claveria, et. al. was done in the agricultural and industrial areas of Batangas City and with the parameters of SO2, NO2, TSP and lead while the current study was done in the coastal area of Batangas City and only particulate matters size 2.5μg and 10μg in consideration for the ambient air quality classification. The current study uses the photometric method or light scattering method in the detection of particulate matter concentration in contrast to the study which used the gravimetric method for the analysis of concentration. The study of Claveria, et. al. and the current study was both done in the same time of 6:30 AM to 6:30 PM except this study was done in a much shorter timeframe of four (4) days. The study of Ilagan, et al. assessed the air quality in terms of TSP, CO, SO2, NO2, and lead while the current study assessed the air quality in terms of PM10 and PM2.5 only. Ilagan’s, et. al. study was done in an urban area of Lipa City with a sampling done three (3) times per day for two (2) days while this study was done in the coastal area of Batangas City with the sampling done from 6:30 AM to 6:30 PM for four (4) days. The study of Ilagan, et al. and Claveria, et al. both used the gravimetric method of analysis for TSP. The study conducted by De Jesus, Tuiza and Yabyabin focused on the concentration of PM2.5 and its effects and correlation with the number of pedestrians, temperature, humidity, and traffic volume at Batangas State University Main Campus with five (5) sampling stations and a sampling time of 15 minutes per hour in the time of 6 am to 6 pm while the current study added another particle size in consideration and was done at four (4) sampling points with a 30 minute sampling time per hour from 6:30 am to 6:30 pm. The considered factors for correlation in the current study were the population in the area, traffic volume, wind speed and humidity.

Research Design

The study uses quantitative method to obtain data related to air quality at Batangas Port Phase I as it requires data collection and analysis method, objectives, possible outcomes, actions, and time concern (Figure 2).

Sampling Period

The researchers collected the samples last October 31, 2017 to November 3, 2017. The sampling was started from 6:30 a.m. to 6:30 p.m. with twenty minutes (20mins.) running time each hour.

Sampling Method

Photometric method was used for the analysis of data. Photometer was already installed in the instrument, Aerotrak Handheld Particle Counter Model 9306-V2, which was used in the study. It shows the intensity of a beam of light once it passes through the paper, and the fall in the intensity is the degree of dust concentration.

Statistical Treatment of Data

The data determined at four (4) sampling stations were compared with the standards of WHO for health standard and, DAO and USEPA for environmental standards of PM2.5and PM10. Using Pearson’s formula for correlation with the aid of Microsoft Excel software, the datawas correlated to temperature, humidity, pedestrians, vehicle count and wind speed to determine the relationship of the following variables to the concentration of PM2.5 and PM10. The Pearson formula for computing correlation, where r is the range of correlation, x represents the concentration, y as the variables and n is the number of hours.

The Table 3 below shows the verbal interpretation of the computed range (r) including the behavior through signs.

Sampling Location

The researchers set four (4) sampling stations for air monitoring comprising the coordinates and some description of locations. USEPA guidelines were used for locating sample stations which states that the monitoring should be done at outside zone of influence of sources located within the designated area of representation for the monitoring location and at a suitable distance from any direct pollution source including traffic and pedestrians. The stations were as follows (Figure 3):

Station 1

Description: Entrance of Batangas Supply Base

Coordinates: 13°45ˈ17.25713’’ N, 121°02ˈ32.94864”E

Traffic Data Point Source: Entrance point going to parking and inspection area

Station 2

Description: Old Admin Building

Coordinates: 13°25’22.57744’’ N, 121°02’32.628844ˈˈ E

Traffic Data Point Source: Entrance/Exit point going to Terminal 2 and inspection area

Station 3

Description: Fast Craft Terminal

Coordinates: 13°45ˈ8.34412” N, 121°02’34.37766” E

Traffic Data Point Source: Entrance/Exit point at Terminal 3

Station 4

Description: Marshalling Area

Coordinates: 13°45ˈ15.25964” N, 121°02’37.23422” E

Traffic Data Point Source: Parking Area

Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data

Mean Concentration of PM 2.5 and Standard

Figure 4 shows the concentration of PM2.5 present on the sampling stations at Batangas Port Phase I including the standards set by the WHO, USEPA and DENR in concentrations of μg/m3. A 36μg/m3mean concentration was acquired at sampling station 1 located at the entrance of Batangas Supply Base, a mean concentration of 20μg/m3 were determined at sampling stations 2 and 3 located at old administration building and Fast craft terminal, and at sampling station 4 which is located at marshalling area, a mean concentration of 47μg/m3 was determined. Standard concentration set by WHO standard was 25μg/m3, USEPA standard with 35μg/m3 and DENR standard with 50 μg/m3is given for the comparison with the obtained mean concentration for each station.

Mean Concentration of PM10 and Standard

Figure 5 shows the concentration of PM10 present on the sampling stations at Batangas Port Phase I including the standards set by the WHO, USEPA and DENR in concentrations of μg/m3. A 12μg/m3mean concentration was determined at sampling station 1, mean concentrations of 5μg/m3and 6μg/m3were obtained at sampling station 2 and 3, respectively, and at sampling station 4, a mean concentration of 16μg/m3 was obtained. Standard concentrations set by WHO health standard was 50μg/m3, USEPA environmental standard with 150μg/m3 and DENR standard with 150 μg/m3were given for the comparison with the obtained mean concentration for each station.

Findings

This study was conducted for the purpose of investigating the concentration level of Particulate Matter 2.5μm and 10μm at Batangas Port Phase I. The mean level of 2.5μm and 10μm Particulate Matter acquired from October 31, 2017 to November 3, 2017 from 4 different sampling stations at Batangas Port Phase I was 31μg/m3 and10μg/m3 respectively. From Sampling Station 1 which is located near at entrance of Batangas Supply Base, the determined level of concentrations of Particulate Matter 2.5 μm was 48 μg/m3, 33 μg/m3, 33μg/m3, 33 μg/m3, 25 μg/m3, 31 μg/ m3, 19 μg/m3, 39 μg/m3, 33 μg/m3, 54 μg/m3, 45 μg/m3, and 41 μg/m3 while the determined concentration of Particulate Matter 10 μm was 19 μg/m3, 12 μg/m3, 14 μg/m3, 13 μg/m3, 7 μg/m3, 10 μg/m3, 6 μg/m3, 16 μg/m3, 13 μg/m3, 18 μg/m3, 8 μg/m3, and 11 μg/m3. From 6:30am-6:30pm these levels of concentration were determined for each hour respectively. The highest level of concentration of PM2.5 and PM10 were determined from 3:30pm to 4:30pmand 6:30am to 7:30am respectively and the lowest concentration was determined from 12:30pm-1:30pm for each concentration.

From Sampling Station 2 which is located near Admin Building, the determined level of concentrations of Particulate Matter 2.5μmwas25 μg/m3, 20 μg/m3, 16 μg/m3, 36 μg/m3, 18 μg/m3, 12 μg/m3, 8 μg/m3, 43 μg/m3, 15 μg/m3, 14 μg/m3, 17 μg/m3, 18 μg/m3 while the determined level of concentrations of Particulate Matter 10μm was 8 μg/m3, 6 μg/m3, 4, μg/m3 16 μg/ m3, 8 μg/m3, 2 μg/m3, 2 μg/m3, 5 μg/m3, 3 μg/m3, 3 μg/m3, 3 μg/ m3, 3 μg/m3. From 6:30am-6:30pmtheselevels of concentration were determined for each hour respectively. The highest level of concentrations of PM2.5and PM10 was determined from 1:30pm- 2:30pm and 9:30am-10:30am respectively and the lowest was determined from 12:30pm-1:30pm and11:30am- 1:30pm respectively. From Sampling Station 3 which is located at Fastcraft Terminal, the determined level of concentrations of Particulate Matter 2.5μmwas16μg/m3, 16μg/m3, 21μg/m3, 20μg/m3, 15μg/ m3, 17μg/m3, 15μg/m3, 13μg/m3, 20μg/m3, 24μg/m3, 21μg/ m3and 37μg/m3while the determined level of concentrations of Particulate Matter 10μm was 3μg/m3, 4μg/m3, 4μg/m3, 5μg/m3, 5μg/m3, 6μg/m3, 4μg/m3, 5μg/m3, 7μg/m3, 10μg/m3, 7μg/m3 and 14μg/m3.From6:30am-6:30pm these levels of concentration were determined for each hour respectively. The highest level of concentrations of PM2.5and PM10 was determined from 5:30pm- 6:30pmand the lowest concentrations were determined from 1:30pm-2:30pmand 5:30pm-6:30pm respectively.

From Sampling Station 4 which is located at Marshalling Area, the determined level of concentrations of Particulate Matter 2.5μmwas48μg/m3, 35μg/m3, 43μg/m3, 33μg/m3, 55μg/m3, 41μg/ m3, 28μg/m3, 50μg/m3, 69μg/m3, 35μg/m3, 60μg/m3 and 70μg/ m3while the determined level of concentrations of Particulate Matter 10μm was 15μg/m3, 11μg/m3, 14μg/m3, 12μg/m3, 22μg/ m3, 15μg/m3, 9μg/m3, 14μg/m3, 17μg/m3, 13μg/m3, 26μg/m3 and 27μg/m3. From6:30am-6:30pm these levels of concentration were determined for each hour respectively. The highest level of concentrations of PM2.5and PM10 was determined from 5:30pm- 6:30pm and the lowest concentration was 12:30pm-1:30pm. The obtained correlations (r) with respect to different factors were: the average pedestrian has moderate downhill linear correlation with PM2.5 while a weak downhill linear correlation with PM10. No linear correlation was obtained within the relationship of temperature to PM2.5 and a weak downhill linear correlation to PM10. Humidity is found to have a moderate uphill linear correlation to PM2.5 and a weak uphill linear correlation PM10. A weak downhill linear correlation is found on vehicular count and wind speed with respect to PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations. The average PM2.5 concentration obtained at Batangas Port Phase I is 31μg/m3 which exceeded the WHO standard but falls within the USEPA and DENR standard while the average PM10 concentration obtained is 10μg/m3 which is within the standards set by WHO, USEPA and DENR.

Conclusion

The researchers came up to the following conclusions.

a. The average concentration of 2.5μm Particulate Matter obtained at Batangas Port Phase I was 31 μg/m3.The average concentration of 10μm Particulate Matter obtained at Batangas Port Phase I was 10 μg/m3

b. The correlations of PM2.5 and PM10concentrations with respect to the following variables were:

i. Temperature has no linear correlation with respect to PM2.5 while there is a weak downhill linear correlation of temperature with the PM10 concentrations

ii. Humidity has a weak uphill linear correlation with respect to PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations

iii. Pedestrian count and PM2.5 concentrations has a moderate downhill linear correlation while there is a weak downhill linear correlation of pedestrian count with PM10¬ concentrations.

iv. Vehicle count has a weak downhill linear correlation with respect to PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations

v. Wind speed has a weak downhill linear correlation with respect to PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations.

c. The average PM2.5 concentration obtained at Batangas Port Phase I is 31 μg/m3 which exceeded the standards set by WHO health standard with the standard of 25μg/m3 but still in within the standard set by USEPA and DENR which is 35 μg/m3 and 50 μg/m3, respectively. The average PM10concentration obtained at Batangas Port Phase I is 10 μg/m3 which is within the standards set by DENR, WHO and USEPA which is 150 μg/ m3, 50μg/m3and 150μg/m3, respectively.

Recommendations

For further study, the following are the recommendations of the researchers.

a. The study recommend for the management to conduct experiment for the concentration of Particulate Matter 2.5 within the Phase 1 of Batangas Port to compare the result of this study which exceeded the WHO health standards.

b. The researchers suggest to have a moderate air sampling monitoring within the whole Batangas Port to continuously monitor the concentration of Particulate matter 2.5 and other parameters.

c. Recommend assessment of air quality during off-season of passengers for the differential of result of Particulate matter 2.5 and 10 during holiday season.

d. Conduct another study concerning air quality with parameters such as NOx and SOx.

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roses-and-grimoires · 7 years ago

Text

Looking For RP

forward ––––

Hello! So after taking a bit of a break from the game, I’m back and looking to meet new people to RP with! I have a list of my characters here and am open to playing any of them if they catch your eye, but the main one I’m looking for connections for right now is my somewhat grumpy healer, voidsent hunter, and heretic Idristan.

Character info, hooks, and contact info under the cut.

the basics ––––

NAME: Idristan Agache

AGE: 36

RACE: Ishgardian Elezen

GENDER: Male

SEXUALITY: Heterosexual

MARITAL STATUS: Engaged

SERVER: Balmung

physical appearance ––––

HAIR: White

EYES: Light green

HEIGHT: 6′3″

BUILD: Lean, lightly toned, wiry

DISTINGUISHING MARKS: Idristan has numerous scars, from the one running across his face to slashes across his stomach that look as though they were made by claws.

COMMON ACCESSORIES: Earrings, circlets, necklaces... Idristan likes to show off a bit.

personal ––––

PROFESSION: Healer, mercenary, voidsent hunter, red mage in training

HOBBIES: Reading, gardening

LANGUAGES: Common

RESIDENCE: The Topmast

BIRTHPLACE: Ishgard

PATRON DEITY: Halone

FEARS: Harming those he cares about, being powerless, the Inquisition, failure, losing control

relationships –––-

SPOUSE: Solenne Lagarde (Fiancee)

CHILDREN: None, though perhaps one day...

PARENTS: Ationne Agache and Leodaire Xavalien

SIBLINGS: Elonne Agache

OTHER RELATIVES: None he’s currently close to

PETS: Arnaud the gaelikitten

traits ––––

extroverted / introverted / in between

disorganized / organized / in between

close minded / open-minded / in between

calm / anxious / in between

disagreeable / agreeable / in between

cautious / reckless / in between

patient / impatient / in between

outspoken / reserved / in between

leader / follower / in between

empathetic / unemphatic / in between

optimistic / pessimistic / in between

traditional / modern / in between

hard-working / lazy / in between

cultured / uncultured / in between

loyal / disloyal / in between

faithful / unfaithful / in between

additional information ––––

SMOKING HABIT: never / sometimes / frequently / to excess.

DRUGS: never / sometimes / frequently / to excess.

ALCOHOL: never / sometimes / frequently / to excess

possible hooks ––––

Voidsent Hunting - Aka the thing that Idristan has devoted his life to doing. Driven by revenge, he’s more than happy to help deal with the creatures--though lately, he hasn’t seemed quite as enthusiastic about it...

Voidsent Information - Idristan has some experience dealing with the creatures--and not just in the killing sense. While he’s firmly turned his back on that part of his life, he still remembers how it’s done. He’s willing to share some of that information under the right circumstances, and can assist with rituals gone wrong and the like. He’s also looking for people to collaborate and share information with.

Fellow Ishgardians - Now that the political winds in Ishgard have shifted, Idristan is trying to reconnect with his old home. However, as a former heretic he’s not exactly expecting the warmest of welcomes... This could be with anyone, from other Brumelings to returning heretics to nobility or even Inquisitors or former Inquisitors.

Other Heretics - While Idristan is a heretic, he acted alone instead of joining one of the groups in Coerthas. Running into other people, especially ones with different beliefs, could be an interesting experience.

Clandestine Healing - If you find yourself in need of a healer and can’t go somewhere... legitimate, Idristan is willing to help. He’ll probably ask questions, but his distrust for law enforcement is great enough that he won’t turn you in. He doesn’t usually charge anything either.

Mercenary Work - A pay check is a pay check. Since coming into a bit of money Idristan can afford to be much more picky with those jobs he takes, but he has no problems slipping back into his old habits if it looks like a good cause.

Red Magic - Due to certain circumstances beyond his control, Idristan has recently had to become very mindful of the amount of magic he’s using. As a result, he’s started looking into red magic in the hopes that it will be kinder to his limited aether pool, and would love to have some people to train or compare notes with.

Voidtouched - Though it is not something he will ever, ever admit in public, Idristan has some experience dealing with those who have been afflicted by voidsent magic.

Drinking Buddies - Idristan loves a good brandy... maybe a bit too much actually. Could be a decent way to make friends.

what I’m looking for ––––

I’m not actively looking for an FC right now, however I will take any and all LS recommendations and invites. Being voidsent, Ishgardian, or magic-related is a huge plus, but certainly not required. And certainly don’t feel limited by the hooks I’ve written up! I’m open to just about anything.

Idristan is already happily engaged and is monogamous, so there’s no chance of anything romantic happening (sorry). Mainly I’m looking to form some new friendships for him--or make some rivals or enemies, it’s all good really. :) Once things are a bit less busy for me I also have a few plots ideas I’m kicking around, so having some people for those will be cool too.

I prefer to RP in-game, but I’m fine with using Discord or even Tumblr as a last resort. Due to how busy I’ve been lately Discord or Tumblr are probably the best ways to contact me so we can set something up.

oocly, I ––––

Am EST, but keep weird hours (the joys of being a college student). Let me know what time works for you, and we can probably make it work.

Am easiest to reach via Discord or Tumblr because inconsistent playtimes.

Prefer to RP in-game, but am open to using Discord or even Tumblr.

Am fairly lore-abiding--bending is fine, breaking is not.

Am comfortable with darker themes.

Am a paragraph/paragraph+ RPer. I can tone it up or down a bit to match someone else, but it’s what I’m most comfortable with and default to.

Have experience with DMing and running events.

you can contact me via ––––

Discord: Adeya#9306

Tumblr messaging

In Game: Idristan Agache or Adeya Evenar (my main)

Thank you!

#looking for rp #ffxiv #ffxiv rp #balmung #idristan agache #Elezen #Ishgard #Ishgardian #Wildwood

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ao3feed-silverflint · 7 years ago

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Your Hips, Your Lips, Your Skin On Mine

read it on the AO3 at http://ift.tt/2xL8GQW

by Magnetism_bind

Flint's model cancels on him for his last class of the semester. Fortunately Max has a friend who might be able to step in.

Everything seems fine and dandy until Flint sets eyes on the model.

Words: 9306, Chapters: 1/1, Language: English

Fandoms: Black Sails

Rating: Explicit

Warnings: No Archive Warnings Apply

Categories: M/M

Characters: Captain Flint, John Silver, Max, Anne Bonny, "Calico" Jack Rackham, Dufresne (Black Sails), Idelle

Relationships: Captain Flint/John Silver

Additional Tags: Alternate Universe - Modern Setting, Modern Era, Artists, Nude Modeling, Pining, Lust at First Sight, Anal Sex, brief use of ableist slurs, Angst with a Happy Ending, dating fail, New Year's Eve, Happy Ending, Sappy, Oral Sex

read it on the AO3 at http://ift.tt/2xL8GQW

#black sails #starzblacksails #captain flint #john silver #silverflint #fanfic #ao3feed

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mmishz · 3 years ago

Text

#Hetalia #9306 in the Eyes #Axis Power Hetalia #Hetalia Axis Powers #APH #APH OC #Hetalia OC #APH Indonesia #Hetalia Indonesia #APH Ukraine #Hetalia Ukraine #HWS Ukraine #Hetalia Doujinshi

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nancydsmithus · 6 years ago

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How To Use Spaces In Web Design With Gestalt Principles

Ayesha Ambreen

2019-04-01T12:30:41+01:002019-04-01T11:35:43+00:00

Human brains are hardwired to connect the dots and make sense out of everything the eyes see. Design is a creative field where forms and space intermingle to lend us a variety of experiences. Whatever design we come across, our brains are hardwired to transform that piece into simpler components made up of basic shapes and forms that are at play with the spaces. Our minds flood with memories and — thanks to our experiences — we recognize the patterns easily.

Space — both positive and negative — plays a pivotal role in unifying the design elements. As a result, we see a uniform pattern (or not). When the elements are arranged in an orderly manner, the intelligent use of spaces draws our eye to the most noticeable space — be it positive or negative.

The positive space poses as the flesh or the meat of the design; it’s the part where you see the shapes, colors, patterns and so on. The negative space, on the other hand, is the background or the hyped white space (most of the times).

“The Starry Night” by Vincent van Gogh

As much as the positive space seems to dominate the negative counterpart, both are used in equilibrium to tell a harmonious, coherent, and a seamlessly complete story.

In balanced compositions, the positive parts and negative space of the design work together and complement each other to form a seamless, aesthetically pleasing whole. Unbalanced compositions, on the contrary, can cause discomfort to the audience and convey an incomplete, rather distorted story.

But what kind of story do spaces tell in web design?

In the midst of the spaces, the success and failure of web design is determined more by the utility and the usability. Just consider that if you have poor design skills, the overall efficacy and the presentation of the web design will be disturbed. Content is king, but from an alternative point of view, the content will take its toll on your website if the spaces are not used appropriately.

If you think your developing skills rock but your design skills could need some more improvement, you’ve just hit the jackpot. In this article, we’re going to cover:

Positive versus negative space relationship, importance and implementation;

The connection between spaces and cognitive perception;

The Gestalt principles and their implication in web design.

We’re also going to discuss some real-world web design examples with each Gestalt principle and creative use of spaces.

Without further ado, let’s begin.

Positive Versus Negative Space: Relationship, Importance And Implementation

Spaces comprise of two main dimensions: positive and negative. The positive is the element and the negative is the no element. As mentioned before, the positive is object, negative is the negligible space behind it. Where one is the focus, other serves as the background. Where the former moves and motivates, the latter remains stationary and obscure. Where one is the moon, the other is the dark sky surrounding it.

In web design, the spaces interact with each other to maintain the idea of holistic composition. Visual hierarchy is only created when both the spaces are differentiated with contrast and yet tend to the bigger picture (think of yin and yang).

“Yin and yang”, a concept of dualism in ancient Chinese philosophy. (Large preview)

We differentiate between the positive and the negative space at the meeting point. The negative occurs mainly as the white space that complements the positive to make it pop out.

It might seem that the positive space takes the lead, the negative space is equally important for a myriad of benefits. Some of these benefits are:

It creates an easy-to-follow visual hierarchy;

Sets the focus of attention as well as reduces distraction;

Helps establish the scale and lets the focus appear bigger;

It improves page scan-ability;

Makes the flow on the page appear natural;

It clarifies the relationship between the visual elements without the need for additional aids;

It helps de-clutter the page;

Enhances the style and look of the webpage.

Negative space in design isn’t that negative if you ask me. However, both space types perform great when used in a balanced ratio. Unfortunately, chaos strikes only when either one dominates the other and gives an ‘overcrowded’ or a ‘lacking’ impression. In both cases, the audience is unable to process such complex information, and hence, the motive of using space creatively for web design falls apart.

Here’s a web template with misplaced content or ‘chaos’ space:

Unconsidered ‘chaotic’ space (Large preview)

Space discrepancies shown in black and white (Large preview)

Fixed space to show how space can spark clarity and uniformity when used in proportion (Large preview)

The effective use of space in web design (Large preview)

As fascinating as the concept and arrangement of space occurs, doubt begins to fog the area.

Is the positive space surrounded by the negative one or is the negative space eaten up by the positive one?

How is the proportion of each space type determined?

Which one should validate as the focal object?

Is it mandatory to highlight one and eclipse the other to communicate your intended perception to the audience?

How would I achieve ‘design nirvana’ with the communion of positive and negative spaces?

Questions like these can only be answered with a clear understanding of the basics. And as per the golden rule of thumb: simplicity is the best policy (we made that up because it fits!).

We mentioned in the beginning that web design is all about creating a simple user interface that helps you and your audience kill more than two birds with one stone, or in literal terms, helps increase the visual desirability of the website design as well as making it effective and easier to use — yes, with an incredible power over the use of spaces.

The Connection Between Spaces And Cognitive Perception

Since our minds are always playing the detective for finding hidden clues and missing links between the spaces, it compares present visuals with the ones experienced before as a part of the cognitive process. In order to become an efficient web designer, you must first understand how the brain pays attention to its surroundings. It may help you pin the particular use of visual elements and use them to influence the viewer’s perception.

“Great designers understand the powerful role that psychology plays in visual perception. What happens when someone’s eye meets your design creations? How does their mind react to the message your piece is sharing?” — Laura Busche, Brand Content Strategist at Autodesk

You must now have a clear idea of how visual design and psychology are linked and have the power to influence each other. In other words, the main idea of developing a simple user-centric interface and using space for its design is by considering the Gestalt principles. These can help you understand and control the visual-psychological connection.

Recommended reading: Improve Your Designs With The Principles Of Similarity And Proximity

Gestalt Principles In Web Design

Gestalt is German for ‘forms’. It is more of a concept than a word, which states that:

“The whole is other than the sum of the parts.” — Kurt Koffka

A collection of individual units appears as a group to us when they’re unified in some way. We see the elements as a group despite their individuality. This concept or theory applies fundamentally to all the design mediums: We don’t see text, colors, and shapes as separate elements, but instead a whole webpage as a collective entity. The same applies to a forest: we don’t only see a bunch of trees, just the same way we don’t see water drops when looking at an ocean.

The Gestalt principles describe how the human mind perceives visual components when certain terms and conditions are applied. It helps the brain create imagery of the visual. Hence, the Gestalt principles are based on six main categories:

Figure And Ground

Proximity

Symmetry And Order

Similarity

Closure

Continuity

Figure And Ground

The ‘figure’ is the object that is intuitively as well as visibly separated from the ground.

Grail Cup (Large preview)

The most classic example that exists is that of the grail cup — the vase between two mirroring face silhouettes. When you first come across this image, your eyes are drawn to the most focally visual object that comes into your notice immediately, which might be the faces opposing each other or the vase. While your mind is adjusting your focus, the ground or the vase is blurred out and at that moment, your mind intuitively crops out the negative or the ground in the image.

After a while, you get to notice the vase in the background and realize it was there in the first place. As ambiguous as the Figure and Ground principle seems, designers usually create visually appealing surreal and illusionary art and web designs.

Figure-ground relationship (Large preview)

Sometimes, the relationship between figure and ground is stable, which makes both distinguishable from one another. This relationship is sometimes unstable, meaning that the figure and ground are indistinguishable from each other. Due to the ambiguousness of this relationship, the viewers confront perceptual confusion.

To give you a clear idea of how the figure-ground relationship influences web design, let’s discuss a few examples in detail. Each of these examples focus on three main areas of the figure-ground relationship: You can add explicit visual cues by using contrast, boxes, and shadows for your web design. These techniques are used to distinguish the color, size, and level of detail, to separate the content, and to add depth to the respective object of focus.

In the first example below, Trellis uses a ‘hero image’ (images with clear CTAs) with a figure-ground relationship that clearly indicates the level of detail, color, and size.

Trellis (Large preview) (Image source)

The text is the figure here in a large cursive font in the center of the page, making it stand out as compared to the image in the background. The white text over the contrasting grayscale image draws the focus of attention, which makes the text visible over it. From another perspective, the background is blurred so that the text pops out as the figure. All of these aspects show that the text here is prioritized as the figure or the positive space, while the blurred image is used as background or the negative space, hence strongly implying the concept of figure and ground.

Next comes the content in boxes. Ocean Health Index makes a smart use of boxed content to separate the figure from the background. This is what you see when you come across their website:

Ocean Health Index (Large preview) (Image source)

Which part of it jumps at you when you first view this web page? If you ask me, it’s the main text in white in the upper right-hand side and the two boxes with contrasting color and text. The bold white text on the top is obviously the figure. (Notice how it’s placed over the darker image to stand out.) The boxes down below are also part of the figure, due to the contrast they offer to the ground image. The other aspect of this figure is the second contrast that is placed inside the boxes in the form of contrastive-colored text.

The background uses subtle shades that help the figures appear sharply, showing a pattern of detail here. The boxes are also overlapping the background image, bringing them in clear view over the image.

Some websites also exhibit the figure-ground relationship by adding drop shadows to the figure, in order to give a feeling that the figure is placed over the background. Here’s a screenshot from Seriously Unsweetened:

Seriously Unsweetened (Large preview) (Image source)

Seriously Unsweetened’s landing page uses more than one technique to maintain that figure-ground relationship in a balanced manner. There are bright colors and shadows. The ground remains white, making it easier for the figure to appear accurately above the ground. In the positive space, the objects in the figure are presented under an illusion as of being ‘on the top’ of the background. The shadow game is played inside the primary figure, making us notice that there is another figure-ground relationship within the main figure. A clever one!

Proximity

Proximity refers to the closeness of elements in a page. Different elements in webpages can be grouped together to create a bigger association. Apart from being similar, the closeness of these elements with each other than other page elements will automatically be paired in the viewer’s mind.

Proximity in design (Large preview)

From images to texts and navigation bars to web forms, the Proximity principle applies heavily to web design. When you group similar content together, it creates a seamless relationship between the elements and delivers a better visual experience to the viewer.

Here is an example of proximity as displayed in the navigation of the Mashable website:

Mashable (Large preview) (Image source)

In the snapshot above, you can clearly notice how the elements of the same category are placed together to show the relation with the main menu type. The users’ eyes are automatically drawn to the subtypes under the main heading — also thanks to the use of colors and text size. You can see that the items that are unrelated are set apart with the help of a line, which serves as the users’ guide in relating and separating the items as per the principle of proximity.

Besides delineating the navigation bar, the grid-based content also complies with the golden rule of Proximity. Amazon’s product listing is the best example:

Amazon Products (Large preview) (Image source)

Proximity complies with similarity, which is yet to be discussed. As you can see, similar products in the positive space are grouped and separated using narrow white space. This instructs the user to sort their preferred item from the list of similar products. Moreover, the principle of closure also comes into action among the list of similar items.

Now, we’ll take a closer look at the Basecamp web form which displays yet another ideal case for proximity in web design:

Basecamp Web Form (Large preview) (Image source)

You can notice how the form is divided into two main segments: personal details and ID generation. The first section is implied as the most important field, followed by a lesser important requirement. The headings for both the sections vary as shown by the difference in color and font size. In this web form, proximity is an indicator that places and prioritizes grouping of information from highest to lowest importance.

Symmetry and Ordery

Symmetry refers to the exact reflection or the mirror image of the two opposing planes. It can be regarded as the balance that divides an object into two equal halves. Real-world examples of symmetry include geometrical images like equilateral triangles, circles, and squares and so on.

Symmetry versus asymmetry (Large preview)

The human mind desires to find the ‘balance’ in human faces, which it finds aesthetically pleasing. The mind also tends to find symmetry in other objects, such as images because symmetry creates harmony and allows the viewers to be at comfort while viewing the image.

Below is a great example of symmetry in web design as exhibited by HvD Fonts:

HvD Fonts (Large preview) (Image source)

Not only does this webpage show a typical figure-ground relationship, but also displays great symmetry. The page is dissected into four equal halves with fonts of similar size and color. The background in each of the four sections runs along the same theme with a grayscale effect. You can also notice that the negative space isn’t necessarily white; it’s the image in the background.

The idea of symmetry gives rise to another notion: asymmetry can be confusing and must be used with great care when used in web design. Many websites use asymmetry as the main balancing element for spacing, where the unconventional positive space is balanced with a neutral background and vice versa. And as per the concept of asymmetry, Xplode Marketing prompts asymmetry with unique aesthetics pleasing the eyes.

Xplode Marketing (Large preview) (Image source)

This webpage immediately grabs the eye using optical illusions as well as asymmetry. The positive space objects are placed in an unusual pattern over the negative space that creates the appeal. The color is the main indicator of harmony between both the spaces and develops a natural connection for the viewers to notice. There is also a strong balance of left-hand graphics with the strong and dominant wings on the right. What do you think?

Similarity

The reason that proximity works closely with the principle of similarity is the quality of shared attributes among the similarly-grouped objects. Whether it be color, shape, posture, size, shape, orientation or any other property, connectedness will prevail when one or more of these are shared in all the objects displayed in proximity.

Similarity in Design (Large preview)

Even if the positive space elements do not look visibly connected, these will stand apart from the negative one due to the principle of similarity.

Just look at these UrbanDecay palettes list for a moment:

Urban Decay (Large preview) (Image source)

The positive spaces aka the figures are different from each other but do share some similarity in various aspects, such as their position, color, product layout and mode of presentation. The only dissimilar object is the ad for the eye shadow primer that stands out uniquely in the line of the similar-product category. This is obviously a marketing tactic that is intended to draw attention without hurting the overall symmetry and beauty of the page. Another point to consider here is that similarity in size sets the other image apart from the similar product category.

Other than just product display, the positive space can be employed with the similarity in conjunction with the negative space.

Let’s take a look at the influenster landing page:

Influenster’s front page(Large preview) (Image source)

The similarity in the above example shows clearly aligned boxes. Though the products in each positive space are different, the perception of similarity is conveyed by the consistent text fields in the overall page. The genre, layout, and the theme all are similar, hence delivering a seamless effect to the vision.

Closure

Did you ever come across an image that seems close but is open? That is because of the principle of closure. Our brains tend to ‘close’ the gaps in the incomplete objects and use our visual perception to complete the figure, seeing it as a whole.

Closure in design (Large preview)

The positive and negative spaces close in to form a whole. The best example is that of the hidden shapes and forms in the negative space in and outside the design, which demands an intelligent assessment of message within the design. Using both the spaces creatively in the closure can give rise to an interesting yet simplified design.

Take a look at the screenshot from Magu Kambucha below:

Magu Kambucha (Large preview) (Image source)

In this example, you can see that closure is kept intact with the principle of the figure-ground relationship. The bottles and the bold text behind are obviously the figure, where the background is solid soft pink. Where’s the closure? See the text behind the bottles? You can’t see it completely, but still know it’s ‘Kambucha’. Except for the first ‘K’ and the last ‘A’, other letters are half hidden, which are intuitively completed and the whole form begins to take shape and consequently, the meaning. This, my friend, is one good example of closure we have here!

Take a look at the screenshot from Cult below:

CULT Website (Large preview) (Image source)

Even though the text is not spelled out quite clearly, our minds can easily read the word CULT. The arrangement and alignment of the text made it easy to decipher, even when the words are incomplete.

Continuity

Finally, as per the general Gestalt principles, continuity follows the pattern by leading the eyes to follow a consistent path and establishing a linear pattern from object to object. It can best be understood by the example of a positive space line with a curved over the negative space. The colors of both lines indicate that the lines bent by each other, but the pattern of continuity suggests otherwise.

Continuity in design (Large preview)

In the image above, the viewers are more inclined to see a straight line despite the color degradation. This leads us to believe that the principle of Continuity guides the perception better than the power of color. This concept flows smoothly through both kinds of spaces. When we insert a subject in the negative space, our eyes tend to draw the line of distinction between the positive space and the negative one.

The imaginary line of continuity is what we tend to introduce in the design to guide our perception when differentiating between the positive and the negative space.

Let’s take our cue from the Crypton Trading website down below:

Crypton Trading (Large preview) (Image source)

See the perfect continuation of design in the right half of the page? Regardless of the light and dark hue in the background, the pattern is pretty much obvious on the page. And when you scroll down, you will see how the pattern as well the color change in a continuous and seamless motion. The shift in tones is negligible here and all we see is a continued pattern of lines and dots.

Another good example is the OscilloScope website:

OscilloScope Website (Large preview) (Image source)

The website uses the law of Continuity to take web visitors to a 360-degree view of the studio where they can navigate their way to the desired section.

Cargo the movie (Large preview) (Image source)

The film Cargo has a landing page that also uses the law of continuity: it get its text float across the website in a linear motion using the scroll-only navigation. Since the half-visible logo was shown vertically, the viewer has to scroll down to get a full view of it. As the page is scrolled down, the static logo starts floating along with the chunks of text running parallel to it. The navigation leads the user through different levels of experience without interfering the darkness lurking below.

Since our eyes usually follow the smoothest path, graphic designers can use such examples to make them follow the desired path and position the elements along a line.

Summing It Up

In this article, we covered the Gestalt principles in relation to positive and negative spaces in websites. We also made sure we include some real-life examples to give you a clear idea of how you can employ simple yet effective techniques to influence your audience’s perception. The key here is to use these principles to create a web design that appears more than the sum of its parts.

We humans think in terms of our perception — mainly based on visuals. According to the Gestalt principles in relation to positive and negative spaces, we tend to see the bigger picture rather than individual elements at first glance.

Positive and negative spaces help us differentiate, help us recall our experiences, and recognize the patterns. With the help of the Gestalt principles, we are better able to visualize how well we can use spaces in web design to create appealing pieces. Since spaces can appear as a tangled affair for any designer, the best way is to keep intact your Gestalt principles. This is the only way you can truly realize the importance, usage, and effectiveness of spaces in your designs and effortlessly become an effective contributor in the web design domain.

Want to add something else? Don’t forget to share your ideas. We’d love to receive the feedback!