#1st century B.C. painting

[venustapolis]

Wall painting on black ground - Aedicula with small landscape, from the imperial villa at Boscotrecase (1st century B.C.)

[yaellaharpe-blog]

Antigua Via Latina / The ancient Via Latina

In the middle of the Roman periphery, between the modern Via Appia and Via Tuscolana, a section of the 3rd mile of the ancient Via Latina is preserved in perfect condition.

It has ancient origins: the natural route, already followed in prehistoric times, was used by the Etruscans to colonise Campania in the 8th-6th centuries BC.

Definitely laid out by the Romans around the IV-III centuries B.C., it connected Rome with Capua, maintaining its importance throughout Antiquity. In fact, even in the Middle Ages, it was preferred as an access road to Naples because of its better preservation compared to the Appian Way and the presence of a number of Christian places of worship along the route..

Entering the Archaeological Park of the Tombs of the Via Latina, it is now possible to walk along a section of the original paving of the street. With a pleasant walk you can admire the rich tombs dating back to the I-II century A.D. that overlooked the route, which still have perfectly preserved polychrome decorations on the façades and inside: vaults covered with painted plaster and stucco, walls frescoed with funerary scenes and rich mosaic floors are still substantially intact in their original context.

From the street it is also possible to reach the Basilica of S. Stefano, a rare example of an early Christian building erected under the pontificate of Leo the Great in the middle of the 5th century.

Santo Stefano en Vía Latina, restos parcialmente reconstruidos, 1911.

Santo Stefano in Via Latina, partially reconstructed remains, 1911.

The Archaeological Park of the Tombs of the Via Latina was created in 1879 following the acquisition by the State of a vast area in which important remains from Roman times had been discovered.

BARBERINI TOMB

The so-called Barberini Sepulchre, or Sepulchre of the Corneli. The funerary monument, dating from the 2nd century AD, consists of two above-ground floors and a hypogeum in an excellent state of preservation. The upper floor is covered by a ribbed vault completely covered with plaster painted with a red background and stucco elements. Groups of figures, winged victories on chariots, love affairs, birds, marine animals, mythological themes and architectural backgrounds can be recognised.

Sepulcro Barberini y su interior / Barberini Tomb and its interior

TOMB OF THE VALERI

The Tomb of the Valeri. The richly decorated underground rooms dating from the mid-2nd century AD are preserved, while the elevation is a hypothetical reconstruction dating from the mid-19th century. An elaborate white stucco covering, articulated in 35 medallions and panels, adorns the lunettes and the barrel vault of the underground room. The medallions depict Dionysian themes, female figures and sea animals, while in the central tondo there is a delicate-veiled figure on the back of a griffin, representing the deceased being carried to the afterlife.

Tumba de los Valeri, exterior e interior / Tomb of the Valeri, exterior and interior

THE TOMB OF THE PANCRATII

The Tomb of the Pancratii. Much of the visible structure is a modern construction that protects the monument below by resting on the original 1st-2nd century AD walls, about a metre high. Upon entering the tomb, one can admire the beautifully decorated underground rooms, with mosaics on the floors and vaults and walls frescoed in bright colours and stucco in an excellent state of preservation. They depict mythological scenes, natural and architectural landscapes, images of women and animals. In the centre of one of the underground chambers is a large sarcophagus for two Greek marble depositions.

Sepulcro de los Pancracios, exterior e interior / Tomb of the Pancracios, exterior and interior

[blueiscoool]

Archaeologists Discover 'Exceptional' 2,000-Year-Old Female Marble Statue

An "exceptional" marble statue from the Roman era has been discovered in Italy, researchers have announced.

The statue dates to around 2,000 years ago—somewhere between the middle of the 1st century B.C. and the mid-1st century A.D.

Researchers from the Spanish School of History and Archaeology of Rome (EEHAR)—part the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC)—located the statue, which depicts a female figure, during excavations at the archaeological site of Tusculum.

The ancient city is located in an area known as the Alban Hills, which lies on the outskirts of Rome. In ancient times, this area—known for its luxurious villas and country houses—was often used by the rich as an escape from the capital.

The life-sized statue is in excellent condition and of high quality, although it is missing the head and parts of the arms, according to the researchers. It probably once belonged to an ancient bathhouse in the city.

"This is an exceptional discovery. At the time of discovery, only part of the statue's back was visible and it was lying on a thin layer of painted stucco, so it would be part of the ornamental program of the thermal baths," EEHAR director Antonio Pizzo said in a press release.

Some characteristics of the statue have led researchers to conclude that it may have been linked to the cult of the god Dionysus. For example, the statue features a depiction of a fawn skin that the followers of the god's cult wore.

Dionysus, also known as Bacchus, was a Greco-Roman god of wine, fruit, vegetation, fertility, ritual madness and ecstasy, among other traits.

By ARISTOS GEORGIOU.

[ancientrome]

Wall painting on black ground: landscape, from the imperial villa at Boscotrecase. Roman, Pompeian last decade of the 1st century BCE. x

Many private summer villas were located along the coast near Naples. One of the most sumptuous must have been the villa built by Agrippa, friend of the emperor Augustus and husband of his daughter, Julia. It stood overlooking the Bay of Naples from a spot near the modern town of Boscotrecase. The villa was partially excavated between 1903 and 1905 after its accidental discovery during work on a railway. Wall decorations that still survived in four bedrooms were removed. The Metropolitan Museum acquired sections from three rooms and the Archaeological Museum at Naples received the rest.

Agrippa died in 12 B.C. and his son, Agrippa Postumus became the villa's proprietor in 11 B.C. as inscriptions found there indicate. The frescoes must have been painted during renovations begun at the time. Painted by artists working for the imperial household, they are among the finest existing examples of Roman wall painting.

The so-called Black Room was one of a sequence of bedrooms facing south toward the downward slope of the mountain and the sea. The source of light was a wide doorway giving onto a terrace or promenade.

This ambiguous and sophisticated decoration is a masterpiece of the so-called third style of Roman wall painting, which flourished during the reign of Augustus. The theme is a playful rendition of architectural motif. A low red dado serves as the base from which a skeleton of thin white columns appears to rise against a black background. There almost weightless columns support pavilions, candelabra, tripods, and a narrow cornice that runs around the room. They were embellished with jewel-like decorations. On the back wall tiny swans, the bird of Apollo, patron god of Augustus, perch improbably on threadlike spirals, and yellow panels with Egyptianizing motifs must have brought to mind the recent annexation of Egypt after the death of Cleopatra in 30 B.C. This architectural scheme creates almost no sense of depth or volume. The black walls behind appear at once to be flat and to dissolve into limitless space. Tiny landscape vignettes float like islands in the middle of this blackness. Burnished to a high polish, these walls must have appeared magical indeed when illuminated by lamps at night.

[denimoverall]

On the descent of Cleopatra VII

(Posthumous painted portrait of Cleopatra VII of Egypt, from Herculaneum, Italy)

(An ancient Roman bust of Cleopatra VII of Ptolemaic Egypt, from the Archaeological Museum of Cherchel, Algeria)

(Limestone Head of a Woman Resembling Cleopatra VII

Roman, about 50-30 BC
Acquired in Italy

The British Museum, Located in Room 70: Roman Empire)

(Statue of a Ptolemaic Queen, perhaps Cleopatra VII

Ptolemaic Period

200–30 B.C.

On view at The Met Fifth Avenue in Gallery 134)

(The Berlin Cleopatra, a Roman sculpture of Cleopatra wearing a royal diadem, mid-1st century BC (around the time of her visits to Rome in 46–44 BC), discovered in an Italian villa along the Via Appia and now located in the Altes Museum in Germany.)

(This mid-1st Century BCE mural portrays a statue of Venus and the infant Cupid in the Temple of Venus Genitrix, Rome. The statue has been identified as the infamous gilded statue of Cleopatra VII as Venus that Julius Caesar unveiled during the temple's dedication in 46 BCE)

“The Ptolemaic Dynasty controlled Egypt for almost three centuries (305 – 30 BCE), eventually falling to the Romans. Oddly, while they ruled Egypt, they never became Egyptian. Instead, they isolated themselves in the capital city of Alexandria, a city envisioned by Alexander the Great. The city was Greek both in language and practice. There were no marriages with outsiders; brother married sister or uncle married niece. The last Ptolemaic queen, Cleopatra VII (l. c. 69-30 BCE), remained Macedonian but spoke Egyptian as well as other languages. Except for the first two Ptolemaic pharaohs, Ptolemy I and his son Ptolemy II, most of the family was fairly inept and, in the end, only maintained authority with the assistance of Rome.

A Greek Family of Egyptian Pharaohs

One of the unique and often misunderstood aspects of the Ptolemaic dynasty is how and why it never became Egyptian. The Ptolemys coexisted as both Egyptian pharaohs as well as Greek monarchs. In every respect they remained completely Greek, both in their language and traditions. This unique characteristic was maintained through intermarriage; most often these marriages were either between brother and sister or even uncle and niece. This inbreeding was intended to stabilize the family; wealth and power were consolidated.”

( from https://www.worldhistory.org/Ptolemaic_Dynasty/ )

[yourantiquarian]

Romano-Egyptian cartonnage mummy mask depicting a female head

ITEM Romano-Egyptian cartonnage mummy mask depicting a female head MATERIAL Linen and Gesso CULTURE Egyptian, Roman period PERIOD 1st Century B.C – 1st Century A.D DIMENSIONS 208 mm x 200 mm x 200 mm (without stand) CONDITION Good condition PROVENANCE Ex English private collection, Ex Christie’s, London, April 2000, lot 59 (part lot), Ex Belgian private collection, Ex Bonhams During the Roman period in Egypt, which spanned from the 1st century BCE to the 4th century CE, a unique blend of Egyptian and Greco-Roman artistic influences emerged. This period saw the production of cartonnage mummy masks that often depicted female heads, showcasing a fusion of traditional Egyptian religious beliefs with the cultural impact of the Roman Empire. Cartonnage was a material made from layers of linen or papyrus soaked in plaster, creating a rigid surface suitable for painting and decoration. The female heads depicted on these mummy masks during the Roman period often reflected the idealized beauty standards of the time. These masks were not just functional elements for preserving the deceased's features, but also served a ritualistic and symbolic purpose. The depictions frequently incorporated Roman hairstyles and fashion trends, showcasing the blending of cultural elements. Read the full article

[currenthunt]

Discovery of Mesolithic rock paintings

D. Ravinder Reddy and Dr. Muralidhar Reddy have discovered Mesolithic rock paintings in Seetamma Loddy, Telangana.Seethamma Loddy is located at Gattusingaram in Peddapalli district.The rock paintings found here belong to the Mesolithic period (10,000-12,000 years ago) and the early historic period (1st BC to 6th century). They were found on a large sandstone rock in the forest.A fossil stone containing shells has also been found which suggests that the site is approximately 65 million years old.Dr. Muralidhar Reddy has described the site as a “diamond mine” of rock paintings, like Pandavula Gutta located in Jayashankar Bhupalapalli district. Pictures found on rock paintings - There are depictions of human figures on it. - Both men and women are performing group dance in line and round patterns. - Everyone is holding each other's hands and wearing special types of shoes. - A picture of a person with a bow and arrow has been found. - Several handprints of different sizes in red color were found in some of the paintings. - Some white and yellow handprints have also been found, which are rare. - Among other figures, footprints of some animals like deer, antelope, tortoise, wild cat, carnivores, monkeys, wild lizards are prominent. Stone age - In the Stone Age, humans used stones to make tools. The Stone Age is divided into three phases - Paleolithic period: Period – 500,000 – 10,000 B.C. - Mesolithic period: Period – 10,000 – 6000 B.C. - Neolithic period: Period – 6000 – 1000 B.C. Mesolithic period - The Mesolithic site in India was first discovered by C.L. Carlyle did this in Vindhya region in the year 1867 AD. - The tools of the Mesolithic period are extremely small in size. - The humans of this period were mostly dependent on hunting, but now they started hunting cows, bulls, sheep, goats, buffaloes etc. - These people had also learned to do some agriculture. - By the last stage, he had also learned to make utensils. - The mausoleums of Sarayanahar Rai and Mahdaha also provide information about the funeral rites of the people of this period. - They buried the dead in mausoleums and also kept food items, tools and weapons along with them. - Perhaps this was indicative of belief in some kind of extraterrestrial life. Read the full article

[dougrobyngoold]

Cadiz Sacra & Teatro Romano - Cadiz, Spain

Today was filled with elaborately decorated churches and hospitals - quite amazing. We toured the Cadiz Sacra - the ticket was 9 euros a piece and included admission to Oratorio de la Santa Cueva, Hospital de Mujeres, and Oratorio de San Felipe Neri. We started at Oratorio de la Santa Cueva, the lower floor has a very small, simple chapel (pictured above). The upper level has an elaborate chapel, added later, walking into it is quite shocking after visiting the simple one on the lower level.

The ornate altar, look at the pattern in the marble columns - stunning! Even though the chapel was small there was a lot to take in.

It was hard to get a picture that truly reflected the splendor of this room. Apparently, there was a mural painted by Goya in this chapel, I know that I saw it, but I didn't manage to get a photo of it.

One of the sculpted scenes on the side walls of the chapel.

Next we visited Oratorio de San Felipe Neri - this temple was built in 1688. Inside the oratory are seven rectangular chapels. Each is elaborately decorated and unique, the tour included an audio guide that provided information about each of the chapels. It was a lot of information to take in - there were so many little details to be noticed in each of the chapels, I only managed to get photos of 5 of them (I must have become overwhelmed with all the info):

This is the largest chapel (pictured above), the painting is by Murillo and the Baroque-style design is eye-catching. We were happy that there were chairs to sit in, so that we could spend a little time in front of each of the chapels to take in the details.

Finally, we ended our tour of Cadiz Sacra at Hospital de Mujeres - unlike any hospital that we have ever stayed in.

One of the beautiful courtyards at the hospital.

One of the tiled Stations of the Cross that line the courtyard.

Entrance to the hospital chapel.

Top to bottom: the mural on the chapel ceiling, the altar, a decorative cornice, and the El Greco painting in the chapel.

We stopped and had lunch and then walked over to check out the Teatro Romano - the ruins of a Roman Theater that were uncovered in 1980. The theater was built circa 1st century B.C. and could house around 10,000 spectators.

A view of the theater from the end of an alley that we accidentally turned down on our way to the theater.

The tunneled walkway that leads out to the theater.

The upper level of the theater.

The theater, tucked in and below all of the buildings that surround it.

It had been a full day, we decided to head back for a little rest - we wanted to try to go out this evening for the sunset and dinner. We passed a few interesting sights on our walk back:

Once Cadiz was no longer needed as a military stronghold, they re-purposed the cannons as protection on the corners of buildings throughout Cadiz - to prevent damage from carriages and automobiles.

One of the old city gates.

Looking back at Cadiz Cathedral from the promenade.

Cool trees in Genoves Park:

After our siesta, we wandered down to the ocean walls to watch the sunset and then find some place to enjoy a glass of wine and watch the night unfold.

Lovely sunset on our last night in Cadiz.

We had a wonderful time sitting on this plaza, we had 4 glasses of wine (it cost 8 euros TOTAL) as we watched a group of kids playing soccer (football) on the plaza until well past 11:00 at night. We stopped and picked up a pizza on our way home, Doug was hungry. As we walked out the door of the pizza place, a group of older kids were kicking a ball down the street. They were headed to the plaza, it was 11:30 and life was just starting to happen in Cadiz!

[theancientwayoflife]

~ Wall painting fragment from the peristyle of the Villa of P. Fannius Synistor at Boscoreale.

Period: Late Republican

Date: ca. 50–40 B.C.

Culture: Roman

Medium: Fresco

[fuckyeahwallpaintings]

Wall painting in the imperial villa at Boscotrecase, Pompeii, Italy, last decade of the 1st century B.C. today at Metropolitan Museum of Art

Photo: Metropolitan Museum of Art / public domain

[theancientworld]

An Egyptian polychrome cartonnage fragment

Late Ptolemaic Period, circa 2nd-1st Century B.C.

Brightly painted in polychromy, depicting the kneeling figure of Nut with her wings outstretched

[dandelion-turtle]

Hyakinthos

Hyakinthos was a Spartan prince, most prominently known in Amyclae with a decent cult following. there are a couple of different people listed as being his parents, but the most popular is King Amyclus and Diomedes. if Amyclus was his father, that would also make Daphne, another of Apollo’s lovers, Hyakinthos’s sister. it seems like he would be quite simple, he has a relatively small story with one of the earliest written records from Hesiod. in this version there is no love rival, just an accident. written in the 7th century BC, it was merely one, albeit long, sentence.

”. . ((lacuna)) rich-tressed Diomede; and she bare Hyakinthos (Hyacinthus), the blameless one and strong . . ((lacuna)) whom, on a time Phoibos (Phoebus) [Apollon] himself slew unwittingly with a ruthless disk.”

however, the most famous version, and one that most will know, comes from Ovid’s Metamorphosis. written somewhere between the 1st century BC and 1st century AD, this sentence long story grew to be paragraphs long. in which Ovid describes the love Apollo and Hyakinthos have for each other — which was the ultimate demise for the young prince. with parts of it coming from the perspective of a mourning Apollo, Ovid writes how Hyakinthos was turned into a flower with “ai, ai” written on the petals to express Apollo’s sadness. and the version that we all have come to know including betrayal and jealous rage from Zephyros (the West Wind), is hinted at in Pausanias’ “Description of Greece”.

”[In the temple of Apollon at Amyklai (Amyclae) Nikias (Nicias) [painter fl. c. 320 B.C.], son of Nikomedes, has painted him [Hyakinthos (Hyacinthus)] in the very prime of youthful beauty, hinting at the love of Apollon for Hyakinthos of which legend tells . . . As for Zephyros (the West Wind), how Apollon unintentionally killed Hyakinthos, and the story of the flower, we must be content with the legends, although perhaps they are not true history.”

despite this seemingly clear-cut story, there’s a lot more than meets the eye with Hyakinthos. according to many historians the -nth part of his name is pre-Hellenic and comes from the Mycenaean era. another word like that would be Corinth — a pre-Greek polis that was destroyed and rebuilt. this leads many to believe that Hyakinthos was around BEFORE Apollo. he would have been a chthonic vegetation god — almost like the male equivalent to Persephone. this leads to a few different theories, but before I get to that, let me tell you the story of Hyakinthos as told by Ovid and Lucian’s “Dialogues of the Gods”. ═══════════════════════════

⊰ The Myth ⊱

Hyakinthos was a beautiful Spartan prince. he had many lovers, but the one that had eventually won his heart was Apollo. the god taught beautiful long-haired Hyakinthos how to play the lyre, how to use a bow and arrows, a little bit on prophecies, and gave him a swan chariot. the two were incredibly in love, but sadly, there was someone who didn’t like that. Zephyros, the west wind, was jealous for he too loved Hyakinthos. he had tried to woo him but it really was no match for Apollo. he watched the two men play again and again until he had eventually had enough of it. he ultimately created one of the most tragic love stories. like most days, Apollo and Hyakinthos were together, playing around and having mild competitions throwing a discus. Apollo wanted to show off for Hyakinthos so he could see just what a god could do. he threw a discus high into the air, clearing the clouds away and it disappeared into the sky. Hyakinthos wanted to impress his lover as well, so he chased after the discus laughing. Zephyros in a fit of rage at the two men enjoying themselves changed the course of the discus. as it came to land, the force was so strong that it bounced off the ground and smashed into Hyakinthos’s face. Apollo ran to his lover and tried every kind of medicine and healing he could think of. he even placed ambrosia on his lover’s lips but blood flowed freely from the wound. there was no way for him to stop a wound of Fate. in his despair, he turned Hyakinthos into a flower, but seeing that wasn’t good enough, he wrote his grief upon the petals. ═══════════════════════════

⊰ Symbolism From The Myth ⊱

Taking A Temple as mentioned before, it’s very likely that Hyakinthos was an older deity from the pre-hellenic period. something that many Greek writers did, was create a myth of how a deity began their worship in a specific place. we know the temple that Apollo was worshipped at in Amyclae was older than when his worship would have started. one theory behind this myth then, is how Apollo came to be worshipped over Hyakinthos at the temple and area; by killing the previous deity. it sounds sad, but it’s actually happened several times, and even with Apollo specifically. the most famous example I can think of would be at Delphi. originally the temple was in honor of the titan Gaia. Apollo came in valiantly and killed the Python (which is what gives Apollo’s priestesses their name) and inevitably took the temple over with his worship. what this doesn’t account for, is the fact Hyakinthos is still worshipped at the temple heavily, his and Apollo’s worship having mingled and being near inseparable. it is even said that upon his death and burial, Apollo said to give him (Hyakinthos) all offerings first. now, if you know a thing or two about Greek worship, the first portion of the offering was incredibly important, especially considering hero worship was probably closer to chthonic sacrifices in practice; though they were not considered to be ‘dead’. within my research so far, I have yet to find this happening somewhere else, but I will update this if I ever do. now all of this is unusual with the theory that this myth symbolizes one deity taking over. if that were the case, why continue to worship Hyakinthos? Duality some of you may not know this about me, but I am a sucker when it comes to duality, specifically with lovers. this myth may be a symbol for the growing season and harvest of the crops. while it may be a common motif, especially among the Greeks, I think it’s a sweet and somber story giving personification to an important aspect of Greek life. I also believe the duality is less about the exacts of what they rule over, but the way they were worshipped. the closest example I can think of also comes from Delphi with the duality between Apollo and Dionysos (who, shockingly enough, was the only other god historians believe was present during the Hyakinthia festival besides Apollo and Hyakinthos). as a hero, or simply for his chthonic aspect, the ritual and practice would have been far different than that for Apollo. while this isn’t exactly backed by anything I can find specific to duality, I personally feel a reason both Apollo and Hyakinthos were worshipped together in Amyclae is due to that duality between them. Hyakinthos would have been a chthonic deity probably for vegetation or agriculture, whereas Apollo here is a god of light (not the sun) representing life, health, and the ultimate grief. their worship in Amyclae was always together once Apollo was introduced (to some this hinted that they were possibly the same person representing a cycle, but most disagree with this theory). the duality is clearly a theme already for Apollo, and I think what happened at Delphi with Dionysos is the same for Amyclae and Hyakinthos. together they represent loss and mourning but also happiness and life �� love. ═══════════════════════════

⊰ Hyakinthos Associations ⊱

okay, now that I have bored you all to death, let’s talk about some less heavy things. due to their worship being completely together, I would say that nearly anything related to Apollo can also be associated with Hyakinthos and vice versa. however, we love individuality in this house, so let’s talk about the things either associated with him through the various, limited texts we have and some UPG. Associations ➳ larkspurs/hyacinths ➳ swans ➳ bow and arrow ➳ summer! ➳ new spring growth ➳ chiton’s (they were offered to him by the women of Sparta) ➳ death ➳ rebirth/cycles ➳ chariot’s ➳ blood ➳ blue/purple/red colors ➳ discus (sorry) ➳ lavender ➳ lyre ➳ lapis lazuli ➳ amethyst ➳ black tourmaline ═══════════════════════════ Devotional Activities ➳ keeping a garden ➳ maybe even an indoor garden ➳ go to parks and feed the swans/birds ➳ archery ➳ sports ➳ making a chiton ➳ writing poems ➳ taking care of those around you ➳ growing larkspurs/hyacinths ➳ get a devotional journal ➳ create a playlist (sad songs for the most part) ➳ fall in love deeply ═══════════════════════════

⊰ Deity Or Divine Hero? ⊱

I don’t know if this question can be answered for a fact honestly. what we do know is that he was at least worshipped as a hero, that much can be said. anything further than that comes at a later time and from the outside perspective. a lot of ancient Greek writers didn’t write down certain things because they saw them as common knowledge. this doesn’t help us looking back now. what we can say, is that some of the offerings given to him were not common with hero worship and would have been reserved for the gods. this is according to Angeliki Petropoulou, a professor in ancient greek studies/religion, and the author of “Hyakinthos and Apollo of Amyklai: Identities and Cults. A Reconsideration of the Written Evidence” pages 153-161. Within this, she makes the argument that Hyakinthos has gone through ‘apotheosis’. this is the action of a mortal, usually a hero, becoming a god. note: ‘βουθυσία’ is a traditional oxen sacrifice.

“The βουθυσία for Hyakinthos, which is indicative of his new immortal status, should be placed on the third day too. Oxen are costly victims, the bull being the most “noble” sacrificial animal. After mourning for Hyakinthos’s death and making a propitiatory sacrifice at his tomb, they honoured him with a bull sacrificed as if to a god. Yet the geographical range in which he was regarded as god was rather circumscribed and did not spread beyond the borders of Lakedaimonia. The βουθυσία for Hyakinthos would have been instituted after the construction of the altar on which Apollo received sacrifices; for the only altar excavated, in an area filled with remnants of burnt sacrifices, is attributed to Apollo.”

so there you have it. most places will probably call him a hero, and that wouldn’t be wrong. others may call him a deity, which also isn’t wrong. I’ll tell you what I’m personally going to go with, and everyone can make their own decision based on the information listed through this post and the readings I’ll link at the bottom. no matter your conclusion, the relationship you have will be completely yours, and it’s ok! if anything, I encourage that over taking my word for it. ══════════════════════════ for me, I think I consider him a deity. I know that I heavily romanticize the story, and with Apollo being so near to my heart, him having a terrible love life hurts my soul. while I don’t exactly want to rewrite any myths, I won’t claim that they are married, I will say that I believe them to be happy. their worship in Amyclae was so intertwined and based completely around each other from the history we know, that, for me, it makes sense to also honor them together. I’ll leave you all on one more incredibly sad quote from Lucien’s “Dialogue of the Gods” (that I referenced from earlier).

”Apollon : Well, my loves never prosper; Daphne and Hyakinthos (Hyacinthus) were my great passions; she so detested me that being turned to a tree was more attractive than I; and him I killed with a quoit. Nothing is left me of them but wreaths of their leaves and flowers.”

it’s ok to cry, I do nearly every time I read that.

⊰ For Further Reading ⊱

➳Hyakinthos theoi ➳Apollo theoi ➳Hyakinthos Wiki ➳My Hellenic Research Google Drive this also contains the Sparta book I reference and a few others worth a read.

[met-africa-oceania]

Rattle Bowl, Trophy-Head Deity, 3rd–1st century B.C., Metropolitan Museum of Art: Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas

Gift of Nathan Cummings, 1976 Size: H. 2 × W. 6 7/8 × D. 6 7/8 in. (5.1 × 17.5 × 17.5 cm) Medium: Ceramic, post-fired paint

https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/310222

[nyotaliafan-pinkmermaid]

Mun Mermaid explains further why she loves SwissGre

Okay so i hope this won't be taken down for "hate speech". I will explain  further why i love SwissGre so much. If you don't like this ship , don't bash on it, just ignore this post.

Why i ship it

The two countries have excellent historical and diplomatical relationships. Switzerland was one of the nations who supported Greece during the Revolution against Turkey in 1821 . Their relations still remain warm even nowadays and they are very close. Switzerland and Greece developed diplomatic relations after the second one's independence in 1830.

History

It may be unbeliavable but the relations between Switzerland and Greece actually began from the Ancient times. In Bern, a bronze amphora with a Greek inscription (6th century BC) is discovered. Presence of Greek vessels in Lenzburg (canton of Aargau) is suspected on the spot production by Greek craftsmen, while ancient coins with the head of Artemis are discovered in Icino.

Greek coins of the 4th century B.C. contacts Switzerland's relations with Greece and the participation of Swiss in Macedonian troops. The 2nd century B.C. stoic philosopher Posidonious of Rhodes likens the Helvetian Celts to the Gaul warriors. According to Strabo(1st century B.C.) they are described as gold-rich and peaceful.

Julius Caesar reported that the Helvetian Celts borrowed and used Greek letters for their writing.Funerary monuments bearing Greek characters are described by the Roman historian Tacitus. 

Archaeological excavations in the canton of Valais brought to the light two Parian marble statues of the gods Apollo and Aphrodite which are now exhibited in the Martigny Giannda Foundation.

The Swiss city Basel is first mentioned with its Greek origin name as early as 374 A.D. (Derived from the Greek given name Basilius).

The relations of these two countries continued even in the Byzantine and medieval eras. Various objects (such as diptychs and icons) travel from church to church and monastery to monastery. Valuable information can be found in the library bearing the Greek inscription “Ψυχής Ιατρείον” (meaning “healing of the soul”), at the St. Gallen Abbey, the St. Maurice Abbey, the Sion Valère Museum, the Zurich National Museum and others. Swiss warriors and knights were known to defend various Greek regions like Rhodes, Crete, Euboa and the Peloponeso from the Turks after the fall of Constantinople. Those men were distinguished for their skills in warfare.

In Switzerland the interest for the Greek History and Culture still remained unchanged during the Renaissance era with Basel being the epicenter and the spiritual ties with the wisdom of the ancient Greek world are reinstated ever more. In particular, after the Fall of Constantinople, the Greek spiritual heritage inspires the Humanists (Erasmus) and the Protestant Reformation. The exchange of views between the Patriarch of Constantinople Cyril Loukaris (1572 - 1638) and the Geneva Academia theology Professor Antoine Léger (1596 - 1661) is illustrated in a series of manuscripts.

The remarkable contribution of Franciscus Portus, born in Rethymno, Creta, and a Calvin’s friend, is worth mentioning. He taught Greek at the then newly established Geneva Academy (1562 - 1581) and vigorously defended the modern Greek, against the Erasmian pronunciation. His work was taken over by his son, Emil.

In the field of visual arts, Swiss painters Angelica Kauffman and Johann Heinrich Füssli (alias Henry Fuseli (famous for his work Reflections On the Painting and Sculpture of the Greeks, 1765) had their role to play in  the 18th century Neoclassicism movement.

Ugo Foscolo the national poet of Italy, who was born in Zakynthos was persecuted for his democratic ideas and passed into Zurich(1813-1816). In 1816 he met with his disciple Andreas Calvos, the Greek poet, and both, thanks to the assistance of Kapodistrias departed for London.

The first governor of Greece Ioannis Kapodistrias is considered as a national hero in Switzerland because he introduced the Swiss neutrality and the creation of the Swiss cantons. The governing model of this country is based on the Ancient Athenian democracy as well.

According to historical sources Kapodistrias spend two distinctive periods of his life in Switzerland : the first during the Congress of Vienna between 1813-1824 and the second one during the Greek Revolution from 1822 to 1827.

Kapodistrias decisively contributed, first as an envoy of Tsar Alexander I and then as his Ambassador, in preparing the Swiss Constitution, but also in recognizing the independence and neutrality of the Swiss Confederation (1813-1814). On 10.09.1814 he writes to his father: “... the completion of such a complicated negotiation has cost me a lot of suffering, travelling, writing and giving speeches and preparing constitutions and drafts, but it does not matter. These brilliant people (the Swiss) filled me with their friendship and wholehearted warmness. The trust they showed me was the best reward for all my sufferings. If they can be happy in the future and enjoy their independence, I will say that I didn't waste my time and my efforts.”

A year later, while attending the Vienna Congress as Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Russian Empirer for the Eastern question, Kapodistrias met with the Swiss envoy, and a friend of his, Pictet de Rochemont, who was accompanied by his nephew and benefactor of Greece, Jean Gabriel Eynard. Pictet de Rochemont, in one of his letters from Vienna to his Swiss compatriots writes:

"what can we do for Kapodistrias, this excellent person. He is the Phoenix of Democracy. Without his contribution the Vienna Congress and the rest would have been different. I am convinced that without him Switzerland would have been completely overthrown. If he ever passes from Geneva, you should ring all the bells of our churches and welcome his arrival with the thunder of our artillery. "

Upon his return to Geneva and Lausanne in 1822, the two cantons of Geneva and Vaud declared him an honorable fellow citizen. Kapodistrias remained in Switzerland until 1827, where he was working tirelessly and inspired Swiss philhellenism.

The President of the Swiss Confederation, in his speech in Sochi, Russia, on the occasion of the 2014 Winter Olympics, made an explicit tribute to the great Greek diplomat and his contribution to his country's independence and neutrality.

Many Swiss helped during the Greek Revolution in 1821 against Turkey already from its beginning. One example was Johann Jakob Meyer, doctor and owner of the first Greek newspaper. He sacraficed his life fighting the Turks in Missolonghi. He was also married to a Greek woman and became Orthodox.

The first Philhellenic Club of Europe was founded in Bern, Switzerland during the Revolution of 1821.

The Swiss banker and diplomat Jean Gabriel Eynard was a great supporter of the Greek Revolution and a benefactor of Greece. He had a close friendship with Ioannis Kapodistrias the first governor of Greece after its independence.

Switzerland was also one of the first nations to develop diplomatical relations with Greece after the second one's independence in 1830.

Inspired by the Greek civilization, Johann-Jakob Bachofen, a great philosopher and professor from Basel, visited Greece in the mid-19th century. Later, he wrote an in-depth study on the ancient funerary monuments. Jacob Burckhardt, also born in Basel, a scholar and art historian, was deeply interested in the Greek civilization (1898 - 1902). Of great interest is the correspondence between Burckhardt and his fellow Professor in Basel University, the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. Nietzsche spent ten years in Basel teaching ancient Greek literature and philosophy in Basel, and leaving in the city’s fertile and free-spirited academic environment, wrote his Birth of Tragedy (1872) and his Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks (1873), two major works that revolutionised the studies on classic Greek culture.

Before them travellers, scholars, architects and archaeologists (Paul Schazmann (1871-1946) and Ernst Robert Fiechter (Basel, 1875 – St. Gallen, 1948) topographers, historians (University Professor and politician  Wilhelm Vischer-Bilfinger, Basel, 1833-1886), as well as landlords, and entrepreneurs, were settled in Northern Euboea, after the Independence (Koulouri, Marouli, Ayyanako, Artemisio, Geraki, Istiea). Most of them coming from well-known Bernese families: Carlo Leutwein, Karl von Müller (Emmanuel von Fellenberg's grooms), Friedrich von Fellenberg (son of Emmanuel), Rudolf von Wild together with their British friend Edward Noel, a Lord Byron’s nephew.

Botanists (Alphonse de Candolle, Henri Margot, the prominent Edmond Boissier, 19th century, Martin Rikli, and Gustave Beauverd, 20th century) meticulously documented the Greek flora.

Swiss artist and archaeological draftsman Emile Gilliéron (1850–1924) lived in Greece and is best known for his work on polychromic Minoan and Mycenaean artifacts and produced copies. Henri-Max Imhof from Uri, appointed as professor at the Art Academy in Athens, where he also dealt with the restoration of excavated antiquities and the caryatids of the Erechtheion, the painter Jean Leu, Jean-Jacques Wolfensberger from Rümlikon, Frank Buchser from Solothurn and the famous Arnold Böcklin from Basel (his well-known painting "Isle of the Dead" is inspired by the islet of Pontikonisi near Corfu). Later, the painter Otto Haberer-Sinner was inspired by Greek themes (wall-paintings at the Bellevue Bern Hotel, 1913).

Moreover, the unique panoramic work of the Swiss painter Edward Castres (1881) in Lucerne, depicting the overwhelmed French army, under the command of the French general, and Greek descend, Charles Denis Sauter Bourbaki, who took refuge in Switzerland (1871) persecuted by the Prussians. The crossing of Switzerland by the exhausted soldiers is today also depicted in a panorama in the city of  Verrières / Parcour Bourbaki). Charles Bourbaki was the son of the legendary 1821 Revolution fighter, Colonel Constantin Denis Bourbaki, who heroically fell in the murderous battle of Kamatero (January 1827). In 1862 his name figured as candidate for the Greek Crown, but he declined the offer. The Bourbaki family from Sfakia, Crete, has excelled in the French army and holds a prominent position in the Pantheon of the Philhellenes.

Archaeologists as well as photographers arrived in Greece in the early 20th century. The first Swiss archaeologist to join the French School (1902-1903) was Georges Nicole from Geneva, and was followed by Waldemar Deonna (in Delos), Olivier Reverdin and Christiane Dunant. Alos worth mentioning is the contribution made by the Swiss Paul Collart, who participated in the French Archaeological School’s excavations, in Philippi.

The contribution of the great photographer Frédéric Boissonas was remarkable. Together with his friend Daniel Beaud-Bovy, a writer and director in the Geneva School of Fine Arts, frequently visited Greece and uniquely immortalized the Greek landscape at the beginning of the 20th century, 1903 - 1935 (see related collectibles, 1910, 1919 & 1932). Beaud-Bovy's grandson, Manuel, donated to the Photography Museum of Thessaloniki a complete archive of 13,000 photographic items, letters and publications from their voyages to Greece. The rest of the Swiss photographer's archive was recently purchased by the municipality of Geneva.

Always worth mentioning is the work of Professor in geology Charles Renz, (first half of the 20th century). Besides, the Swiss were also the first to explore Mount Olympus (alpinist Marcel Kurz from Neuchâtel, 1921).

At the beginning of the 20th century, Professor of Philosophy and Sociology Avrotelis Eleftheropoulos (1869-1963) taught at Zurich University. Always in Zurich, where statues of Ganymede and Hercules can be seen in public places, an Association is founded in 1875 by the numerous Greek community living there. In Athens they became known as the "Zurich Circle", and pioneered in the foundation of the Association of Greek Industrialists (1907). Nikos Kazantzakis visited the Alps in 1917 - 1918 (Zurich, Lugano, etc.) and returned there in 1955 to start writing his Report to Greco (Cademario, Ticino).

Also remarkable remains the contribution of the Swiss Red Cross to Greece after the 1922 disaster in Asia Minor, as well as during the 1942 - 1944 occupation (a tribute to Bertha Graf's contribution to Delphi) and the years that followed (until the beginning of 1960’s). Less known (and therefore needs to be highlighted) is that many Greek refuges departed for Switzerland after the Minor Asia catastrophe in 1922 and many wounded Greeks soldiers were treated in Swiss hospitals and sanatoriums.

Eleftherios Venizelos arrived in Lausanne in November 1922 and participated, as a representative of Greece, in the Lausanne Conference which began on 20 November 1922 at the Beau Rivage Hotel and led to the Lausanne Treaty signed in July of the following year. The Greek figurehead praised and admired the Alpine country, as shown in one of his speeches, after his return to Greece, on October 12, 1930, to the Greek youth: “Imagine, gentlemen, that Switzerland, which is today at the forefront of European civilization, imagine her as a nation despised by all, and deprived from ideals! (as if he wanted to contradict G. Theotokas). I only wish you were there on August 1st, on the Swiss National Day, to see with what pride the Swiss soul stands for the Swiss nationality ...’’ Excerpt from  the book Eleftherios Venizelos and his turbulent era by Pavlos N. Tzermias.

Modern times

In the modern times the two nations of Switzerland and Greece are still close and the relationships remain excellent.There are 48 Swiss companies in Greece that employ about 10,000 people. The two countries have a number of treaties mainly dealing with commerce and the Social Security. The two countries made an agreement about the avoidance of the double taxation in respect of the incoming tax.

In Eretria , a region near Athens the Swiss Archaeological School is still active nowadays. Lots of Swiss tourists choose Greece and especially Greek islands as a destination for their summer vacation.

Around 11,000 Greeks live in Switzerland , with about 7,000 of them living in Zurich. Most major Swiss cities have a Greek association or community and the Greek diaspora is very active in these places. There are also around 2.921 Swiss living in Greece.

Greece has an embassy in Bern, a general consulate in Geneva and two honorary consulates in Zurich and Lugano.

Switzerland has an embassy in Athens and four consulates in Thessaloniki, Corfu, Patras and Rhodes

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Mamallapur in the photographs of Viktor Viktorovitch Goloubev   - 

Ajanta caves : the first Buddhist cave monuments at Ajanta date from the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C. During the Gupta period (5th and 6th centuries A.D.), many more richly decorated caves were added to the original group. The paintings and sculptures of Ajanta, considered masterpieces of Buddhist religious art, have had a considerable artistic influence.

En octobre 1910, Goloubev, accompagné de l'écrivain Charles Müller et d'autres amis, partit en expédition en Inde, où il étudia le complexe monastique d'Ajantâ.

cf : Charles Müller, Cinq mois aux Indes. De Bombay à Colombo, Paris, 1924

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Famous historical figures

A list of famous people throughout history. These famous historical figures are chosen from a range of different cultures and countries. They include famous spiritual figures, politicians and writers who have helped to shape human history.

BCE

Sri Ramachandra (c. 5114 BCE) Rama was a model king of Ayodhya who lived according to the dharma. He went to Sri Lanka to fight Ravana who had captured his wife, Sita. Rama is considered an incarnation of Vishnu in Hindu mythology.

Sri Krishna (c. BCE) – Spiritual Teacher of Hinduism. Sri Krishna gave many discourses to his disciple Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra. These discourses were written down in the Bhagavad Gita.

Ramses II (1303 BCE – 1213 BCE) – Ramses or Ramesses was the third Egyptian Pharaoh, ruling between 1279 BC – 1213 BC. Ramses the Great consolidated Egyptian power, through military conquest and extensive building.

Homer (8th Century BC) Homer is the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey. Two classics of Greek literature. His writings form a significant influence on Western literature.

Cyrus the Great (600 – 530 BC) was the founder of the Persian (Achaemenid) Empire. Cyrus conquered the empires of Media, Lydia and Babylonia, creating the first multi-ethnic state which at its peak accounted for around 40% of the global population.

Lord Buddha (c 563 – 483 BC) Spiritual Teacher and founder of Buddhism. Siddhartha was born a prince in northern India. He gave up the comforts of the palace to seek enlightenment. After attaining Nirvana, he spent the remainder of his years teaching.

Confucius (551 – 479 BC) – Chinese politician, statesman, teacher and philosopher. His writings on justice, life and society became the prevailing teachings of the Chinese state and developed into Confucianism.

Socrates (469 BC–399 BC) – Greek philosopher. Socrates developed the ‘Socratic’ method of self-enquiry. He had a significant influence on his disciples, such as Plato and contributed to the development of Western philosophy and political thought.

Plato (424 – 348 BC) – Greek philosopher. A student of Socrates, Plato founded the Academy in Athens – one of the earliest seats of learning. His writings, such as ‘The Republic’ form a basis of early Western philosophy. He also wrote on religion, politics and mathematics.

Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) – Greek philosopher and teacher of Alexander the Great. Aristotle was a student of Plato, but he branched out into empirical research into the physical sciences. His philosophy of metaphysics had an important influence on Western thought.

Alexander the Great (356 – 323 BC) – King of Macedonia. He established an Empire stretching from Greece to the Himalayas. He was a supreme military commander and helped diffuse Greek culture throughout Asia and northern Africa.

Archimedes (287 B.C – 212) Mathematician, scientist and inventor. Archimedes made many contributions to mathematics. He explained many scientific principles, such as levers and invented several contraptions, such as the Archimedes screw.

Ashoka (c 269 BCE to 232 BCE) – One of the greatest Indian rulers. Ashoka the Great ruled from 269 BC to 232 BC he embraced Buddhism after a bloody battle and became known for his philanthropism, and adherence to the principles of non-violence, love, truth and tolerance.

Julius Caesar (100 – 44 BC) As military commander, Caesar conquered Gaul and England extending the Roman Empire to its furthest limits. Used his military strength to become Emperor (dictator) of Rome from 49 BC, until his assassination in 44BC.

Augustus Caesar  (63 BC-AD 14) – First Emperor of Rome. Caesar (born Octavian) was one the most influential leaders in world history, setting the tone for the Roman Empire and left a profound legacy on Western civilisation.

Cleopatra (69 -30 BC) The last Ptolemaic ruler of Egypt. Cleopatra sought to defend Egypt from the expanding Roman Empire. In doing so, she formed relationships with two of Rome’s most powerful leaders Marc Anthony and Julius Caesar.

AD

Jesus of Nazareth (c.5BC – 30AD), Jesus of Nazareth, was a spiritual teacher, and the central figure of Christianity. By Christians, he is considered to be the Messiah predicted in the Old Testament.

St Paul (5 – AD 67) – Christian missionary. St Paul was Jewish and a Roman citizen who converted to Christianity. His writings and teachings did much to define and help the spread of Christianity.

Marcus Aurelius (121 – 180) – Roman Emperor and philosopher. He is considered the last of the five good Emperors. His Meditations are a classic account of Stoic philosophy.

Emperor Constantine (272 – 337) First Roman Emperor to embrace Christianity. He called the First Council of Nicaea in 325 which clarified the Nicene Creed of Christianity.

Muhammad (570 – 632) Prophet of Islam. Muhammad received revelations which form the verses of the Qur’an. His new religion unified Arabia under the new Muslim religion.

Attila the Hun (5th Century) Ruler of the Huns who swept across Europe in the Fifth Century. He attacked provinces within the Roman Empire and was Rome’s most feared opponent.

Charlemagne (742 – 814) – King of Franks and Emperor of the Romans. Charlemagne unified Western Europe for the first time since the fall of the Roman Empire. He provided protection for the Pope in Rome.

Genghis Kahn (1162 – 1227) – Leader of the Mongol Empire stretching from China to Europe. Genghis Khan was a fierce nomadic warrior who united the Mongol tribes before conquering Asia and Europe.

Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122-1204) – The first Queen of France. Eleanor influenced the politics of western Europe through her alliances and her sons Richard and John – who became Kings of England.

Saladin (1138 – 1193) – Leader of the Arabs during the Crusades. He unified Muslim provinces and provided effective military opposition to the Christian crusades.

Thomas Aquinas (1225 – 1274) Influential Roman Catholic priest, philosopher and theologian.

Marco Polo (1254 – 1324) Venetian traveller and explorer who made ground-breaking journeys to Asia and China, helping to open up the Far East to Europe.

Johann Gutenberg (1395 – 1468) – German inventor of the printing press. Gutenberg’s invention of movable type started a printing revolution which was influential in the Reformation.

Joan of Arc – (1412-1431) – French saint. Jean d’Arc was a young peasant girl who inspired the Dauphin of France to renew the fight against the English. She led French forces into battle.

Christopher Columbus (1451 – 1506) – Italian explorer who landed in America. He wasn’t the first to land in America, but his voyages were influential in opening up the new continent to Europe.

Leonardo da Vinci ( 1452 – 1519) – Italian scientist, artist, and polymath. Da Vinci painted the Mona Lisa and the Last Supper. His scientific investigations covered all branches of human knowledge.

Guru Nanak (1469 – 1539) Indian spiritual teacher who founded the Sikh religion. Guru Nanak was the first of the 10 Sikh Gurus. He travelled widely disseminating a spiritual teaching of God in everyone.

Martin Luther (1483 – 1546) – A key figure in the Protestant Reformation. Martin Luther opposed papal indulgences and the power of the Pope, sparking off the Protestant Reformation.

Babur (1483 – 1531) – Founder of the Moghul Empire on the Indian subcontinent. A descendant of Genghis Khan, he brought a Persian influence to India.

William Tyndale (1494 – 1536) – A key figure in the Protestant Reformation. Tyndale translated the Bible into English. It’s wide dissemination changed English society. He was executed for heresy.

Akbar (1542 – 1605) – Moghul Emperor who consolidated and expanded the Moghul Empire. Akbar also was a supporter of the arts, culture and noted for his religious tolerance.

Sir Walter Raleigh (1552 – 1618) – English explorer who made several journeys to the Americas, including a search for the lost ‘Eldorado.’

Galileo Galilei (1564 -1642) – Astronomer and physicist. Galileo developed the modern telescope and, challenging the teachings of the church, helped to prove the earth revolved around the sun.

William Shakespeare (1564- 1616) English poet and playwright. Shakespeare’s plays, such as Hamlet, Macbeth and Othello have strongly influenced English literature and Western civilisation.

Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650) Dubbed the father of modern philosophy, Descartes was influential in a new rationalist movement, which sought to question basic presumptions with reason.

Oliver Cromwell (1599 – 1658) – British Parliamentarian. Cromwell led his new model army in defeating King Charles I and creating a new model of government.

Voltaire (1694 – 1778) – French philosopher. Voltaire’s biting satire helped to create dissent in the lead up to the French revolution.

Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) – English mathematician and scientist. Newton laid the foundations of modern physics, with his laws of motion and gravity. He made extensive scientific investigations.

Eighteenth Century

Catherine the Great (1729 – 1796) – Russian Queen during the Eighteenth Century. During her reign, Russia was revitalised becoming a major European power. She also began reforms to help the poor.

George Washington (1732 – 1799) – 1st President of US. George Washington led the American forces of independence and became the first elected President.

Tom Paine (1737- 1809) English-American author and philosopher. Paine wrote‘Common Sense‘ (1776) and the Rights of Man (1791), which supported principles of the American and French revolutions.

Thomas Jefferson (1743- 1826) 3rd President of US. Author of the Declaration of Independence. Jefferson passed laws on religious tolerance in his state of Virginia and founded the University of Virginia.

Mozart (1756 – 1791) – Austrian Music composer. Mozart’s compositions ranged from waltzes to Requiem. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest musical geniuses of all time.

Nineteenth Century

William Wilberforce (1759 – 1833) – British MP and campaigner against slavery. Wilberforce was a key figure in influencing British public opinion and helping to abolish slavery in 1833.

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769 – 1821) – French military and political leader. Napoleon made France a major European power and meant his Napoleonic code was widely disseminated across Europe.

Simon Bolivar (1783 – 1830) – Liberator of Latin American countries. Bolivar was responsible for the liberation of Peru, Bolivia, Venezuela and Colombia.

Abraham Lincoln (1809 – 1865) 16th President of US. Lincoln led the northern Union forces during the civil war to protect the Union of the US. During the civil war, Lincoln also promised to end slavery.

Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882) – Developed theory of evolution. His book ‘The Origin of Species’ (1859) laid the framework for evolutionary biology and changed many people’s view of life on the planet.

Karl Marx (1818 – 1883) Principle Marxist philosopher. Author of Das Kapitaland The Communist Manifesto. (with F.Engels) Marx believed that Capitalist society would be overthrown by Communist revolution.

Queen Victoria (1819 – 1901) – Queen of Great Britain during the Nineteenth Century. She oversaw the industrial revolution and the growth of the British Empire.

Louis Pasteur (1822 – 1895) – French chemist and Biologist. Pasteur developed many vaccines, such as for rabies and anthrax. He also developed the process of pasteurisation, making milk safer.

Leo Tolstoy (1828 – 1910) – Russian writer and philosopher. Tolstoy wrote the epic ‘War and Peace’ Tolstoy was also a social activist – advocating non-violence and greater equality in society.

Thomas Edison (1847 – 1931) – Inventor and businessman. Edison developed the electric light bulb and formed a company to make electricity available to ordinary homes.

Twentieth Century

Oscar Wilde (1854 – 1900) – Irish writer. Wilde’s plays included biting social satire. He was noted for his wit and charm. However, after a sensational trial, he was sent to jail for homosexuality.

Woodrow Wilson (1856 – 1924) – President of US during WWI. Towards the end of the war, Wilson developed his 14 points for a fair peace, which included forming a League of Nations.

Mahatma Gandhi (1869 – 1948) – Indian nationalist and politician. Gandhi believed in non-violent resistance to British rule. He sought to help the ‘untouchable’ caste and also reconcile Hindu and Muslims.

V. Lenin (1870-1924) – Born in Ulyanovsk, Russia. Lenin was the leader of Bolsheviks during the Russian Revolution in 1917. Lenin became the first leader of the Soviet Union influencing the direction of the new Communist state.

The Wright Brothers (Orville, 1871 – 1948) – developed the first powered aircraft. In 1901, they made the first successful powered air flight, ushering in a new era of air flight.

Winston Churchill (1874 – 1965) Prime Minister of Great Britain during the Second World War. Churchill played a key role in strengthening British resolve in the dark days of 1940.

Konrad Adenauer (1876-1967) – West German Chancellor post world war II. Adenauer had been an anti-nazi before the war. He played a key role in reintegrating West Germany into world affairs.

Albert Einstein (1879 – 1955) – German / American physicist. Einstein made groundbreaking discoveries in the field of relativity. Einstein was also a noted humanitarian and peace activist.

Ataturk (1881-1938) – founder of the Turkish Republic. From the ruins of the Ottoman Empire, Ataturk forged a modern secular Turkish republic.

A Little History of the World

A Little History of the World: Illustrated Edition at Amazon – by E. H. Gombrich

John M Keynes (1883 – 1946) Influential economist. Keynes developed a new field of macroeconomics in response to the great depression of the 1930s.

Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882 – 1945) US President (1932-1945) Roosevelt led the US through its most turbulent time of the great depression and World War II.

Adolf Hitler (1889 – 1945) Dictator of Nazi Germany. Hitler sought to conquer Europe and Russia, starting World War Two. Also responsible for the Holocaust, in which Jews and other ‘non-Aryans’ were killed.

Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964) – First Indian Prime Minister. Nehru came to power in 1947 and ruled until his death in 1964. He forged a modern democratic India, not aligned to either US or the Soviet Union.

Dwight Eisenhower (1890 – 1969) – Supreme Allied Commander during the Normandy landings of World War II. Eisenhower also became President from 1953-1961.

Charles de Gaulle (1890- 1970) French politician. De Gaulle became leader of the ‘Free French’ after the fall of France in 1940. Became President after the war, writing the constitution of the 5th Republic.

Chairman Mao (1893 – 1976) Mao led the Chinese Communist party to power during the long march and fight against the nationalists. Mao ruled through the ‘cultural revolution’ until his death in 1976.

Mother Teresa (1910-1997) – Catholic nun from Albania who went to India to serve the poor. Became a symbol of charity and humanitarian sacrifice. Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.

John F. Kennedy (1917 – 1963) – US President 1961-1963. J. F.Kennedy helped to avert nuclear war during the Cuban missile crisis. He also began to support the civil rights movement before his assassination in Dallas, November 1963.

Nelson Mandela (1918 – ) The first President of democratic South Africa in 1994. Mandela was imprisoned by the apartheid regime for 27 years, but on his release helped to heal the wounds of apartheid through forgiveness and reconciliation.

Pope John Paul II (1920 – 2005) – Polish Pope from 1978-2005. Pope John Paul is credited with bringing together different religions and playing a role at the end of Communism in Eastern Europe.

Queen Elizabeth II (1926 – ) British Queen from 1952. The second longest serving monarch in history, Elizabeth saw six decades of social and political change.

Martin Luther King (1929 – 1968) Martin Luther King was a powerful leader of the non-violent civil rights movement. His 1963 speech ‘I have a dream’ being a pinnacle moment.

14th Dalai Lama (1938 – ) Spiritual and political leader of Tibetans. The Dalai Lama was forced into exile by the invading Chinese. He is a leading figure for non-violence and spirituality.

Mikhail Gorbachev (1931 – ) Leader of the Soviet Union. Oversaw transition from Communism in Eastern Europe to democracy. Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1990.

Muhammad Ali (1942- ) American boxer. Muhammad Ali had his boxing license removed for refusal to fight in Vietnam. He became a leading figure in the civil rights movement.

Citation: Pettinger, Tejvan. “Famous historical people”, Oxford, UK. www.biographyonline.net, 18/12/2013. Published  1 March 2018. Last updated 7 July 2019