#xi hist
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EVANGELHO
Quinta Feira 12 de Setembro de 2024
℣. O Senhor esteja convosco.
℟. Ele está no meio de nós.
℣. Proclamação do Evangelho de Jesus Cristo ✠ segundo Lucas
℟. Glória a vós, Senhor.
Naquele tempo, falou Jesus aos seus discípulos: 27“A vós que me escutais, eu digo: Amai os vossos inimigos e fazei o bem aos que vos odeiam, 28bendizei os que vos amaldiçoam, e rezai por aqueles que vos caluniam. 29Se alguém te der uma bofetada numa face, oferece também a outra. Se alguém te tomar o manto, deixa-o levar também a túnica.
30Dá a quem te pedir e, se alguém tirar o que é teu, não peças que o devolva. 31O que vós desejais que os outros vos façam, fazei-o também vós a eles. 32Se amais somente aqueles que vos amam, que recompensa tereis? Até os pecadores amam aqueles que os amam.
33E se fazeis o bem somente aos que vos fazem o bem, que recompensa tereis? Até os pecadores fazem assim. 34E se emprestais somente àqueles de quem esperais receber, que recompensa tereis? Até os pecadores emprestam aos pecadores, para receber de volta a mesma quantia. 35Ao contrário, amai os vossos inimigos, fazei o bem e emprestai sem esperar coisa alguma em troca. Então, a vossa recompensa será grande, e sereis filhos do Altíssimo, porque Deus é bondoso também para com os ingratos e os maus.
36Sede misericordiosos, como também o vosso Pai é misericordioso. 37Não julgueis e não sereis julgados; não condeneis e não sereis condenados; perdoai, e sereis perdoados. 38Dai e vos será dado. Uma boa medida, calcada, sacudida, transbordante será colocada no vosso colo; porque com a mesma medida com que medirdes os outros, vós também sereis medidos”.
- Palavra da Salvação.
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- Comentário do Dia
💎 Um amor escandaloso
“Vós ouvistes o que foi dito: ‘Amarás o teu próximo e odiarás o teu inimigo!’ Eu, porém, vos digo: Amai os vossos inimigos e rezai por aqueles que vos perseguem!”
Amor aos inimigos (Mt 5,43-48). — V. 43. A antiga Lei mandava amar o próximo (Lv 19,18); mas pelo nome próximo (רֵעַ, amigo, companheiro) entendia-se somente o da mesma tribo ou nação, i.e. um homem da mesma origem (israelítica) e da mesma religião, como se vê pelo contexto. Isso é confirmado por ditos rabínicos que explicam Lv 19,18: [amarás] “o próximo, não [porém] os outros [i.e. os estrangeiros]”; “o próximo, mas não os samaritanos, estrangeiros, prosélitos tôshâbh [i.e. não conversos]” (cf. Mekhilta xxi 14.35, apud *Strack-Billerbeck i 354). A segunda parte, odiarás o teu inimigo, i.e. os estrangeiros, os não judeus etc., não consta na Lei nem em outros escritos, mas parece ser uma consequência prática ou também uma glosa rabínica; ao menos exprime com exatidão o espírito dos judeus daquela época.
Esta consequência (glosa) e espírito nasceram paulatinamente do preceito da Lei acerca da destruição dos outros povos (cf. Ex 17,16; Dt 7,2; 20,13-18; 23,4-7; 25,17ss; Nm 34,52.55; 1Sm 15,3 etc.); a inimizade com os gentios converteu-se assim em ódio contra qualquer estrangeiro. Além disso, inúmeras passagens do AT parecem respirar vingança e ódio, seja nacional ou religioso (cf. 1Rs 2,8s; Jr 18,19ss; Sl 108 [109] etc.). Estes sentimentos foram alimentados, sobretudo na época dos Macabeus, por contínuos conflitos pro aris et focis. De fato, os judeus tanto prática como doutrinalmente tinham ódio encarniçado a qualquer estrangeiro. São célebres as palavras de Tácito a esse respeito: “Entre eles, a fidelidade é inquebrantável e rápida a misericórdia, mas contra os de fora impera um ódio hostil” (hist. v. 5; cf. Flávio Josefo, antiq. xi 6, 5; Cícero, pro Flacco 28). Além disso, a Mishna recomenda com frequência ter ódio aos israelitas infiéis, samaritanos, hereges, publicanos, ammê ha-’ares etc. Com toda a razão, pois, o Senhor podia dizer: Ouvistes o que foi dito… odiarás 😊 te é lícito odiar) o teu inimigo [1].
V. 44. (cf. Lc 6,27s.35) Cristo aperfeiçoa o preceito da antiga Lei sobre o próximo e corrige a interpretação perversa que se lhe dera. Os discípulos da Nova Lei devem amar não só o próximo (amigos, familiares, conterrâneos etc.), mas também os inimigos, i.e. aqueles que os odeiam e perseguem (Mt.), amaldiçoam e caluniam (Lc.). A esta quádrupla manifestação de ódio se deve corresponder com os atos contrários: amai e orai (Mt.), abençoai e fazei bem (Lc.). Logo, há que responder ao ódio com afeto, desejo, oração e boas obras. Põem-se em seguida alguns exemplos de boas obras: dar em empréstimo o que se pede, sem esperar recompensa (Lc.), saudar (Mt.) etc.
O amor aos inimigos de algum modo já aparece no AT (e.g. Ex 23,4s; Pv 25,21s, onde se prescreve auxiliar o inimigo em necessidade). Mas estas passagens, na verdade, nunca chegaram a melhorar as disposições dos judeus para com os inimigos, muito menos lhes sugeriram um princípio positivo e universal, semelhante ao de Cristo, sobre o amor aos inimigos. No máximo, algumas expressões recomendam aqui e ali não se alegrar com as adversidades dos inimigos, não pagar o mal com o mal e coisas afins. O primeiro de todos a promulgar a doutrina exposta acima foi Cristo, doutrina que seus discípulos abraçaram de todo o coração (cf. Rm 12,14-21; 1Pd 3,8s; Santo Inácio, ad Eph. 10,23s etc.). Eis a maior glória do Evangelho em matéria moral: “Amar os amigos, todos o fazem; amar os inimigos, somente os cristãos” (Tertuliano, ad Scap. 1: M 1,777).
V. 45ss. Para melhor persuadir seus ouvintes deste dever de amor universal, o divino Mestre recorre a três argumentos. Devem, pois, amar os inimigos: a) para se tornarem filhos do (i.e. semelhantes ao) nosso Pai, que faz nascer o Sol sobre maus e bons etc., ou seja, que dá a todos indiscriminadamente a graça de seus múltiplos benefícios [2]; b) para terem direito a alguma recompensa, i.e. para que suas ações sejam dignas de prêmio, pois quem ama apenas os seus, com amor meramente natural e em proveito próprio, não receberá de Deus retribuição alguma; c) para fazerem mais do que já fazem os pagãos e os publicanos (em Lc 6,32: os pecadores), pelos quais os judeus tinham um profundo desprezo (cf. Dt 7,2; Mt 18,17; At 10,28 etc.).
V. 48. Este v. contém a regra de perfeição que nessa matéria cumpre seguir: Portanto, sede perfeitos (τέλειοι) como o vosso Pai celeste é perfeito. Como se depreende do contexto e de Lc. (6, 36: Sede pois misericordiosos), em particular, é evidente que toda esta cláusula apresenta um resumo da exortação à caridade fraterna feita acima, ainda que possa interpretar-se também em sentido amplo e aplicar-se a qualquer outra virtude.
Deus abençoe você!
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Furcht und Elend im dritten Reich (~ 'Fear and Misery in the Third Reich' original title: Deutschland - Ein Greuelmärchen, based on H. Heine's "Deutschland ein Wintermärchen"; the final title is a reference to Balzac's novel "Glanz und Elend der Kurtisanen") by Bertolt Brecht and Helene Weigel - written between 1935 and 1939 in emigration. Based on eyewitness reports and newspaper notes. The scenes were printed in 1938 for the Malik publishing house in Prague, but could no longer be distributed as a result of the Hitler invasion.
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Excerpt from the play - notes, historical considerations and interpretations
'For the poor' and yet against them [excerpt from the 24 chapters, especially considering the propagandistic claim to be politics for the poor, whereas the ideas are more and more intensifying the precariousness, free translation of mine]
"There they come down: A pale, motley heap. And high in front A cross on blood-red flags That has a big swastika For the poor man" [The German Army Show, 2nd verse]
"The widows and orphans are coming For them a good time is promised too. But first they must sacrifice and tax Because they make meat more expensive. The good time is far away." [Chap. XI.]
"The class conciliators press For boots and bad food The poor to labour service. They see a year in the same kit The sons of the rich. Would rather have a profit." [Chap. XII.]
"The winter helpers enter With banners and trumpets Even into the poorest house. They proudly drag extorted Rags and leftovers For the poor neighbour.
The hand that slayed their brother Is enough for them not to complain A charitable gift in a hurry. The alms wafers remain Stuck in their throats And the Hitler salvation too." [Chapter XVI.]
"They fetch the young and tan dying-for-the-rich Like the multiplication table. Dying is probably harder. But they see the teachers' fists And are afraid to be fearful." [Chap. XXI.]
"The job creators are coming. The poor man is their kaffir They put him where they want. He may serve them again He may pay their war machines Pay blood and labour sweat." [Chap. XXIII.]
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VI The practicing of law; Augsburg 1934, consultation room in a courthouse; magistrate uncertain about the jurisdiction
Introductory poem
"Then the master judges came To whom the rabble said: Law is what benefits the German folk. They said: How are we supposed to know that? So they will have to speak in accordance with the laws Until the whole German people are seated."
Conversation between magistrate and inspector
The indictment consists of only one page and is the "leanest and sloppiest that the district judge has ever come across" Inspector: Mr District Judge, I have a family Consideration of charges by provocation
District judge and inspector
Problem: certifying the Jew's innocence means that in the Third Reich a Jew can be proven right against the SA; solution: the SA stole the jewellery in national excitement
Maid
"Half of the storm are former criminals, the whole neighbourhood knows that. If we didn't have our justice system, they would still be dragging away the cathedral church."
Magistrate and district court judge
"I'm prepared to do anything, Jesus, understand me! You've changed completely. I'll decide like this, and I'll decide as required, but I have to know what's required. If you don't know that, there is no justice."
Hist. Background: National Socialist propaganda effectively used the justice system to spread its ideology and influence the population. The National Socialist justice system was used by the National Socialist German Labour Party (NSDAP) as an instrument to enforce its ideology and propaganda.
Development of the Justice System:
Guidelines for National Socialist propaganda in Hitler's "Mein Kampf": Adolf Hitler already emphasised the importance of propaganda aimed at the feelings of the masses in his work "Mein Kampf"; Psychology of the masses
Before 1933: Propaganda techniques were used even before the Nazis came to power. After 1933, however, the judicial system was heavily politicised and used for the National Socialist agenda
After the Nazis came to power in 1933: The Reich Ministry for Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda, under the leadership of Joseph Goebbels, played a central role in the dissemination of National Socialist propaganda. Books, newspapers, radio and films were used as means of dissemination.
Instrumentalisation of the judiciary:
The judical system was violeted for politcal purpose. The undermining and politicisation of the judiciary increased arbitrariness and lawlessness
The control of public communication had a high priority for the regime, for strenghening the power and to prepare the propaganda for the war and the extermination of Eurpean Jews.
Notices in German [formatting costed too much energy and nerves, just was able to correct a bit - very unordentlich!]
#literature#world literature#Bertolt Brecht#reading stage-play aloud#stage-play#reading#books about nationalsocialism#1935#1939#Brecht#Helene Weigel#remembering against fascism#fascism
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Chinglish
Bill English presents “Chinglish" at the San Francisco Playhouse. The play is written by David Henry Hwang and directed by Jeffrey Lo. It features a cast including Michael Barrett Austin as Daniel Cavanaugh, Matthew Bohrer as Peter Timms, Alex Hsu as Cai Guoliang, Sharon Shao as Miss Qian/Prosecutor Li, Nicole Tung as Xi Yan, Phil Wong as Bing/Judge Xu Geming, and Xun Zhang as Zhao. The play will run at SF Playhouse until June 10. Tickets are available at Sfplayhouse.org
The show is a hilarious romp at getting lost in translation that is common with the inter-mingling of multi-cultural characters/settings as in the play when a Cleveland based businessman decides to go to China to expand his Signs making business by translating signs in the upcoming construction of a cultural center.
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Chinglish" is a comedic play written by David Henry Hwang, an acclaimed American playwright known for works like "M. Butterfly."
“Chinglish" explores cultural and linguistic barriers in the context of business relations between China and the Western world. It tells the story of an American businessman who travels to China to secure a lucrative contract but encounters numerous misunderstandings and cultural clashes due to language differences and cultural nuances.
The play uses humor to highlight the challenges of cross-cultural communication and sheds light on the complexities and misinterpretations that can arise in such situations. "Chinglish" has been praised for its witty dialogue and sharp observations about cultural differences. It provides an opportunity for audiences to reflect on the intricacies of language and cultural exchange in a globalized world.
Overall, "Chinglish" has received positive reviews for its clever writing and thought-provoking themes. However, theater experiences are subjective, and individual opinions may vary. It's always best to read multiple reviews or watch the play yourself to form your own judgment.
Renowned Playwright
David Henry Hwang is a renowned playwright known for his insightful works that explore themes of identity, culture, and Asian-American experiences. Some of his notable plays include:
1. "M. Butterfly" (1988): This Tony Award-winning play is Hwang's most famous work. It is a fictionalized retelling of the true story of a French diplomat who carries on a 20-year affair with a Chinese opera singer, unaware of his lover's true gender.
2. "Chinglish" (2011): A comedy that delves into the complexities of cross-cultural communication and business relations between China and the Western world. It humorously examines the challenges faced by an American businessman trying to navigate language and cultural barriers.
3. "Yellow Face" (2007): Blending fact and fiction, this play explores themes of racial identity and self-discovery. It follows Hwang's own experiences with the casting controversy surrounding his play "Face Value" and touches on broader issues of cultural representation in the entertainment industry.
4. "The Dance and the Railroad" (1981): Set in the 1860s, this play tells the story of two Chinese laborers working on the construction of the Transcontinental Railroad and their struggle to maintain their dignity and cultural identity in the face of adversity.
5. "Golden Child" (1996): Inspired by Hwang's own family history, this play examines the conflicts that arise when a traditional Chinese family in early 20th-century China embraces Western influences, particularly Christianity.
These are just a few examples of David Henry Hwang's works, but he has written many more plays and contributed to various other projects in the field of theater. His plays often explore themes of cultural assimilation, racial identity, and the complexities of East-West encounters.
US- China Relations History
The history of U.S.-China relations is complex and spans several decades. Here is a brief overview of some key milestones:
1. Early Relations: In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, U.S. traders established contact with China, primarily through the port of Canton (now Guangzhou). However, diplomatic relations were only established in 1844 with the Treaty of Wanghia.
2. Boxer Rebellion and Open Door Policy: In the early 20th century, the Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901) led to increased anti-foreigner sentiment in China. Following this, the United States advocated for an Open Door Policy to ensure equal commercial access for all nations in China.
3. World War II and the Civil War: During World War II, the United States and China were allies against the Axis powers. However, after the war, China descended into a civil war between the Nationalist government led by Chiang Kai-shek and the Communists under Mao Zedong.
4. Recognition of the People's Republic of China: In 1949, the Communists emerged victorious, and the People's Republic of China (PRC) was established. The United States initially did not recognize the PRC and continued to recognize Taiwan (Republic of China) as the legitimate government of China until 1979.
5. Ping Pong Diplomacy and Normalization: In the early 1970s, a series of events, including the "ping pong diplomacy" and secret negotiations, led to a thaw in U.S.-China relations. In 1972, President Richard Nixon visited China, and diplomatic relations were normalized in 1979 under President Jimmy Carter.
6. Trade and Economic Relations: Since the late 1970s, the U.S. and China have engaged in extensive trade and economic ties. China's economic reforms and opening up led to a significant increase in bilateral trade, with China becoming one of the United States' largest trading partners.
7. Human Rights and Political Differences: The U.S. and China have had ongoing disagreements over issues such as human rights, religious freedom, intellectual property rights, and cybersecurity. These differences have at times strained the bilateral relationship.
8. Taiwan and Hong Kong: The U.S. maintains unofficial relations with Taiwan and has been a long-standing supporter of its security. The issue of Hong Kong's autonomy and the erosion of its freedoms have also become contentious topics in recent years.
9. Strategic Competition and Cooperation: In recent years, the U.S.-China relationship has become more complex, characterized by both cooperation and competition. Issues such as trade imbalances, intellectual property theft, cybersecurity, territorial disputes in the South China Sea, and human rights concerns continue to impact the relationship.
It's important to note that the dynamics of U.S.-China relations are subject to change, and ongoing developments will shape the future trajectory of this significant bilateral relationship.
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timelines for SEA (Vietnam, Indonesia, Burma)
VIETNAM
1944: Brazzaville Declaration 1945 Mar: Vietminh replaced by Bao Dai 1945 May: General Vo Nguyen Giap 1945 Aug: Vietminh as the predominant political force 1945 Sep: DRV (Democratic Republic of Vietnam) 1945 Nov: dissolved Indochina Communist Party 1946 Jan: Vietminh victory over VNQDD 1946 Mar 6: Treaty of Hanoi 1946 Nov 22: Vietnamese troops fired upon 1946 Nov 23: French troops sent ultimatum, killed 1950-51: war exacting huge toll on France 1951: the Party set up Communist parties 1954 Mar: Dien Bien Plan 1954 Apr: negotiations 1954 May 7: French surrender 1954 July: Paris declared Indochina independent 1954-1956: land reforms, Lao Dong Party, DRV’s military, PAVN 1955: pro-American Ngo Dinh Diem 1958-1960: first Three Year Plan 1960: Vietcong 1963: Buddhist Crisis + military coup (Diem killed) 1964: Tonkin Gulf Incident 1965: Major-General Nguyen Van Thieu leader of Saigon government 1965 Feb: US carpet bombings 1965 Dec – 1966 Jan: Rolling Thunder (airstrikes) 1968 Jan 30: Tet offensive 1968 Mar: My Lai Massacre 1968: succeeded by Nixon 1969: DRV’s influence bolstered by Provisional Revolutionary Government 1973: US and North Vietnam signed the Paris Peace Agreement 1973 Mar 29: last American troops left 1975 Apr: North Vietnamese finally conquered the South (unified = Socialist Republic of Vietnam) 1976 Jul 12: official proclamation of founding of newly reunified Vietnam
INDONESIA
1945: collapse of Japanese 1945 June: Pancasila principles introduced 1945 Aug 17: Sukarno compelled to issue declaration of Indonesian independence 1945 Sep 15: Dutch officials returned --> Battle of Surabaya 1945 Oct: Sukarno sidelined by Republican government 1945 Nov: Battle of Surabaya ends 1945 Dec: Indonesian Socialist Youth Party and Indonesian Socialist Party (PSI 1946: social revolution (challenged by the youth) 1946 Nov: Linggadjati Agreement (recognition of authority of Indonesian republic) 1947 Aug: First Police Action 1948 Jan: Renville Agreement 1948 Sept: Madiun Affair (communists VS Sukarno) - Republican Army turned to guerrilla warfare 1948 Dec: Second Police Action 1949 Jan: US threatens to withhold Marshall Aid from Netherlands 1949 Aug-Nov: Roundtable Conference 1949 Nov 2: Hague Agreement (United States of Indonesia would gain independence)
BURMA
1945 May 7: Burma White Paper 1945 Oct: civil government set up (under British) -- nationalists demand immediate independence 1946: rallies and protests, Aung San re-arming People’s Voluntary Organisations 1946 Jan: mass rally at Shwe Dagon Pagoda -- Dorman Smith attempted to arrest Aung San 1946 Jan: AFPFL expels ‘red flag’ communist faction 1946 Aug: Sir Hubert Rance replaced Dorman Smith 1946 Sep: Rance arrives in Burma 1946 Sep 2: Thakins goes on strike, Executive Council is forced to resign 1946 Sep 26: Rance appoints a new Executive Council (Burmese now 6/11) 1946 Nov: Aung San tours frontier regions 1947 Jan: Aung San leads delegation to London to negotiate independence 1947 Jan: Aung San-Attlee Agreement signed 1947 Feb: Panglong Agreement (guaranteed minority rights), agreed to establish two autonomous states 1947 Apr: Constituent Assembly elections (AFPFL won 173/210) 1947 July 19: Aung San assassinated 1949 Jan 4: Union of Burma official – 2 legislative chambers
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UNA ARMADA CREPUSCULAR: LA MARINA IMPERIAL ALEMANA (1872 – 1919 )
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Héctor López Aréstegui
“….Los caminos de hierro nos conducirán solamente con mayor rapidez al abismo”
- François – Rene de Chateaubriand (1768 – 1848)
La guerra se nutre de equívocos y, acaso, el mayor de ellos resulte ser el concepto que la historia le escriben los vencedores. Y es que vencedor y vencido no son categorías absolutas, y que “todos somos vencedores y vencidos al mismo tiempo al describir en nuestros éxitos, pues también exponemos el arduo problema de no olvidar el alcance de nuestras fuerzas[i]”· Creemos que esta frase, tomada del prefacio de las memorias de guerra del almirante alemán Reinhard Scheer (1863 – 1928), describe con justicia el carácter de la guerra naval durante la Gran Guerra y, en particular, la existencia crepuscular de la Marina Imperial Alemana (1872 – 1919), cuya historia merece ser mejor conocida y trascender el alcance de la cita churchilliana que constituye su lapida ante el tribunal de la Historia, “la flota alemana es un lujo, no una necesidad nacional”.
1. ¿Qué es Alemania?
¡Alemania! ¿Qué es Alemania? El gran poeta Johan Wolfgang von Goethe (1749 – 1832) pensaba que era una entelequia en tanto los alemanes no superaran su sempiterna tradición de rivalidad y fragmentación[ii], basculando – desde el siglo XVIII – ora bajo la égida de Prusia, ora a la de Austria. A partir del efecto de las Revolución de 1848[iii], que barrió el orden europeo creado por el Congreso de Viena de 1814 – 1815, Alemania fue tomando forma, a golpes del cincel del nacionalismo, constituyendo la fase final del proceso las guerras de unificación contra Dinamarca, Austria y Francia (1864 – 1871). La victoria sobre Francia en la guerra Franco – Prusiana (1870 – 1871), fue el hecho político – militar que transformó la Confederación de Estados Alemanes surgida de la derrota austriaca de 1866 en el Segundo Reich[iv] alemán, constituyéndose Prusia en su estado director. El 18 de enero de 1871 en Versalles, Francia, iniciábase el proceso de convertir “un mosaico de curiosidades políticas y la idea medieval del Imperio resucitado[v]” en un estado a la par de los paradigmas de la época, Francia e Inglaterra.
El Reich era una idea medieval, difícil de definir y mucho más de traducir al lenguaje político de la época. Bajo su sombra coexistían – desigualmente – principios absolutistas de la monarquía prusiana y los democráticos de la Revolución de 1848. El nuevo Estado era una monarquía federal, “una reunión de Estados, bajo la legal y efectiva hegemonía de un Estado director, que es Prusia. Prusia, al crear con su esfuerzo el gran Imperio alemán, recibió el encargo de dirigirlo, obteniendo con ello ciertos privilegios sobre los demás, principalmente en todo lo relacionado con la política militar y comercial de la Confederación[vi]”. El Bundsrat (Consejo de la Corona) era la cima de su estructura del poder constituido, con competencia exclusiva en materia de defensa, legislación civil y penal, comercio y orden económico; los gobiernos estaduales lo eran para los demás asuntos dentro de sus límites territoriales. La administración imperial recaía en la Cancillería del Reich, que la ejercía el Ministro Presidente de Prusia. Descolgada de esta jerarquía, el Reichstag (Dieta Imperial), de elección popular, servía – en la práctica – de órgano consultivo para los asuntos de competencia del gobierno imperial[vii]. Este esquema de gobierno era el resultado de las maniobras políticas del canciller – ministro presidente de Prusia Otto von Bismarck, para quien la monarquía prusiana tenía el derecho y el deber de dominar el proceso de unidad alemana, lo cual excluía toda forma de gobierno parlamentario que controlara la acción del monarca. Así, pues, el artículo 4 de la Constitución de 1871 establecía que el soberano tenía el derecho “de convocar, abrir, prorrogar y cerrar el Reichstag y el Bundsrat[viii]”.
2. El llamado del mar
La nación alemana estaba obsesionada con sus fronteras, históricamente precarias y expuestas a la presión de sus vecinos. El geógrafo y politólogo sueco Johan Rudolf Kjellén[ix] (1864 – 1922), afirmaba que éstas podían calificarse de malas y eran la fuente de la inseguridad y vacilación de su política exterior e interior. Las postrimerías del siglo XIX añadieron al problema una nueva dimensión: la marítima. En su obra “Las Grandes Potencias de la Actualidad” (1911) Kjellen describía la situación: “Si se tiene en cuenta los grandes intereses marítimos de Alemania, lo que el Rin ha llegado a representar en el interior del país como vía de comunicación comercial y la riqueza que se levanta sobre sus riberas, se comprenderá cuán penoso ha de resultar para Alemania el no poseer la desembocadura del Rin. En Oriente le pasa a Alemania con el Vístula lo que a los Países Bajos con el Rin: no posee nada más que su curso medio. Con el Rin es Holanda la que le roba a Alemania su natural con el mar; en el Vístula, Alemania es quien le roba la suya a Rusia. Lo mismo sucede algo más con el Este con el Memel; también con este río es Alemania la favorecida, con perjuicio de Rusia[x] ”.
Sin embargo Prusia estaba anclada en el brillo de la gloria de las guerras de unificación[xi]. La guerra era, según la definición uno de los intelectuales más reconocidos de la época, el historiador Heinrich von Treitschke (1834 – 1896), “el medio de grabar en la mente del individuo el binomio patria – nación, a fin de que trascienda de sí mismo y liberte a la nación del destino que había tenido hasta las guerras napoleónicas, ser el campo de batalla de casi todos los conflictos bélicos de Europa”. El almirante Reinhard Scheer (1863 – 1928), que creció en aquel ambiente de exaltado nacionalismo, dejó testimonio de ello en la introducción de sus memorias de guerra: “Del lado opuesto Prusia – Alemania. Toda su historia marcada por la lucha y la angustia, porque las guerras europeas tuvieron lugar preferentemente en su territorio. Era la nación del Imperativo Categórico, presta a las privaciones y al sacrificio, siempre levantándose una y otra vez, hasta que finalmente pareció haber alcanzado el éxito a través de la unificación del Imperio y ser capaz de cosechar los frutos duramente ganados de una posición de poder. La victoria sobre las adversidades solo pudo lograrse gracias a su idealismo y probada lealtad a la Patria bajo la opresión del gobierno extranjero. La fuerza de nuestro potencial defensivo descansaba sobre todas las cosas en nuestra conciencia e integridad adquiridas por la estricta disciplina[xii]”.
Así, al iniciar su andadura como estado unificado, en Alemania no se tenía en consideración la célebre máxima romana “Navegar es necesario, vivir no lo es[xiii]”. Prusia no era consciente de esta verdad porque había vivido casi toda su historia de espalda al mar. Por ser la más pequeña y la más joven de las potencias europeas surgidas de las guerras de religión de los siglos XVI y XVII, sus recursos financieros siempre habían sido escasos y, por ello, sus formaciones navales efímeras. Además, su vecindad con grandes potencias marítimas (Dinamarca, Holanda, Suecia, Francia e Inglaterra) abonaba a favor de la idea de invertir en un poderoso ejército en lugar de una débil armada. El único chispazo de tradición marítima alemana era el recuerdo de la Liga Hanseática (1358 – 1630), una federación comercial y defensiva de ciudades del norte de Alemania y de las comunidades de comerciantes alemanes en el mar Báltico, los Países Bajos, Suecia, Polonia y Rusia. El Margraviato de Brandeburgo – el antecedente medieval de Prusia – apenas participó en esta alianza. Así, mientras el Rey – sargento Federico Guillermo I de Hohenzollern (1688 – 1740) y su sucesor Federico II (1712 – 1786) creaban el ejército modelo del mundo europeo de la Edad Moderna, el dominio del mar se convertía en el elemento clave en la diferenciación entre los estados. No bastaba con proteger las costas de la flota enemiga sino ser capaz de explorar los mares allende de las mismas. La fuente de riqueza de las naciones era el comercio marítimo. Prusia – y posteriormente el binomio Prusia – Alemania a fines del siglo XIX – aún no habían dado ese paso, el cual que elevó – en su momento – a Portugal, España, Francia e Inglaterra como potencias mundiales.
Alemania hubo de esperar a que surgiese una figura que encarnase el llamado del mar. Este personaje fue el príncipe Adalberto de Prusia (1811 – 1873), fundador de la efímera flota de la Confederación de Estados del Norte de Alemania, la Reichsflotte[xiv] (1848 – 1852) y de la Marina Prusiana (1850 – 1867). No es fácil definir la personalidad del príncipe Adalberto, acaso lo más preciso es decir que fue para su patria en una sola persona lo que para Portugal significó el príncipe Enrique el Navegante (1394 – 1460) y para Inglaterra Samuel Pepys (1633 – 1703), el organizador de la Royal Navy. La voz del príncipe era la vocera de muchas otras que recordaban las razones por las que se debía contar con una armada que protegiera permanentemente las costas de invasores, bloqueara los puertos del enemigo en caso de guerra y salvaguardara el comercio exterior en aguas allende del norte de Europa. Convergían con su opinión las ideas de personajes como el economista Freidrich List (1789 – 1846), creador del Sistema de Innovación Nacional – léase, en términos contemporáneos, la Teoría del Desarrollo Económico –, quien señalaba que una flota permanente debía existir por y para un bien común, la defensa y la proyección de la identidad nacional alemana[xv].
La mano creadora de la Marina Imperial Alemana (Kaiserliche Marine) fue la del general Albretch von Stosch (1818 – 1896), quién imprimió en sus acciones un norte claro: una institución de unidad nacional, defensora de soberanía marítima y del comercio exterior. El desafío era inmenso. Corrían tiempos de cambio tecnológico y de la naturaleza jurídica de la guerra en el mar. Los mayores obstáculos eran, como ya lo hemos señalado anteriormente, la posición geográfica de Alemania y la falta de una tradición naval. A su favor Von Stosch contaba con el apoyo político del canciller Bismarck y de un generoso presupuesto para un programa naval de diez años según el cual se construirían ocho fragatas blindadas, seis corbetas blindadas, veinticuatro corbetas ligeras, siete monitores, dos baterías flotantes, seis avisos dieciocho cañoneras y veintiocho torpederos, parcialmente financiado con los pagos que hubo de hacer Francia al Reich como compensación de los gasto de la guerra de 1870 – 1871. En una década (1872 – 1882) Von Stosch creó una armada de la nada, formó a sus oficiales y tripulantes y dotó a Alemania de una industria naval propia. Lo hizo con pragmatismo, consciente de la incertidumbre reinante sobre el futuro del poder marítimo[xvi]. Así, el SMS Hansa (1872) y el SMS Preussen (1873) fueron dos buques exponentes de lo que significaba para Alemania el poder naval: respeto de su soberanía y una garantía para su comercio. El SMS Hansa fue el primer blindado construido en astilleros germanos y pasó la mayor parte de su vida útil en el exterior, protegiendo el comercio alemán. El SMS Preussen fue el primer buque de guerra teutón construido por un astillero privado – el astillero AGVulcan, en Sttetin[xvii] – , patrulló el Mediterráneo oriental durante la guerra ruso – turca (1877 – 1878) y participó en la ceremonia de transferencia del archipiélago de Heligoland al Imperio en 1890. La obra formativa de Von Stosch (1872 – 1882) y su sucesor, el general Leo von Caprivi (1883 – 1888) fue sumamente exitosa y, a fines de 1880, Alemania era la tercera potencia naval de Europa, solo superada en número de unidades por Rusia y la Gran Bretaña[xviii].
Además de crear de una armada, Alemania emprendió la tarea de dotarse de una continuidad litoral entre el Mar Báltico y del Mar del Norte y una plataforma de proyección sobre el Mar del Norte, el archipiélago de Heligoland[xix]. El primer objetivo se alcanzó con la construcción del Canal de Kiel. Las obras se iniciaron en Holtenau, cerca de Kiel, el 3 junio de 1887 y concluyeron ocho años después, el 20 de junio de 1895. El canal medía 62 metros de ancho en la superficie y 22 en el fondo, 9 de profundidad; en honor al monarca que inició el proyecto – Guillermo I, rey de Prusia y primer emperador de la Alemania unida – se le denominó Káiser Wilhem Kanal. No era la primera vez que se vinculaba el Mar Báltico y el Mar del Norte a través de un canal, pero sus predecesores eran, comparativamente, obras modestas. Así, pues, del Canal de Kiel se dijo que era una muestra “del orgullo alemán, pletórico de facultades de invención e imaginación, de iniciativa y de recursos, una audacia avisada y complaciente a la que se rinde homenaje y se sirve de una potencia industrial de primer orden y de personal altamente calificado[xx]”. Asimismo, la adquisición del archipiélago de las Heligoland (1890) – fruto del cuidado que puso el canciller Bismarck en las relaciones diplomáticas con Gran Bretaña – consolidó el dominio marítimo alemán y le dotó de una proyección al Mar del Norte.
3. La influencia de Mahan (1890 – 1897)
En 1888, al iniciar su reinado, el Káiser Guillermo II (1859 – 1941) declaraba con seguridad que “Al Imperio Alemán no le es menester nueva gloria militar ni conquistas, ahora que ha ganado el derecho a vivir como nación unida e independiente”. Esta prudencia fue decayendo a partir de 1890, tras la dimisión de Bismarck a la Cancillería del Reich. El voluntarioso emperador cayó bajo el influjo de las ideas de Alfred Thayer Mahan (1840 – 1914), autor del libro que se consideró como el más influyente de la última década del siglo XIX, “La influencia del poder marítimo en la Historia: 1660 – 1788”. La obra era una compilación de las clases dictadas por el marino norteamericano en la Academia de Guerra Naval de los Estados Unidos.
Mahan señalaba que el control de los mares era el factor más importante para la prosperidad nacional a lo largo de los siglos y que los componentes del poder marítimo de una nación eran los factores geográficos, los recursos naturales, el carácter nacional, el espíritu de su gobierno y su política naval y diplomática. Asimismo, deducía varios principios estratégicos relacionados con la concentración de fuerzas, la correcta elección del objetivo y la importancia de las líneas de comunicación. “La influencia del poder marítimo en la Historia: 1660 – 1788” resumía las razones por las qué una nación debía contar con una Armada cuyo principal objetivo fuera el tener la capacidad suficiente para destruir una flota de guerra enemiga. En Alemania “La influencia del poder marítimo en la Historia: 1660 – 1788” tuvo un gran éxito, constituyéndose el káiser Guillermo II (1859 – 1941) en su mayor propagandista, llegando a decir de él que “No estoy leyendo sino devorando el libro de Mahan y trato de aprovecharlo con el corazón y con la mente. Es un trabajo de primera clase y clásico en todos sus puntos. Está a bordo de mis barcos y es constantemente consultado por mis almirantes y oficiales”.
Sin embargo el Segundo Reich no encajaba con la geografía política que proponía el autor norteamericano. Y es que, tal como decía Kllejen, “Alemania era, en la constelación europea, la menos independiente de todas las potencias mundiales[xxi]”. Consciente de ello, Bismarck se había ocupado de mantener un equilibrio estratégico europeo en beneficio de la prosperidad y estabilidad de Prusia – Alemania y de la dinastía Hohenzollern. Así, al oeste contenía a los franceses y mantenía buenas relaciones con los británicos y, al este, era sumamente cuidadoso y hasta cordial con los rusos. Dicha política exterior le había permitido fortalecer la posición del Reich, dotándole de una costa continua y de una salida independiente al Mar del Norte. Conservador de corazón, Bismarck había dado autonomía al general Von Stosch en el desarrollo del primer programa naval (1872 – 1882), sabiendo que pondría énfasis en la construcción de una Armada protectora del comercio germano y no en experimentos para los cuales Alemania no estaba en condiciones de asumir por falta de recursos políticos[xxii] y económicos[xxiii]. Von Stosch eludió estos escollos y apostó por el torpedo como nivelador de las pequeñas y grandes armadas. Esta nueva arma, desarrollada por el ingeniero británico Robert Whitehead (1823 – 1905) con el apoyo de capitales austro – húngaros, respondía a la pregunta sobre cómo una marina modesta podía defenderse de una armada más poderosa.
4. La daga en la garganta de Inglaterra
El programa de torpedos de la Armada Imperial estaba en manos de un oficial quien había sido influenciado hondamente por las ideas de Mahan, Alfred Tirpitz (1849 – 1930). A pesar de haber sido promovido por Von Stosch, Tirpitz cuestionaba la misión que le había impuesto Von Stosch a la Marina Imperial. Para Tirpitz “la bandera debía seguir los pasos del comercio, como otros países habían visto antes de que nosotros nos diéramos cuenta[xxiv]”. Así, al asumir el cargo de Secretario de Estado en el despacho de la Administración Naval Imperial en junio de 1897, Tirpitz dio un golpe de timón presentando al káiser el proyecto de una gran flota de combate cuya realización implicaba graves consideraciones políticas y diplomáticas, porque constituía un peldaño más en la escalada de militarización de la política exterior y de seguridad nacional. Construir una gran flota era entrar en competencia directa – y, eventualmente, en conflicto abierto – con la Gran Bretaña por “el lugar bajo el sol”[xxv] que, según Tirpitz, le negaban los británicos a los alemanes.
Tirpitz pensaba que el flanco estratégico más desprotegido de los británicos era el Mar del Norte. La Marina Real privilegiaba el teatro de operaciones del Mediterráneo y el despliegue de sus unidades como gendarmes de las colonias y el comercio británico. Según Tirpitz, los británicos negociarían con Alemania un acuerdo sobre construcciones navales con el fin de mantener su presencia naval en el Mediterráneo y del resto del mundo. Por ello la Gran Flota Alemana debía ser una fleet in being (escuadra en potencia), es decir, una amenaza constante a la hegemonía naval británica. En medios periodísticos esta estrategia recibió un nombre más amenazante y perturbador, “la daga en la garganta de Inglaterra” que la prensa británica asumió y utilizó para advertir al gobierno y al pueblo del peligro alemán y de la complaciente política de esplendido aislamiento frente a los asuntos europeos.
La estrategia de Tirpitz se fundaba en supuestos erróneos. El Reino Unido no vaciló en responder al reto e inició un programa naval que duplicó en una década la tasa de construcciones navales alemanas y reorganizó su sistema de defensa global gracias al apoyo político y económico de sus dominios, Canadá, Australia, Nueva Zelanda, la India y África del Sur. En vísperas de la Gran Guerra, Inglaterra había triplicado su ventaja en el juego de correlación de fuerzas. En Alemania echaban raíces las dudas sobre la capacidad de la Armada Imperial para enfrentar a la Royal Navy y la validez de la idea de pretender hacer la guerra contra Inglaterra[xxvi]. La guerra ponía en peligro la prosperidad alcanzada por la marina mercante alemana. La divisa de la compañía naviera Hamburg – Amerika – Line – “mi campo es el mundo” – era una realidad de la que se enorgullecían todos los alemanes. Su director Albert Ballin (1857 – 1918) era consejero del káiser y mediador en las sombras en las crisis diplomáticas entre Inglaterra y Alemania gracias a su amistad con el consejero privado del rey Eduardo VII (1841 – 1910), sir Ernst Cassel (1852 – 1921). Siendo el principal armador de Alemania, Ballin temía por la seguridad de la flota mercante alemana y la pérdida de su posición preeminente en el comercio mundial. En 1914 era Inglaterra quien tenía preparada la daga para, cuando estallara la guerra, encajarla en la garganta de Alemania a través de un bloqueo a distancia aprovechando las desventajas geográficas del litoral germano. Asimismo, su presencia naval global borraría del mapa los buques mercantes alemanes[xxvii].
5. Tiempo de pruebas
En vísperas de la Gran Guerra la Flota de Alta Mar Alemana se encontraba en una situación política sumamente complicada. Tras una década del gozar el favor imperial (1897 – 1908), las críticas comenzaron a llegar de todos los sectores políticos, incluso entre los nacionalistas que veían en el almirante Tirpitz encarnados todos los defectos de un estamento político – militar débil, elitista, ciego a las demandas de la nación y reaccionario. Las críticas más feroces venían del grupo que había sido el puntal del programa de Tirpitz, la Deutscher Flottenverein[xxviii] (Liga Naval Alemana) (DFV). Era irónico que esta institución, creada como freno al parlamentarismo y al Partido Social Demócrata (SPD), pasara a ser una feroz opositora de Tirpitz. El nacionalismo que había insuflado y sostenido la construcción de la Armada Imperial se escapaba del control del Reich. El SPD aprovechó la crisis de confianza en Tirpitz para cuestionar la política global del káiser y del nacionalismo y ganar predicamento más allá de su electorado tradicional, la clase trabajadora.
Atrapada entre dos fuegos, el nacionalismo desbocado y la prédica pacifista y antiimperialista del SPD, la Armada Imperial fue señalada por unos de bajar la cabeza ante los británicos y, por otros, de ser la responsable de las tensiones diplomáticas anglo – alemanas. La guerra estalló en plena crisis de credibilidad y ante ella el alto mando naval no tuvo otro camino que el de la improvisación. En este marco, “Alemania vio en el submarino un rayo de esperanza en el acoso mundial a que se encontraba sometida y apeló a él como pudo apelar al rayo de la muerte[xxix] si éste se hubiese inventado. Los aliados disponían de la hegemonía marinera tal y como se entendía hasta entonces, en el concepto clásico de la guerra marítima, de la guerra que hasta entonces era guerra plana. El submarino era la guerra en el espacio, completando el avión esta transformación que no es que origine una guerra nueva, como creen, o fingen creer, unos cuantos futuristas, pero que desde luego introduce otras modalidades como ha acaecido siempre desde que un arma o un adelanto sensacional ha cambiado los puntos básicos del planteamiento del problema[xxx]”.
Asimismo, Alemania se lanzó a una guerra de guerrillas en el mar (Kleinkriegs) utilizando corsarios cuyas hazañas y desventuras constituyen episodios apasionantes del desarrollo de la guerra naval como la del Westburn, en el Archipiélago Canario, en aguas españolas, es decir, en territorio de un estado neutral. Sobre ella, El Comercio informaba el 02 de junio de 1916 lo siguiente: “Acaba de llegar el vapor inglés Westburn, izando la bandera de guerra alemana, bajo el mando del oficial de marina Badewitz, llevando a bordo las tripulaciones de los vapores ingleses “Flamenco”, “Horace”, Edimborough”, “Clan Mactavish” y el belga “Luxemburg”, todos hundidos por el comandante alemán. El “Westburn”, cargado de carbón, fue apresado en su viaje de Inglaterra a Buenos Aires. Las tripulaciones de los cinco vapores serán puestas a disposición de sus respectivos cónsules.
El “Westburn” entró en el puerto de Santa Cruz [de Tenerife], mientras que un crucero inglés se hallaba anclado en la rada. Es de grandísimo interés hacer constar el hecho de que el vapor que acaba de fondear en [Santa Cruz de] Tenerife, tenía 199 prisioneros ingleses, mientras que la tripulación estaba constituida por sólo siete alemanes (…)
Mientras las tripulaciones de los barcos alemanes surtos en el puerto aclamaban a la heroica tripulación del “Westburn”, en cuyo palo mayor había sustituido la bandera británica por el pabellón alemán, abandonó la bahía el crucero inglés HMS “Sutlej”, cuya situación resultaba un poco ridícula. El “Sutlej” quedó vigilando, fuera de la bahía, en espera de que al transcurrir las veinticuatro horas de su entrada, en Tenerife, abandonará el puerto el “Westburn”, para entonces cazarlo o hundirlo a cañonazos (…)
Al cumplirse las veinticuatro horas de su llegada al puerto, el “Westburn”, a cuyo bordo no quedaba ni uno solo de los tripulantes y pasajeros que traía prisioneros, levó anclas y enfiló la salida del puerto. Los muelles y las alturas estaban repletos de curiosos que se disponían con gemelos y anteojos de largo alcance a presenciar qué iba a ocurrir en el mar tan pronto como el crucero “Sutlej” pudiese atacar a los corsarios alemanes.
El “Westburn”, con su corta tripulación germana, y arbolando el pabellón de guerra del imperio, salió valientemente fuera de la bahía. La expectación era extraordinaria, se había tocado zafarrancho de combate. Tan pronto como salió a la mar, el crucero británico se puso en movimiento para darle caza. El oficial alemán, que con sus siete hombres iba a bordo del “Westburn”, no se proponía escapar. Antes, al contrario, puso proa en demanda del enemigo y hacia él dirigió el buque capturado. Se detuvo entonces el crucero y rectificando su rumbo parecía aceptar el reto de los alemanes. Todo el mundo esperaba el primer cañonazo cuando, al costado del “Westburn”, se destacó un bote, en el que iban los marinos alemanes. El crucero inglés avanzó entonces, forzando la máquina pero una violenta y larga explosión a bordo del “Westburn” dio a entender a los marinos ingleses que se habían burlado de ellos nuevamente volado la presa en sus mismas narices. Los valerosos germanos ganaron rápidamente el puerto de Tenerife entre las aclamaciones de todos los que presenciaban la hazaña, Allí afuera quedaban los marinos ingleses devorando su fracaso. Los alemanes desembarcaron en el muelle, y seguidos del público que les felicitaba se presentaron antes las autoridades[xxxi]”.
No es nuestra intención ocuparnos del combate de Jutlandia (31 de mayo – 1 de junio de 1916), basta decir que fue un choque inútil: los británicos no aniquilaron a la Flota de Alta Mar Alemana y, ésta, a su vez, no pudo romper el bloqueo británico y justificar su existencia. Un comentarista español contemporáneo, Mariano Rubio y Bellve, concluía que “El problema en el mar queda planteado, después de la batalla, en los mismo términos que antes que ella. Solamente la muerte, con numerosas víctimas de la horrible tragedia de Jutlandia, es la que ha triunfado en toda línea[xxxii]”. Evidentemente Alemania reclamó para sí el resultado del combate como una victoria táctica, pero lo cierto es que no había variado la situación estratégica de Alemania. Un corresponsal del Daily Telegraph la resumía así: “La verdad es que, como isleños, no ignoramos lo que son los mapas de guerra, pero damos más importancia a los mapas sancionados por el tiempo. Olvida Von Bethmann – Hollweg que cerca de tres cuartas partes de la superficie de la Tierra están cubiertas de agua. Cuando se iniciaron las hostilidades, comenzaba una lucha mundial para los alemanes, que habían demostrado actividad en los mares y estaban practicando o preparando operaciones guerreras no sólo en cada de uno de los continentes, sino también en todos los países del globo. Para los germanos esto no es ya actualmente una guerra mundial. Alemania se halla casi tan completamente aislada del mundo exterior, como París en 1870. Aunque Alemania haya gastado 7,250 millones de francos en su Marina, y aunque tenía la primera marina mercante del mundo después de la británica, sin embargo la bandera germana ha desaparecido del mar, resultado singular para una nación marítima.
Durante varios siglos la guerra marítima, en la que se hallaron comprometidas las flotas de España, Holanda y Francia, nunca ocurrió que no mostraran sus banderas en el mar; pero la marina mercante alemana ha desaparecido; la marina de guerra está inactiva, el comercio transatlántico ha cesado y han desaparecido las colonias. Alemania no ha alcanzado victorias como las conseguidas por Napoleón en 1811, pero Trafalgar preparó Waterloo. El canciller alemán debe leer la vida de Napoleón[xxxiii]”.
La Hochseeflotte no tendría una segunda oportunidad de medir fuerzas con la Royal Navy. Sus pérdidas habían sido menores que las británicas, pero eran irremplazables. Ya no podía disputar el dominio del mar. Al respecto escribió Mateo Mille: “Pero Alemania no era una nación naval; la formidable potencia creada por el almirante Von Tirpitz, organizador genial al amparo de una industria colosal, no fue empleada adecuadamente[xxxiv]”.
En el invierno boreal 1916 – 1917 la moral de la flota se fue a pique. Como todos los alemanes, el fracaso de la cosechas hizo más severo el racionamiento alimentario. Las magras raciones potenciaron elementos como la inactividad, las rutinas sin sentido y el desprecio de los oficiales. En junio de 1917 una manifestación contra los privilegios alimentarios de los oficiales se tornó en una plataforma política a favor de una paz negociada. Los líderes del comité de marinos fueron detenidos. Dos de ellos fueron fusilados[xxxv]. En julio un alzamiento armado en las bases navales de la costa de Flandes dejó un saldo de cincuenta oficiales asesinados y la destrucción de las instalaciones de los zeppelines. Su líder, el segundo teniente Rudolf Glatfelder, declaró después, ya a salvo en Suiza, que este hecho probaba la capacidad de los alemanes para rebelarse[xxxvi]. En diciembre el desacato a la orden de reembarque de la dotación de buques de vigilancia que acababan de regresar de una larga y sangrienta patrulla degeneró en motín que fue develado con un saldo de cuarenta y cuatro muertes. Los sobrevivientes fueron condenados a trabajos forzados[xxxvii].
El descontento también cundía en el cuerpo de oficiales. Von Tirpitz hubo de renunciar a la Secretaria de Marina en marzo de 1916, a causa de su postura favorable a la guerra submarina irrestricta[xxxviii]. Pocos meses después se convirtió en co – fundador del Partido de la Patria Alemana (DVP), un movimiento político nacionalista opuesto a una paz negociada. Corría el año 1918 y el poder real – el gobierno que apoyaban Von Tirpitz y sus correligionarios – era el de los caudillos del pueblo alemán, el mariscal de campo Paul von Hindenburg y el general Erich Ludendorff. En mayo de 1918 corrían fuertes rumores sobre la existencia de círculos secretos de oficiales conspirando contra Von Capelle y Scheer, con el fin de sacar de los puertos a la Hochseeflotten y combatir contra los ingleses[xxxix]. A finales de julio el crítico naval del Berliner Tageblatt, capitán de navío (r) Karl Ludwig Lothar Persius (1864 – 1944) declaraba abiertamente el fracaso de la guerra submarina[xl].
El 29 de setiembre de 1918 el alto mando del Ejército alemán reclamó al gobierno imperial el inicio de negociaciones para un armisticio con los aliados. Cuatro días después el nuevo gabinete, con el príncipe Max de Baden a la cabeza[xli], enviaba una nota al gobierno de los Estados Unidos solicitando el armisticio sobre la base de los Catorce Puntos del presidente Woodrow Wilson.
Entretanto el ejército y la marina imperial se ocupaban de los efectos de la derrota. El alto mando militar hábilmente inició una campaña de propaganda entre las tropas del frente. Esta fue el origen del mito de la “puñalada por la espalda”, en el cual se apoyarían los partidos de extrema derecha durante la República de Weimar, en particular los nacionalsocialistas. Entre la oficialidad naval las células nacionalistas clandestinas salieron a la luz y, en contra de la voluntad de paz del gobierno Baden, sus integrantes dictaron las órdenes pertinentes para el alistamiento de la Flota para forzar el combate decisivo contra la Armada británica. El 28 de octubre la marinería de Kiel y Wilhelmshaven se amotinaron, utilizando como pretexto el nivel crítico al que había llegado el racionamiento de las dotaciones. Cinco días después Kiel – la capital de la Armada imperial – era escenario de manifestaciones en las que se exigía, además de la mejora del rancho, la reforma política y la libertad de los encarcelados por los motines de 1917. El temor de que el motín fuese develado a sangre y fuego, al estilo de la sublevación en Flandes, ocurrida el verano pasado, dio motivo a los amotinados para armarse y organizarse en soviets. Así, pues, el pabellón imperial fue arriado e izada la bandera roja. El motín fue controlado por la moderación de las autoridades navales y la intervención del diputado socialista Gustav Noske, hombre de autoridad y sentido práctico. No hubo violencia contra los oficiales y los amotinados fueron licenciados, dispersándose por toda Alemania. Guillermo II seguía los acontecimientos desde el cuartel general del Ejército Imperial en Spa (Bélgica). Conmocionado, declaró que ya no tenía una marina y abdicó. En aquella hora amarga Guillermo II dijo: “Espero que esto será en beneficio de Alemania. No desesperemos por el porvenir”. Una vez más se había repetido un viejo axioma sobre los motines navales: estos se producen en las flotas que permanecen ancladas en puerto, y son mayormente consecuencia de una derrota.
6. Ocaso
El 15 de noviembre de 1918 el almirante alemán Hugo Meurer (1869 – 1960) firmaba con su par británico, Jellicoe, las clausulas del acuerdo de internamiento de la flota imperial. Tres días después el almirante Ludwig von Reuter (1869 – 1943) asumía el mando de la escuadra de buques destinados al internamiento provisional en Escocia. Conformada por diez acorazados, siete cruceros ligeros y cincuenta destructores, su derrota hacia Escocia tuvo un aire que recordaba tiempos convulsos, pues cada buque ondeaba dos enseñas, la imperial a popa y la bandera roja en el palo de proa. El lugar definitivo de internamiento fue Scapa Flow, la base de la Grand Fleet británica, en el archipiélago de las Orcadas. Durante las negociaciones del Tratado de Versalles los buques permanecieron fondeados y severamente custodiados, a tal punto que sus tripulaciones se encontraban incomunicadas y prohibidas de tocar tierra.
En vísperas de la culminación de las negociaciones de paz en París, a fines de junio de 1919, el Times de Londres informaba que los aliados habían acordado exigir a Alemania la entrega de los buques internados a través de un arreglo financiero. En caso que la respuesta germana fuera negativa, correrían tres días de plazo para la denuncia del armisticio del 11 de noviembre de 1918 y, con ello, la reanudación de hostilidades. Con la convicción que el destino de la flota internada era la de trofeo de guerra, el almirante Von Reuter activó el plan de hundirla. Aprovechando un descuido de sus custodios, los alemanes abrieron los grifos de fondo de los buques y arriaron los botes salvavidas. En cinco horas se fueron a pique diez acorazados, cinco cruceros de batalla, cinco cruceros ligeros y cuarenta y cuatro destructores. Un crucero de batalla, cuatro cruceros ligeros y catorce destructores fueron embarrancados por personal británico. Ludwig von Reuter había protegido, in extremis, el honor de la flota[xlii].
La Hochseeflotte pudo haber tenido un final diferente si se hubiera prolongado la guerra. En setiembre de 1917, el almirante David Beatty (1871 – 1936), comandante de la Gran Flota, autorizó un audaz plan según el cual 121 aviones del Real Servicio Aéreo Naval (RNAS) destruirían la Hochseeflotte y sus bases de Kiel y de Wilhemshaven[xliii]. Los torpederos despegarían desde porta aeronaves – – y los hidroplanos – bombarderos desde sus bases del Canal de la Mancha. Este plan de ataque sirvió de modelo para el bombardeo de la flota italiana surta en Tarento, Sicilia, el 11 de noviembre de 1940.
7. A modo de conclusión
En su biografía de juventud “Historia de un alemán. Memorias 1914 – 1933” el periodista alemán Sebastian Haffner (1907 – 1999) escribió: “Esta enfermedad – el nacionalismo – que en otros casos sólo afecta el aspecto externo, en el suyo – los alemanes – les carcome el alma (…) Un alemán que cae víctima del nacionalismo deja de ser alemán, apenas es persona. Y lo que este movimiento genera es un imperio alemán, quizás incluso un gran imperio alemán o un imperio pangermánico y la consiguiente destrucción de Alemania”. Considero que esta reflexión personal de Haffner puede aplicarse a la existencia de la Marina Imperial alemana. Su carácter nacionalista debe comprenderse como una imitación del sentimiento nacional de los ingleses y franceses de su época[xliv]. Al imitar se corre el peligro de tomar los defectos ajenos[xlv]. ¿Necesitaba Alemania una Armada como la concebida por la ambición del almirante von Tirpitz? Creemos que no. Incluso el káiser Guillermo II (1859 – 1941) declaró, en un momento de lucidez, que la seguridad del Imperio no descansaba en nuevas conquistas[xlvi]. En 1871 Alemania había ganado el derecho a vivir como nación unida e independiente. En 1888 contaba con una Armada digna de respeto, garantía de su soberanía e, incluso, con un modesto imperio colonial. En 1918 Alemania perdió todo lo ganado y sus marinos se amotinaron para salvar sus vidas, porque no querían ser sacrificados en un combate inútil[xlvii]. En cuanto a Scapa Flow, este hecho fue una tragedia redentora para una Armada destruida moralmente. El almirante Von Reuter y sus oficiales demostraron que todo se había perdido, menos el honor.
Scapa Flow fue el último acto de un fracaso que se recuerda con una cita churchilliana, “la flota alemana es un lujo, no una necesidad nacional”. Creemos que dicha frase es equívoca. Al dotarse de una Armada poderosa, Alemania demostró su voluntad de ser un pueblo fuerte y con vocación marítima. Equívocamente se creyó que la libertad de los mares sólo podía alcanzarse por medio de la fuerza. Aquel dogma era propio de la época y la derrota alemana probó su falsedad arrastrando en su magnitud a su poderosa adversaria, Inglaterra, a la luz del impacto humanitario que provocó el bloqueo de las costas alemanas. El orgullo y la ambición desmedida fueron la perdición de la Marina Imperial Alemana. Sus virtudes fueron el valor y la pericia de los tripulantes de submarinos, destructores y cruceros auxiliares. Aquellos que servían a bordo de los dreadnoughts y cruceros de batalla no tuvieron la oportunidad de demostrar su calidad. La obra de construir una flota como la Armada Imperial fue extraordinaria. En ella vemos la maestría y las debilidades de sus artesanos, Von Stosch, Von Caprivi y Von Tirpitz.
REFERENCIAS
[i] “But we are victors and vanquished at one and at the same time, and in depicting our success the difficult problem confronts us of not forgetting that our strength did not last out to the end”
[ii] Desde los tiempos de Julio César Germania – Alemania fue considerada más que un pueblo, una vasta comunidad que habitaba en un territorio pobre y peligroso.
[iii] Serie de motines, sublevaciones e insurrecciones que estallaron en toda Europa, en las que se mezclaron motivos políticos, sociales y nacionales que puso fin al predominio del absolutismo en el continente europeo desde el Congreso de Viena de 1814 – 1815. Se inició el 12 de enero de 1848 en Reino de las Dos Sicilias y llegó a Prusia dos meses después, extendiéndose por toda Alemania a partir del mes de mayo, con la constitución del Parlamento Federal de los Estados Alemanes. La asamblea se dividió entre los representantes partidarios de la Gran Alemania (con Austria) y los de la Pequeña Alemania (sin Austria). Si bien la Asamblea se desintegró el 28 de abril de 1849, a causa de la negativa del rey de Prusia, Guillermo IV, de aceptar la corona imperial de una asamblea revolucionaria, dejó claramente planteada la cuestión de la unidad alemana bajo la hegemonía prusiana o austriaca.
[iv] El término Reich procede de una fusión ecléctica del Rix celta y el Rex latino, razón por la que se tradujo como imperio.
[v] FYFFE, Charles Alan (1845 – 1892), Historiador y periodista británico, corresponsal del Daily News durante la guerra franco – prusiana.
[vi] DOMINGUEZ RODIÑO, Enrique (1918, 13 de marzo), “Las Grandes Potencias: Alemania V”, La Vanguardia, Barcelona, p. 12
[vii] TENBROCK, Robert Hermann, “Historia de Alemania”, Paderborn: Hueber – Schöning, 1968, 344p, p. 218
[viii] PARK, Evan (2015), “The Nationalist Fleet: Radical Nationalism and The Imperial German Navy from Unification to 1914”, Journal of Military and Strategic Studies, Volume 16, issue2, p. 125 – 159, p. 136
[ix] KLLEJEN, Johan Rudolf ((1864 – 1922), Geógrafo, politólogo y político sueco. Fue catedrático de ciencias políticas y estadística de las universidades de Gotemburgo y de Upsala. En 1899 acuñó el término “Geopolítica”.
[x] DOMINGUEZ RODIÑO, Enrique, (1918, 6 de febrero), “Las Grandes Potencias: Alemania II”, La Vanguardia, sección “La Guerra Europea”, p. 9
[xi] “Sólo en la Guerra se forja una nación. Sólo las grandes acciones comunes en nombre de la patria unen a la Nación. El individualismo cede y el individuo se difumina y se convierte en parte de un todo” – Heinrich von Treistchke
[xii] Online edition of Admiral Reinhard Scheer’s WW1 memoirs, published in 1920 http:// www.richthofen.com/scheer
[xiii] Esta frase, según el filosofo e historiador romano Plutarco (46/50 DC – 120 DC), había sido pronunciada por el caudillo Pompeyo (106 AC – 48 AC) arengando a sus marineros a embarcarse a pesar del amenazador estado de la mar, recordándoles que el deber está por encima de cualquier miedo o de cualquier circunstancia.
[xiv] La Reichsflotte (Flota Imperial) fue la primera marina unificada alemana. Fue creada el 14 de enero de 1848 por la Asamblea Nacional Alemana de Fráncfort, con el fin de contar con una fuerza naval en la Primera Guerra de Schleswig (1850 – 1852) contra Dinamarca. La fecha de su creación se considera, simbólicamente, como el inicio de la Armada alemana moderna. Ver: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichsflotte
[xv] PARK, Evan (2015), “The Nationalist Fleet: Radical Nationalism and The Imperial German Navy from Unification to 1914”, Journal of Military and Strategic Studies, Volume 16, issue 2, p. 125 – 159, p. 131 – 132
[xvi] “Necesitamos buques que sean apropiados para proteger a la marina mercante ofensivamente y escuadrones que estacionemos para fines de policía en lugares distantes. Considero que los acorazados son un error; son superfluos para nuestras condiciones porque no podemos combatir en un combate de largo aliento” – Albert von Stosch
[xvii] Actualmente Szczecin, Polonia
[xviii] El artículo 53 de la Constitución Imperial de 1871 decía que la Marina del Imperio se encontraba al mando del Emperador, correspondiéndole ocuparse de su organización y composición.
[xix] RUBIO Y BELLVE, Mariano (1916, 22 de octubre), “El Canal de Kiel”, La Vanguardia, Sección “La Guerra Europea”,
[xx] « Des facultés d’invention et d’imagination, un esprit d’initiative et de ressources une hardiesse avisée et souple auxquels il faut rendre hommage, servis admirablement par une puissance industrielle de premier ordre (…) et le dévouement passionné d’un personnel d’élite » GRANDHOMME, Jean – Noel, « Du pompon à la plume: l’amiral, commentateur de la guerre et de la paix d’inquiétude, 1914 – 1919 », Guerres mondiales et conflits contemporains, 2007/3 Nº227, p.43 – 64 DOI :10.3917/gmcc.227.0043, p. 53
[xxi] DOMINGUEZ RODIÑO, Enrique, (1918, 6 de febrero), “Las Grandes Potencias: Alemania II”, La Vanguardia, sección “La Guerra Europea”, p. 9
[xxii] La ventaja de contar con el favor imperial constituyó, a la larga, al problema para la consolidación de la cadena de comando de la Armada.
[xxiii] A diferencia de Inglaterra, la Alemania imperial nunca tuvo un apoyo tributario que le permitiera con una fuente de financiación estable y permanente de su Armada. La Royal Navy disfrutaba de los ingresos producidos por una serie de impuestos y tasas al comercio colonial .
[xxiv] SCHEER, Reinhard (1920), “Germany’s High Seas Fleet in the World War”, Cassell & Co,, p. 176
[xxv] Esta frase es el elemento central del discurso del ministro de relaciones Exteriores, Bernhard von Bülow, del 6 de diciembre de 1897, en el cual anunció el golpe de timón de la política exterior alemana, de la política europea de Bismarck (europapolitik) a la global del káiser Guillermo II (Weltpolitik), es decir, del balance de poderes en Europa a la expansión mundial del poderío alemán.
[xxvi] En sus memorias Tirpitz niega que su intención fuera ir a la guerra contra Inglaterra. Por lo contrario, señala que la Armada Imperial tenía un carácter defensivo contra las intenciones bélicas de los británicos, amén de darles unas cuantas lecciones en política internacional.
[xxvii] La Vanguardia (29 de noviembre de 1914), página 16, segunda columna: “Londres, 28 – La Oficina de Trabajo ha publicado a los efectos de la guerra sobre las marinas mercantes inglesa y alemana. De dicho informe se desprende que el 97 por cien de los buques ingleses siguen prestando servicios mientras el 89 por cien de los alemanes han dejado de prestarlo, y que la mayoría de los que navegan son pequeños buques de cabotaje”
[xxviii] Fundada en 1898, la DFV – se definía “como una muestra de concordia entre el trabajador y el príncipe, la izquierda y la derecha, el norte y el sur, un movimiento popular fundado en el amor a la patria, sin distinción de ideas políticas y religiosas ni barrera social alguna”.
[xxix] El rayo de la muerte o rayo de tesla es un arma que permite disparar un haz de partículas microscópicas hacia seres vivos u objetos para destruirlos. Supuestamente fue inventado entre la década de 1920 y 1930 de manera independiente por Nikola Tesla, Edwin R. Scott y Harry Grindell Matthews, entre otros. El aparato nunca fue desarrollado, pero ha alimentado la imaginación de muchos autores de ciencia ficción y ha inspirado la creación de conceptos como la pistola de rayos láser, utilizada por héroes de ficción como Flash Gordon. Ver: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayo_de_la_muerte
[xxx] MILLE, Mateo, “Historia Naval de la Gran Guerra 1914 – 1918”, Barcelona: Inédita Editores, SL, 2010, 548 p., p. 123
[xxxi] El Comercio (02 de junio de 1916), edición de la mañana, página 4, tercera y cuarta columnas
[xxxii] RUBIO Y BELLVE, Mariano (1916, 11 de junio), “En el mar”, La Vanguardia, sección “La Guerra Europea”, p. 14, 1 – 4 Col.
[xxxiii] La Vanguardia, (29 de mayo de 1916), página 6, tercera columna
[xxxiv] MILLE, Mateo, “Historia Naval de la Gran Guerra 1914 – 1918”, Barcelona: Inédita Editores, SL, 2010, 548 p., p. 11
[xxxv] PATERSON, Tony, (2014, 17 de junio), “A History of the First World War in 100 moments: My dear parents, I have been sentenced to death…”, The Independent
[xxxvi] La Vanguardia (20 de octubre de 1917), página 13, primera columna
[xxxvii] La Vanguardia (26 de enero de 1918), página 9, tercera columna
[xxxviii] El Comercio, (23 de marzo de 1916), edición de la mañana, página 1, tercera y cuarta columnas
[xxxix] La Vanguardia, (18 de mayo de 1918), página 9, cuarta columna
[xl] La Vanguardia (28 de julio de 1918), página 13, primera columna
[xli] El 03 de octubre de 1918 marca el inicio de una de serie de gobiernos concebidos entre cábalas y motines. La política alemana no se estabilizó hasta el año 1922, tras el asesinato del ministro de relaciones exteriores, el industrial Walter Rathenau (1867 – 1922). Su muerte unió, brevemente, a la mayoría silenciosa contra los radicalismos políticos.
[xlii] Fue testigo de estos hechos Claude Stanley Choules (1901 – 2011), el último de los últimos veteranos británicos de la Primera Guerra Mundial
[xliii] WILKINS, Tony (2015, 03 de agosto), “World War I’s abandoned Pearl Harbour Attack”, Ver: http://defence of the realm.wordpress.com/2015/03/08/world-war-Is-abandoned-pearl-harbour-attack/
[xliv] “Repróchese a los alemanes el que imiten unas veces a los ingleses y otras a los franceses, pues es lo mejor que pueden hacer. Reducidos a sus propios medios nada sensato podrían ofrecernos”.
[xlv] “¡Bienaventurados nuestros imitadores, porque de ellos serán nuestros defectos!” – Jacinto Benavente, dramaturgo español (1866 – 1954)
[xlvi] Al Imperio Alemán no le es menester nueva gloria militar ni conquistas, ahora que ha ganado el derecho de vivir como nación unida e independiente” – Guillermo II (1888)
[xlvii] “Alemania en sí no es nada, pero cada alemán es mucho por sí mismo” – Goethe (1808)
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☕Amaneció en mi escritorio, ¿es un aviso? 📖Paleografía: MAYATL Grafía normalizada: mayatl Tipo: r.n. Traducción uno: Scarabée ou coléoptère de couleur verte. Traducción dos: scarabée ou coléoptère de couleur verte. Diccionario: Wimmer Contexto: mayâtl Scarabée ou coléoptère de couleur verte. Insecte de couleur verte. Launey II 240 note 175. Hallorina duguesi. Sah Garibay IV 101. Mexicanisme: mayate. Diccionario de Mexicanismos. Santamaria. Description. Sah11,101. Illustration. Dib.Anders. XI fig.356. " inic tlachîuhtli tlatzauctli îca in mayâtl xoxoctli ", il est fait ainsi, il est encollé de scarabée verts - ist in folgender Weise hergestellt: Er ist mit einem Mosaik von grünen Käfer (flügeln) bedeckt. Acad Hist MS 68,69 §8. SGA II 547. Cf. également ECN10,158 qui traduit: they are made of a mosaic of green beetles (yn mayatl xoxocti). Beetle = coléoptère. R.Siméon dit 'escarbot ailé de couleur verte' (Clav.). Escarbot = nom commun de divers coléoptères, en particulier l'hister. Fuente: 2004 Wimmer Entradas mayatl - En: 1571 Molina 2 mayatl - En: 1580 CF Index mayatl - En: 1780 Clavijero mayatl - En: 2004 Wimmer Descomposición maya-tl Palabras maya maya + mayahua mayahualoa mayahuel mayahui mayahui + mayahuia mayahuilia mayahuiliztli mayahuini mayahuini + mayahuito mayahuiz mayamanqui mayamiqui mayampoloa mayan mayana mayanacochtli aaccayotl ac mach tlacatl acacalotl acacapacquilitl acacatl acachachacatl acachatl acachiquihuitl acacocoyotl acacoyotl acacuahuitl acacueyatl acacuiyatl acahuatototl acaiyetl acalcuachpancuahuitl acalcuachpanitl acalcuauhyollotl acalmaitl acalpatiotl Paleografía maiatl - En: 1580 CF Index Traducciones XI-101 - En: 1580 CF Index Mayate, cierta especie de escarabajo verde - En: 1780 Clavijero cierto escarauajo que buela. - En: 1571 Molina 2 Scarabée ou coléoptère de couleur verte. - En: 2004 Wimmer https://www.instagram.com/p/CeviT4EOp9yyyU970GbyyC2byvKIrll9pNaVz80/?igshid=NGJjMDIxMWI=
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THE PROPHECY OF Zacharias - From The Douay-Rheims Bible - Latin Vulgate
Chapter 11
INTRODUCTION.
Zacharias or Zachariah began to prophesy in the same year as Aggeus, and upon the same occasion. His prophecy is full of mysterious figures and promises of blessings, partly relating to the synagogue and partly to the Church of Christ. Ch. --- He is the "most obscure and longest of the twelve;" (S. Jer.) though Osee wrote the same number of chapters. H. --- Zacharias has been confounded with many others of the same name. Little is known concerning his life. Some have asserted that the ninth and two following chapters were written by Jeremias, in whose name C. xi. 12. is quoted Mat. xxvii. 9. But that is more probably a mistake of transcribers. Zacharias speaks more plainly of the Messias and of the last siege of Jerusalem than the rest, as he live nearer those times. C. --- His name signifies, "the memory of the Lord." S. Jer. --- He appeared only two months after Aggeus, and shewed that the Church should flourish in the synagogue, and much more after the coming of Christ, who would select his first preachers from among the Jews. Yet few of them shall embrace the gospel, in comparison with the Gentiles, though they shall at last be converted. S. Jer. ad Paulin. W.
The additional Notes in this Edition of the New Testament will be marked with the letter A. Such as are taken from various Interpreters and Commentators, will be marked as in the Old Testament. B. Bristow, C. Calmet, Ch. Challoner, D. Du Hamel, E. Estius, J. Jansenius, M. Menochius, Po. Polus, P. Pastorini, T. Tirinus, V. Bible de Vence, W. Worthington, Wi. Witham. — The names of other authors, who may be occasionally consulted, will be given at full length.
Verses are in English and Latin.
HAYDOCK CATHOLIC BIBLE COMMENTARY
This Catholic commentary on the Old Testament, following the Douay-Rheims Bible text, was originally compiled by Catholic priest and biblical scholar Rev. George Leo Haydock (1774-1849). This transcription is based on Haydock's notes as they appear in the 1859 edition of Haydock's Catholic Family Bible and Commentary printed by Edward Dunigan and Brother, New York, New York.
TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
Changes made to the original text for this transcription include the following:
Greek letters. The original text sometimes includes Greek expressions spelled out in Greek letters. In this transcription, those expressions have been transliterated from Greek letters to English letters, put in italics, and underlined. The following substitution scheme has been used: A for Alpha; B for Beta; G for Gamma; D for Delta; E for Epsilon; Z for Zeta; E for Eta; Th for Theta; I for Iota; K for Kappa; L for Lamda; M for Mu; N for Nu; X for Xi; O for Omicron; P for Pi; R for Rho; S for Sigma; T for Tau; U for Upsilon; Ph for Phi; Ch for Chi; Ps for Psi; O for Omega. For example, where the name, Jesus, is spelled out in the original text in Greek letters, Iota-eta-sigma-omicron-upsilon-sigma, it is transliterated in this transcription as, Iesous. Greek diacritical marks have not been represented in this transcription.
Footnotes. The original text indicates footnotes with special characters, including the astrisk (*) and printers' marks, such as the dagger mark, the double dagger mark, the section mark, the parallels mark, and the paragraph mark. In this transcription all these special characters have been replaced by numbers in square brackets, such as [1], [2], [3], etc.
Accent marks. The original text contains some English letters represented with accent marks. In this transcription, those letters have been rendered in this transcription without their accent marks.
Other special characters.
Solid horizontal lines of various lengths that appear in the original text have been represented as a series of consecutive hyphens of approximately the same length, such as ---.
Ligatures, single characters containing two letters united, in the original text in some Latin expressions have been represented in this transcription as separate letters. The ligature formed by uniting A and E is represented as Ae, that of a and e as ae, that of O and E as Oe, and that of o and e as oe.
Monetary sums in the original text represented with a preceding British pound sterling symbol (a stylized L, transected by a short horizontal line) are represented in this transcription with a following pound symbol, l.
The half symbol (1/2) and three-quarters symbol (3/4) in the original text have been represented in this transcription with their decimal equivalent, (.5) and (.75) respectively.
Unreadable text. Places where the transcriber's copy of the original text is unreadable have been indicated in this transcription by an empty set of square brackets, [].
Chapter 11
The destruction of Jerusalem and the temple. God's dealings with the Jews, and their reprobation.
[1] Open thy gates, O Libanus, and let fire devour thy cedars.
Aperi, Libane, portas tuas, et comedat ignis cedros tuas.
[2] Howl, thou fir tree, for the cedar is fallen, for the mighty are laid waste: howl, ye oaks of Basan, because the fenced forest is cut down.
Ulula, abies, quia cecidit cedrus, quoniam magnifici vastati sunt : ululate, quercus Basan, quoniam succisus est saltus munitus.
[3] The voice of the howling of the shepherds, because their glory is laid waste: the voice of the roaring of the lions, because the pride of the Jordan is spoiled.
Vox ululatus pastorum, quia vastata est magnificentia eorum : vox rugitus leonum, quoniam vastata est superbia Jordanis.
[4] Thus saith the Lord my God: Feed the flock of the slaughter,
Haec dicit Dominus Deus meus : Pasce pecora occisionis,
[5] Which they that possessed, slew, and repented not, and they sold them, saying: Blessed be the Lord, we are become rich: and their shepherds spared them not.
quae qui possederant occidebant, et non dolebant, et vendebant ea, dicentes : Benedictus Dominus! divites facti sumus : et pastores eorum non parcebant eis.
[6] And I will no more spare the inhabitants of the land, saith the Lord: behold I will deliver the men, every one into his neighbour's hand, and into the hand of his king: and they shall destroy the land, and I will not deliver it out of their hand.
Et ego non parcam ultra super habitantes terram, dicit Dominus : ecce ego tradam homines, unumquemque in manu proximi sui, et in manu regis sui : et concident terram, et non eruam de manu eorum.
[7] And I will feed the flock of slaughter for this, O ye poor of the flock. And I took unto me two rods, one I called Beauty, and the other I called a Cord, and I fed the flock.
Et pascam pecus occisionis propter hoc, o pauperes gregis! et assumpsi mihi duas virgas : unam vocavi Decorem, et alteram vocavi Funiculum : et pavi gregem.
[8] And I cut off three shepherds in one month, and my soul was straitened in their regard: for their soul also varied in my regard.
Et succidi tres pastores in mense uno, et contracta est anima mea in eis, siquidem et anima eorum variavit in me.
[9] And I said: I will not feed you: that which dieth, let it die: and that which is cut off, let it be cut off: and let the rest devour every one the flesh of his neighbour.
Et dixi : Non pascam vos : quod moritur, moriatur, et quod succiditur, succidatur : et reliqui devorent unusquisque carnem proximi sui.
[10] And I took my rod that was called Beauty, and I cut it asunder to make void my covenant, which I had made with all people.
Et tuli virgam meam quae vocabatur Decus, et abscidi eam, ut irritum facerem foedus meum quod percussi cum omnibus populis.
[11] And it was made void in that day: and so the poor of the flock that keep for me, understood that it is the word of the Lord.
Et in irritum deductum est in die illa : et cognoverunt sic pauperes gregis, qui custodiunt mihi, quia verbum Domini est.
[12] And I said to them: If it be good in your eyes, bring hither my wages: and if not, be quiet. And they weighed for my wages thirty pieces of silver.
Et dixi ad eos : Si bonum est in oculis vestris, afferte mercedem meam : et si non, quiescite. Et appenderunt mercedem meam triginta argenteos.
[13] And the Lord said to me: Cast it to the statuary, a handsome price, that I was prized at by them. And I took the thirty pieces of silver, and I cast them into the house of the Lord to the statuary.
Et dixit Dominus ad me : Projice illud ad statuarium, decorum pretium quo appretiatus sum ab eis. Et tuli triginta argenteos, et projeci illos in domum Domini, ad statuarium.
[14] And I cut off my second rod that was called a Cord, that I might break the brotherhood between Juda and Israel.
Et praecidi virgam meam secundam, quae appellabatur Funiculus, ut dissolverem germanitatem inter Judam et Israel.
[15] And the Lord said to me: Take to thee yet the instruments of a foolish shepherd.
Et dixit Dominus ad me : Adhuc sunt tibi vasa pastoris stulti.
[16] For behold I will raise up a shepherd in the land, who shall not visit what is forsaken, nor seek what is scattered, nor heal what is broken, nor nourish that which standeth, and he shall eat the flesh of the fat ones, and break their hoofs.
Quia ecce ego suscitabo pastorem in terra, qui derelicta non visitabit, dispersum non quaeret, et contritum non sanabit, et id quod stat non enutriet, et carnes pinguium comedet, et ungulas eorum dissolvet.
[17] O shepherd, and idol, that forsaketh the flock: the sword upon his arm and upon his right eye: his arm shall quite wither away, and his right eye shall be utterly darkened.
O pastor, et idolum derelinquens gregem : gladius super brachium ejus, et super oculum dextrum ejus : brachium ejus ariditate siccabitur, et oculus dexter ejus tenebrescens obscurabitur.
Commentary:
Ver. 1. Gates. Josephus (Bel. vii. 12.) relates, that the heavy eastern gates flew open at midnight: and the priests officiating at Pentecost, heard a multitude crying, "Let us go hence." See Tacit. Hist. v. Johanan then declared, "O temple, I know thou wilt so be destroyed," as Zac. foretold, Open, &c. Kimchi, Lyr. &c. C. --- Libanus. So Jerusalem, and more particularly the temple, is called by the prophets, from its height, and from its being built of the cedars of Libanus. Ch. Is. x. 34. Ezec. xvii. S. Jer. --- The destruction of both by Titus is predicted. W. --- Cedars. Thy princes and chief men. Ch. W.
Ver. 2. Fir and oak may signify the cities and towns of the Jews. --- Fenced. Sept. "well planted;" (C.) or "forest, planted all at once." H. --- "The temple was like a fortress." Tacit.
Ver. 3. Pride, or farther banks, covered with shrubs, among which lions dwelt. Jer. l. 44. C.
Ver. 4. Feed, thou Zacharias; (M.) or the prophet announces what God will do. --- Slaughter, whom Herod and his successors, the Zealots, Eleazar, Simon, and John, so cruelly oppressed and brought to ruin. C.
Ver. 6. Hand. This alludes to the last siege of Jerusalem, in which the different factions of the Jews destroyed one another, and they that remained fell into the hands of their king, (that is, of the Roman emperor) of whom they had said, (Jo. xiv. 15.) We have no king but Cæsar. Ch. --- The besieged slew each other daily, so that Vespasian did not hurry. Jos. Bel. v. 2. and vi. 1.
Ver. 7. For this. Christ came to feed his flock. C. --- But the Jews would not receive him. H. --- Sept. read (C.) locnani, as v. 11, "of slaughter into Chanaan, and I," &c. H. --- Two rods, or shepherds' staves, meaning the different ways of God's dealing with his people; the one by sweet means, called the rod of Beauty, the other by bands and punishments, called the Cord. And where both these rods are made of no use or effect by the obstinacy of sinners, the rods are broken, and such sinners are given up to a reprobate sense, as the Jews were. Ch. --- The first denotes God's general providence, as it is most seemly that all should be under him; the second means his particular care of the Jews. W. --- God uses both the crook and the whip, employing both severity and tenderness. Now all proves in vain.
Ver. 8. Month. That is, in a very short time. By these three shepherds probably are meant the latter princes and high priests of the Jews, whose reign was short. Ch. --- Ismael, Joseph, and Ananus, all obtained the dignity in one year; and as they and their predecessors were actuated by avarice, they could not fail being displeasing to God. Galba, Otho, and Vitellius were likewise cut off in little more than a year, when Vespasian succeeded, and his son took Jerusalem. C. --- The Jews pretend that Moses, Aaron, and Mary are here meant. S. Jer. --- But what reference can the prophet have to them?
Ver. 9. Not feed. This is the final sentence. God allowed them thirty-seven years to repent, after the death of Christ.
Ver. 10. All people. Hereupon all fell upon the Jews.
Ver. 11. Poor converted to Christ, (C.) who retired to Pella, (Eus. Hist. iv. 5.) as they had been warned of the impending storm. Mat. xxiv. 1. Lu. xxi. 20.
Ver. 12. Pieces. Sicles are usually understood. About fifty-one livres. The Jews bought the life of Christ for this sum; (C.) thirty pieces. W.
Ver. 13. The statuary. The Heb. word signifies also a potter, (Ch.) and this seems to be the true meaning. Mat. xxvii. 3. The prophet is ordered to bring, thus to indicate what should be done by the traitor. C. --- Sept. "cast them into the crucible to see if it (the metal) be good, as I have been tried by them." H.
Ver. 14. Israel. The latter remained obstinate, (C.) while Juda, the real "confessor," (H.) embraced the gospel. After the destruction of the temple, the Jewish ceremonies were no longer (C.) observed or tolerated in the Church, as they had been, in order that the synagogue might be buried with honour. S. Aug. H. --- The Jews are rejected. W.
Ver. 15. A foolish shepherd. This was to represent the foolish, that is, the wicked princes and priests that should rule the people, before their utter destruction. Ch. --- Caligula, Claudius, or Nero, monsters of stupidity, may also be meant. To such the Jews preferred to submit: but they soon found out their mistake, when it was too late. Caligula and Nero would be adored in the temple!
Ver. 16. Hoofs, with excessive travelling. C. --- They shew no pity, but are wholly intent on their own pleasures. H.
Ver. 17. Shepherd. Sept. "ye who feed foolish things, forsaking," &c. H. --- Heb. "shepherd of nothing." --- Darkened. Caligula was slain, and had not sense to know what was for this real interest. His wife and only daughter were murdered. See Jos. Ant. xix. 1. Suet. --- His maxim was, "Let them hate, provided they fear;" and he wished the Romans had "all but one neck," that he might cut it off. C. - Antichrist, the destroyer, shall perish. W.
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XI
Túlio, melhor é te ensinar a conhecer
Essa coisa do amor, porque entendi
Que amor não se fez no teu peito imaturo.
Se tens cinquenta anos, e eu quarenta e três,
Em mim há muitas dores, tantas
Quanto te espantas do meu bem-querer.
Túlio.
Quando se ama, rubor e lividez, banalidade
E chama, se alternam, como em certas tardes
Tu vês a chuva, o chão de terra lavado,
E num segundo nem há sombra de águas
E vês o sol oblíquo, enviesado, uma luz
Quase ferida, para os teus olhos recentes
De umas águas. E há sentires plangentes,
Agonias, um não dizer inflamado, uma febre
Marejada de poesia.
E tudo o que eu te digo, tecido de palavras,
Porque te amo tanto, Túlio, disse nada.
Hilda Hist
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Alas! Poor Johnny (William Heath, 1828)
Wellington, in uniform, bestrides the back of John Bull, driving him on hands and knees towards the pit of Hell (right), a gulf where tiny demons fly among flames and smoke. J. B. is coatless, his clothes tattered and patched; sweat drips from his forehead and he shrieks piteously, turning up his eyes to his tormentor, who guides him with the sword of Despotism, holding it against his face as if about to cut off his nose. In Wellington's left hand are a paper, Corn Bill, and a bunch of thorns with which he strikes J. B.'s posterior, at which he jabs with his heavy spur. Under J. B'.s leg are two papers: Anti Tythes and Triennial Parliments [sic]. To his ankle is attached a chain by which he drags behind him a heavy mill-stone inscribed Tythes, Taxes, National Debt; from under the stone projects a paper: Domestick Happiness. Before J. B. capers the Devil, wearing a tartan kilt and sporran, and playing a fiddle while he grins ferociously over his shoulder as he steps into the pit. Behind them (right) is a hill surmounted by a round temple, a dome resting on pillars, and inscribed Canning; before it is the inscription Civil and Religious Liberty. The temple is irradiated by a large setting sun. Down the hill to the left gallop the four horses of a hearse; the undertakers sit on the box-like vehicle, smoking and drinking and waving hats draped with mourning scarves; the driver resembles Eldon, but all the figures are tiny; they are presumably the disgruntled high-Tories, cf. BM Satires No. 15502. Feb 3 1828 Hand-coloured etching;Lettered with title, artist's name and publication line: "Pub Feb 3d 1828 by G Humphrey St James's Street"
(Description and comment from M. Dorothy George, 'Catalogue of Political and Personal Satires in the British Museum', XI, 1954)
A satire, lacking coherence, on the burdens of John Bull, cf. No. 15497. Wellington announced, 29 Jan., the Government's intention to introduce a Bill similar to the temporary measure of 1827, see No. 15409. Parl. Deb., N.s. xviii. 25. The Bill was a compromise between the views of Wellington and Huskisson and gave more protection. It did not satisfy critics of the Corn Laws but introduced a period, 1828-32, when the agitation was in abeyance. G. Barnes, Hist, of the English Corn Laws 1660-1846, 1930, ch. x. For Wellington's Ministry as militarist see No. 15500, &c. The reason for the Scottish attributes of the Devil is obscure, possibly an allusion to Melville, an anti-Canningite in the Ministry, cf. No. 15706, is intended.
Description taken from the British Museum website http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=1664708&partId=1
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Was Rodrigo Borgia a soldier in his youth? If so, did he ever kill someone?
There exists a story of Roderic’s pretended debaucheries and total depravity. This book is an anonymous manuscript of one hundred and twenty pages in quarto, under the catchy title of “Vita di Don etc”, “A Life of Don Roderigo Borgia, afterwards pope Alexander VI, and of Cesar Borgia and brothers, sons of the above said Pontiff, together with the Memoirs of the most hidden events that took place during the above-said Pontificate, the whole of it drawn from the manuscripts of the Vatican Library”.
It was evidently composed or inspired by a man, whom his hatred of the late Alexander VI had deprived of common sense; and it was written at a time when Italian tyrants and barons, whom that Pope chastised, and other complainants of his administration and reforms could with impunity take revenge on him, in the usual way of besmirching his moral character. No printer would lower himself by casting the lampoon upon his press, but it was reduplicated by hand over and over again.
In one of its first folios the anonymous pamphlet states that
Roderic’s father, Goffredo Borgia, had led many caravans for the kings of Spain, occupied the highest positions at their court, commanded many castles, and had, after long year’s service, gathered great wealth. Among several of his sons there was Roderic, who loved sciences and letters, and also proved to be a genius for war and the arms; for, when yet a little boy, he used to go hunting with the luxuries of an arquebuse, a pistol and a poniard. It is said that when twelve years old, he killed a boy of his age, but of low birth, stabbing him several times in the intestines with his poniard, because the child had addressed to him a few disrespectful words, which were perhaps instigated by the little rascal’s own parents, to correct Roderic of his forwardness. This was the first exploit of his ferocity, the first evident token of how, growing in years, he would become another devil Lucifer, and finally the most sanguinary, the most cruel barbarian that the world could conceive.
This is a pretty rude thrust on the pious and diligent schoolboy, as we have found Roderic to be; and it is also an original pattern for subsequent revilers of the Borgias. After reading the indictment we have a right to look next for the arm of justice, taking the juvenile criminal to a reform school; but we are left to suppose that the judge was corrupted, some jurymen bribed, or the prosecuting attorney silenced with “graft”. The pamphleteer himself was not, however, devoid of all sentiment of justice, for he explicitly remarks that young Borgia’s father (who, by the way, was dead and buried years before) ought to have punished his son for the murder but he tamely adds that he dropped the affair without any resentment as if his son had done a favor to his victim; and such, it seems from the manuscript was the opinion of the rest of the world. We shall make but one remark, namely that this interesting detail was too romantic for historians to copy.
His father, Goffredo Borgia (of blessed memory), was making a large fortune, by conducting, in the name of the Spanish Crown, many caravans. He kept his son at school till he was eighteen years old, and then confided to him the management of his own business and Roderic took it up and attended to it with great diligence and a prudence worhy of an old man.
These his first activities in Spain are all the more remarkable, because he was in Italy at that very time, engaged in studying law at the university of Bologna. A vague remembrance of this latter fact may have led the writer to continue with the puzzling assertions that follow:
When he grew older, he privately and publicly gave proof of his genius in the handling of cases at law, and defended many clients, called in turn at many castles, and was rewarded with numerous incomes, which he derived from “benefices”. But he turned away his mind from the ecclesiastical carrer, put aside all his books and resolved to become a knight and travel as his father had done.
Whatever all this may signify, it certainly must have happened about the time that Roderic became a Roman cardinal. Bowler (History of the Popes, vol 2, p. 259) but slightly contradicts his original, by omitting Roderic’s first employment as his dead father’s agent; yet admits the pamphlet, when he says that at the age of eighteen years he betook himself to the stufy of law, and was, in a very short time, employed as an advocate in the most intricate cases, and acquired by that means a considerable fortune; but soon grew tired of law and appeared in the world in a military character. Reumont (Gesch der Stadt Rom, III, 201) admits both the vocations of law and of arms, while Encyclopedia Britannica (Art. Alexander VI) concedes only either one, and strangely prefers the practice of law. Yet a variant copy of the manuscript, kept as Codex 1641, in the Urbinate Vatican Library, very precisely relates that already in his tenderest years he girded the sword, in the service of the grand-duke of Sanseverino, who was then in Spain in conference with the King. The original, less definite, reports only that Roderic was, at times, seen marching in the uniform of a soldier going to war. The later historian, Dennistoun (Memoirs of the Dukes of Urbino, vol. 1, p. 302) asserts that his youth was spent in arms, and Roselly de Lorgues (Crist. Columb. I, 327) thinks the evil repute of pope Alexander VI to have been caused by the confusion of his life as a soldier with his unblemished conduct as a Pope. Father Olivier needed and eagerly embraced the theory of Roderic de Borgia’s military career, to build upon it the romance of his “Le Pape Alexandre VI et les Borgia” and also did Clément de Vebron make use of it in writing his defense of that Pontiff’s moral character, in the beginning of his “Les Borgia”. H. de l’Epinois (Rev. des Quest. Hist., t. XXIX, p. 365) further mentions the late historians, Cerri, Rohrbacher (Hist. Univers. de l’Eglise, t. 22, p. 340) and Mgr Févre, as adherents, in this question, to the anonymous manuscript. Chantrel (Le Pape Alexandre VI, p.39), Jorry (Hist. du Pape Alexandre VI, p. 14), Wensing (Paus Alexander VI, bl. 28) and other might be added to the list of deceived recent writers. H. de l’Epinois, however, assures us that their opinion rests upon no text, that is, upon no good authority, and Matagne justly declares (Rev. des Quest. Hist., t. XI, p. 182) that the old pamphlet’s free copy, the Catanense manuscript, quoted by Olivier, is, as commended by Olivier himself, unworthy of considerations. Burchard, Guicciardini, Jovius, Panvinio, Curita, Bzvius, Tomasi, Raynaldi, Mariana, Alexander: all are silent about it. Before Gordon, that is, before 1729, no one hints at it. After showing that Roderic de Borgia never had either time or occasion to follow a military career, we may remove the last shadow of doubt, by adducing the testimony of pope Alexander VI himself. When, in the year 1500, he dispatched the cardinal of Santa Maria Nova to Maximilian, the German emperor-elect, he gave him written instructions, according to which the legate was to propose, in the name of the Pope, certain plans for warfare of the Christians against the Turks; yet, he was ordered to make the apologizing remark, that
The Pontiff had scarcely the faintest idea of science of war, since he had been engaged in matter of religion and had not followed military camps. Licet vel minimam rerum bellicarum peritiam habeamus, utpote qui sacra secuti sumus et non castra.
He makes use of the same expression in the Instructions given to his legate to the king of Hungary; and to the king of Spain he writes
Having been from the beginning of our life, initiated in sacred functions, to which we have always given our attention, and being, at last, placed in this sacred and pontifical chair, We cannot, now that our years become more and more burdensome, treat of anything less than arms and military concerns.
#rodrigo borgia#the borgias#alexander vi#borgia#remember when giulia farnese asked to rodrigo is this rumour was true?#tom fontana did a great work and we all love and praise him
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Sorry for the delay, life has had me busy. I present to you the temple of the week.
TEMPLE OF CASTOR AND PULLOX
Castor, aedes: a temple of Castor (or the Dioscuri?) in circo Flaminio, that is, in Region IX, to which there are but two references. Its day of dedication was 13th August (Hemerol. Allif. Amit. ad id. Aug.; CIL I2 p325: Castori Polluci in Circo Flaminio; Fast. Ant. ap. NS 1921, 107), and it is cited by Vitruvius (IV.8.4) as an example of an unusual type (columnis adiectis dextra ac sinistra ad umeros pronai), like a temple of Athene on the Acropolis at Athens, and another at Sunium (Gilb. III.76, 84).
Castor, aedes, templum: * the temple of Castor and Pollux at the south-east corner of the forum area, close to the fons Iuturnae (Cic. de nat. deor. III.13; Plut. Coriol. 3; Dionys, VI.13; Mart. I.70.3; FUR fr. 20, cf. NS 1882, 233). According to tradition, it was vowed in 499 B.C. by the dictator Postumius, when the Dioscuri appeared on this spot after the battle of Lake Regillus, and dedicated in 484 by the son of the dictator who was appointed duumvir for this purpose (Liv. II.20.12, 42.5; Dionys. loc. cit.). The day of dedication is given in the calendar as 27th January (Fast. Praen. CIL I2 p308; Fast. Verol. ap. NS 1923, 196; Ov. Fast. I.705‑706), but by Livy (II.42.5) as 15th July. The laterº may be merely an error, or the date of the first temple only (see WR 216‑217, and literature there cited).
Its official name was aedes Castoris (Suet. Caes. 10: ut enim geminis fratribus aedes in foro constituta tantum Castoris vocaretur; Cass. Dio XXXVII.8; and regularly in literature and inscriptions — Cic. pro Sest. 85; in Verr. I.131, 132, 133, 134; III.41; Liv. cit. and VIII.11.16; Fest. 246, 286;1 Gell. XI.3.2; Mon. Anc. IV.13; Plaut. Curc. 481; CIL VI.363, 9177, 9393, 9872, 10024 — aedes Castorus (CIL I2582.17) or Kastorus (ib. 586.1; cf. EE III.70) appear merely as variants of this), but we also find aedes Castorum (Plin. NH X.121; XXXIV.23; Hist. Aug. Max. 16.1; Valer. 5.4; Not. Reg. VIII; Chron. 146), and Castoris et Pollucis2 (Fast. p103Praen. CIL p.I2.308; Asc. in Scaur. 46; Suet. Tib. 20; Cal. 22; Flor. Ep. III.3.20, cf. Lact. Inst. II.7.9; CIL VI.2202, 2203, although perhaps not in Rome, cf. Jord. I.2.369), forms due either to vulgar usage or misplaced learning. Besides aedes, templum is found in Cicero (pro Sest. 79; in Vat. 31, 32; in Pis. 11, 23; pro Mil. 18; de domo 110; de harusp. resp. 49; ad Q. fr. II.3.6), Livy once (IX.43.22), Asconius (in Pis. 23; in Scaur. 46), the Scholia to Juvenal (XIV.261), the Notitia and Chronograph (loc. cit.). In Greek writers it appears as τὸ τῶν Διοσκούρων ἱερόν (Dionys. VI.13), τὸ Διοσκόρειον (Cass. Dio XXXVIII.6; LV.27.4; LIX.28.5; Plut. Sulla 33), νεὼς τῶν Διοσκούρων (Cass. Dio LX.6.8; App. B. C. I.25; Plut. Sulla 8; Pomp. 2; Cato Min. 27).
This temple was restored in 117 B.C. by L. Caecilius Metellus (Cic. pro Scauro 46, and Ascon. ad loc.; in Verr. I.154; Plut. Pomp. 2). Some repairs were made by Verres (Cic. in Verr. I.129‑154), and the temple was completely rebuilt by Tiberius in 6 A.D., and dedicated in his own name and that of his brother Drusus (Suet. Tib. 20; Cass. Dio LV.27.4; Ov. Fast. I.707‑708). Caligula incorporated the temple in his palace, making it the vestibule (Suet. Cal. 22; Cass. Dio LIX.28.5; cf. Divus Augustus, Templum, Domus Tiberiana), but this condition was changed by Claudius. Another restoration is attributed to Domitian (Chron. 146), and in this source the temple is called templum Castoris et Minervae, a name also found in the Notitia (Reg. VIII), and variously explained (see Minerva, Templum). It had also been supposed that there was restoration by Trajan or Hadrian (HC 161), and that the existing remains of columns and entablature date from that period, but there is no evidence for this assumption, and the view has now been abandoned (Toeb. 51). The existing remains are mostly of the Augustan period (AJA 1912, 393), and any later restorations must have been so superficial as to leave no traces.
This temple served frequently as a meeting-place for the senate (Cic. in Verr. I.129; Hist. Aug. Maxim. 16; Valer. 5; CIL I2586.1), and played a conspicuous rôle in the political struggles that centred in the forum (Cic. de har. resp. 27; de domo 54, 110; pro Sest. 34; in Pis. 11, 23; pro Mil. 18; ad Q. fr. II.3.6; App. B. C. I.25), its steps forming a sort of second Rostra (Plut. Sulla 33; Cic. Phil. III.27). In it were kept the standards of weights and measures (CIL V.8119.4; XI.6726.2; XIII.10030.13 ff.; Ann. d. Inst. 1881, 182; Mitt. 1889, 244‑245), and the chambers in the podium (see below) seem to have served as safe deposit vaults for the imperial fiscus (CIL VI.8688, 8689),3 and for the treasures of private individuals ( Cic. pro Quinct. 17; Iuv. XIV.260‑262 and Schol.). No mention is made of the contents of this temple, artistic p104or historical, except of one bronze tablet which was a memorial of the granting of citizenship to the Equites Campani in 340 B.C. (Liv. VIII.11.16).
The traces of the earlier structures (including some opus quadratum belonging to the original temple; see Ill. 12) indicate successive enlargements with some changes in the plan of cella and pronaos (for the discussion of these changes and the history of the temple, see Van Buren, CR 1906, 77‑82, 184, who also thinks that traces can be found of a restoration in the third century B.C.; cf. however, AJA 1912, 244‑246). The Augustan temple was Corinthian, octastyle and peripteral, with eleven columns on each side, and a double row on each side of the pronaos. This pronaos was 9.90 metres by 15.80, the cella 16 by 19.70, and the whole building about 50 metres long by 30 wide. The floor was about 7 metres above the Sacra via. The very lofty podium consisted of a concrete core enclosed in tufa walls, from which projected short spur walls. On these stood the columns, but directly beneath them at the points of heaviest pressure travertine was substituted for tufa. Between these spur walls were chambers in the podium, opening outward and closed by metal doors. From the pronaos a flight of eleven steps, extending nearly across the whole width of the temple, led down to a wide platform, 3.66 metres above the area in front. This was provided with a railing and formed a high and safe place from which to address the people. From the frequent references in literature (see above) it is evident that there was a similar arrangement in the earlier temple of Metellus. Leading from this platform to the ground were two narrow staircases, at the ends and not in front. The podium was covered with marble and decorated with two cornices, one at the top and another just above the metal doors of the strong chambers. Of the superstructure three columns on the east side are standing, which are regarded as perhaps the finest architectural remains in Rome. They are of white marble, fluted, 12.50 metres in height and 1.45 in diameter. The entablature, 3.75 metres high, has a plain frieze and an admirable worked cornice (for the complete description of the remains of the imperial temple previous to 1899, see Richter, Jahrb. d. Inst. 1898, 87‑114; also Reber, 136‑142; D'Esp. Fr. I.87‑91; II.87; for the results of the excavations since 1899, CR 1899, 466; 1902, 95, 284; BC 1899, 253; 1900, 66, 285; 1902, 28; 1903, 165; Mitt. 1902, 66‑67; 1905, 80; for general discussion of the temple, Jord. I.2.369‑376; LR 271‑274; HC 161‑164; Théd. 116‑120, 210‑212;a DE I.175‑176; WR 268‑271; DR 160‑170; RE Suppl. IV.469‑471; Mem. Am. Acad. V.79‑1024; ASA 70; HFP 37, 38).
This temple was standing in the fourth century, but nothing is known of its subsequent history, except that in the fifteenth century only three columns were visible, for the street running by them was called via Trium Columnarum (Jord. II.412, 501; LS I.72, and for other reff. II.69, p105199, 202; DuP 97). In the early nineteenth century it was often wrongly called the Graecostasis or the temple of Jupiter Stator.
#RomaAeternaOfficial#romanpagan#romanpolytheisim#hellenic pagan#hellenic polytheism#hellenic#classics#classical history#cultus deorum
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William Willcocks Sleigh, The Christian’s Defensive Dictionary, 1837
BABEL. A great tower built by the posterity of Noah, after the flood, in order to protect them against a second flood, which they so much dreaded: and thus, as they said, "to get them a name!" etc. It was built in the plain of Shinar, and the undertaking is ascribed to Nimrod, after whose name it was subsequently called, and around which he and his subjects did afterwards build Babylon, the capital of the Assyrian empire. Berosus, the Chaldee historian, mentions it; and, according to Josephus, its building is also mentioned by Hestiaeus, and by one of the ancient Sibyls; also by Abydenus and Eupolemus. That it was made of brick and bitumen, (Gen. xi. 3,) is attested by Justin, Quintus Curtius, Vitruvius, and other heathen writers. Its remains have been seen so lately as 1779, only fifty-eight years ago, by some travelers, who describe it in these words:—
"Four gentlemen of our party, and myself, went to view the tower of Nimrod. After traveling through exceedingly high reeds and rushes, and a very dangerous road, in about two hours we came to the tower, which is built on an eminence, and a base of about one hundred cubits diameter. It appears almost like a mass of earth, being erected of bricks, dried by the sun, amazingly thick, and betwixt every three or four feet there is a layer of reeds; its height is at least sixty feet. but we found no remains either of a door or stairs. The only curiosity which struck us was the astonishing freshness of the reeds, which seemed as if put in but a few years ago, though by the best accounts we could find it has been built upwards of four thousand years." — Journey from Bassora to Bagdad in 1779, p. 59. Numerous descriptions of the condition of this famous tower, in later times, may be seen in the Anc. Univers. Hist. Vol. I. p. 334.
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Lecture II: Suggestions And Perversions Of The Rite
2.2 - Vivifying Power Of Blood
The belief seems to have been universal, not only that the blood is the life of the organism in which it originally flows, but that in its transfer from one organism to another the blood retains its life, and so carries with it a vivifying power. There are traces of this belief in the earliest legends of the Old World, and of the New; in classic story; and in medical practices as well, all the world over, from time immemorial until the present day.
For example, in an inscription from the Egyptian monuments, the original of which dates back to the early days of Moses, there is a reference to a then ancient legend of the rebellion of mankind against the gods; of an edict of destruction against the human race; and of a divine interposition for the rescue of the doomed peoples. 1
The inscription was first found, in 1875, the tomb of Setee I., the father of Rameses II., the Pharaoh of the oppression. A translation of it appeared in the Transactions of the Soctiety of Biblical Archaeology, Vol. 4, Part I. Again it has been found in the tomb of Rameses III. Its earliest and its latest translations were made by M. Edouard Naville, the eminent Swiss Egyptologist. Meantime, Biugsch, De Bergmann, Lauth, Lefebure, and others, have aided in its elucidation (See Proceed, of Soc. of Bib Arch., for March 3, 1885). Is there not a reference to this legend in the Book of the Dead, chapter xviii., sixth section?
In that legend, a prominent part is given to human blood, mingled with the juice of mandrakes 1 instead of wine prepared as a drink of the gods, and afterwards poured out again to overflow and to revivify all the earth. And the ancient text which records this legend, affirms that it was in conjunction with these events that there was the beginning of sacrifices in the world.
An early American legend has points of remarkable correspondence with this one from ancient Egypt. It relates, as does that, to a pre-historic destruction of the race, and to its re-creation, or its re-vivifying, by means of transferred blood. Every Mexican province told this story in its own way, says a historian; but the main features of it are alike in all its versions.
Mandrakes, 01 "love-apples," among the ancient Egyptians, as also among the Orientals generally, from the days of Jacob (Gen. 30: 14-17) until to-day, carried the idea of promoting a loving union; and the Egyptian name for mandiakes - tetmut - combined the root-word tet already referenced to as meaning "arm," or "bracelet," and mut - with the signification of "attesting," or "confirming." Thus the blood and the mandrake juice would be a true assiratum. (See Pierret's Vocabulaire Hieroglyphique, p. 723) "Belief in this plant [the mandrake] is as old as history." (Napier's Folk-Lore', p. 90.) See, also, Lang's Custom and Myth, pp. 143-155.
When there were no more men remaining on the earth, some of the gods desired the re-creation of mankind; and they asked help from the supreme deities accordingly. They were then told, that if they were to obtain the bones or the ashes of the former race, they could revivify those remains by their own blood. Thereupon Xolotl, one of the gods, descended to the place of the dead, and obtained a bone (whether a rib, or not, does not appear). Upon that vestige of humanity the gods dropped blood drawn from their own bodies; and the result was a new vivifying of mankind. l
An ancient Chaldean legend, as recorded by Berosus, ascribes a new creation of mankind to the mixture, by the gods, of the dust of the earth with the blood that flowed from the severed head of the god Belus. "On this account it is that men are rational, and partake of
divine knowledge," says Berosus. 2 The blood of the god gives them the life and the nature of a god Yet, again, the early Phoenician, and the early Greek, theologies, as recorded by Sanctification 3 and by Hesiod, 4 ascribe the vivifying of mankind to the out poured blood of the gods. It was from the blood of Ouranos, or of Saturn, dripping into the sea and mingling with its foam, that Venus was formed, to become the mother of her heroic posterity.
Mendieta's Hist. Eccl Ind., 77 ff.; cited in Spencer's Des. Soc., II, 38; also Brinton's Myths of the New World, p. 258.
See Cory's Anc. Frag., 9 p. 59 f.
Ibid., p. 15.
Comp. Fabri's Evagatorium III,, 218
"The Orphics, which have borrowed so largely from the East," says Lenormant, 1 "said that the immaterial part of man, his soul [his life], sprang from the blood of Dionysus Zagreus, whom . . . Titans had torn to pieces, partly devouring his members."
Homer explicitly recognizes this universal belief in the power of blood to convey life, and to be a means of revivifying the dead. When Circe sent Odysseus "To consult The Theban seer, Tiresias, in the abode of Pluto and the dreaded Proserpine," she directed him, in preparation, to "Pour to all the dead Libations, milk and honey first, and next Rich wine, and lastly water;" and after that to slay the sacrificial sheep. But Circe's caution was: "Draw then the sword upon thy thigh, and sit, And suffer none of all those airy forms, To touch the blood, until thou first bespeak Tiresias. He will come, and speedily, The leader of the people, and will tell what voyage thou must make."
Beginnings of History, p. 52, note.
Odysseus did as he was directed. The bloodless shades flocked about him, as he sat there guarding the life-renewing blood; but even those dearest to him he forbade to touch that consecrated draught.
"And then the soul of Anticlcra came, My own dead mother, daughter of the king Autolycus, large minded. Her I left Alive, what time I sailed for Troy, and now I wept to see her there, and pitied her, And yet forbade her, though with grief, to come Near to the blood till I should first accost Tuesias, he too came, the Theban seer, Tuesias, bearing in his hand a wand Of gold; he knew me and bespake me thus: - 'Why, O unhappy mortal, hast thou left The light of day to come among the dead, And to this joyless land? Go from the trench And turn thy sword away, that I may drink The blood, and speak the word of prophecy.' He spake, withdrawing from the trench, I thrust Into its sheath my silver studded sword, And, after drinking of the dark red blood, The blameless prophet tinned to me and said -" 1
Then came the prophecy from the blood-revivified seer. The wide-spread popular superstition of the vampire and of the ghoul seems to be an outgrowth of this universal belief that transfused blood is re-vivification.
Bryant's Odyssey, Bks. x., and xi.
The bloodless shades, leaving their graves at night, seek renewed life by drawing out the blood of those who sleep; taking of the life of the living, to supply temporary life to the dead. This idea was prevalent in ancient Babylon and Assyria. 1 It has shown itself in the Old World and in the New, 2 in all the ages; and even within a little more than a century, it has caused an epidemic of fear in Hungary, "resulting in a general disinterment, and the burning or staking of the suspected bodies." 3
An added force is given to all these illustrations of the universal belief that transferred blood has a vivifying power, by the conclusions of modern medical science concerning the possible benefits of bloodtransfusion. 4 On this point, one of the foremost living authorities in this department of practice, Dr. Roussel, of Geneva, says: "The great vitality of the blood of a vigorous and healthy man has the power of improving the quality of the patient's blood, and can restore activity to the centres of nervous force, and the organs of digestion.
See Sayce's Anc. Emp. of East, p 146.
Among the ancient Peruvians, there was said to be a class of devil-worshipers, known as canchus, or rumapmicue, the members of which sucked the blood from sleeping youth, to their own nourishing and to the speedy dying away of the poisons thus depleted. (See Arriaga's Extirpation de la Idolatria del Piru, p 21 f.; cited in Spencer's Des. Soc., II., 48.). Sec, also, Ralston's Russian Folk Tales, pp. 311-328.
Farier's Primitive Manners and Customs, p. 23 f.
The primitive belief seems to have had a sound basis in scientific fact.
It would seem that health itself can be transfused with the blood of a healthy man"; 1 death itself being purged out of the veins by inflowing life. And in view of the possibilities of new life to a dying one, through new blood from one full of life, this writer insists that "every adult and healthy man and woman should be ready to offer an arm, as the natural and mysteriously inexhaustible source of the wonderworking elixir." 2 Blood-giving can be life-giving. The measure of one's love may, indeed, in such a case, be tested by the measure of his yielded blood. 3
Roussel says that blood transfusion was practised by the Egyptians, the Hebrews, and the Syrians, in ancient times; 4 and he cites the legend that, before Naaman came to Elisha to be healed of his leprosy, 5 his physicians, in their effort at his cure, took the blood from his veins, and replaced it with other blood. Whatever basis of truth there maybe in this legend, it clearly gained its currency through the prevailing conviction that new blood is new life. There certainly is ample evidence that baths of human blood were anciently prescribed as a cure for the doath-representing leprosy; as if in recognition of this root idea of the re-vivifying power of transferred blood.
Transfusion of Human Blood, pp. 2-4
Ibid., p. 5.
See pages 85-88, supra.
Transf. of Blood, p. 5.
2 Kings 5:1-14.
Pliny, writing eighteen centuries ago concerning leprosy, or elephantiasis, says 1: "This was the peculiar disease of Egypt; and when it fell upon princes, woe to the people; for, in the bathing chambers, tubs were prepared, with human blood, for the cure of it" Nor was this mode of life-seeking confined to the Egyptians. It is said that the Emperor Constantine was restrained from it only in consequence of a vision from heaven. 2
In the early English romance of Amys and Amylion, one of these knightly brothers-in-arms consents, with his wife's full approbation, to yield the lives of his two infant children, in order to supply their blood for a bath, for the curing of his brother friend's leprosy. 3 In this instance, the leprosy is cured, and 'the children's lives are miraculously restored to them; as if in proof of the divine approbation of the loving sacrifice.
It is shown, indeed, that this belief in the life-bringing power of baths of blood to the death-smitten lepers, was continued into the Middle Ages; and that it finally "received a check from an opinion gradually gaining ground, that only the blood of those would be efficacious, who offered themselves freely and voluntarily for a beloved sufferer." 4
Hist. Nat. xxvi, 5.
See Notes and Queries, for Feb. 28, 1857; with citation from Soane's New Curiosities of Literature, I., 72.
Ibid.; also Mill's History of Chivalry, chap. IV., note.
See citation from Soane, in Notes and Queries, supra.
There is something very suggestive in this thought of the truest potency of transferred life through transferred blood! It is this thought which finds expression and illustration in Longfellow's Golden Legend. In the castle of Vautsberg on the Rhine, Prince Henry is sick with a strange and hopeless malady. Lucifer appears to him in the garb of a traveling physician, and tells him of the only possible cure for his disease, as prescribed in a venerable tome:
"'The only lemedy that rcmains Is the blood that flows fiom a maiden's veins,
Who of her own free will shall die, And give her life as the price of yours!' That is the strangest of all cures, And one, I think, you will never try; The prescription you may well put by. As something impossible to find Before the world itself shall end!"
Elsie, the lovely daughter of a peasant in the Odenwald, learns of the Prince's need, and declares she will give her blood for his cure. In her chamber by night, her self-surrendering prayer goes up: "'If my feeble payer can reach thee, O my Saviour, I beseech thee, Even as thou hast died for me, More sincerely Let me follow where thou leadest, Let me, bleeding as thou bleedest, Die, if dying I may give Life to one who asks to live, And more nearly, Dying thus, resemble thee!'"
Her father, Gottlieb, consents to her life-surrender, saying to the Prince: "'As Abraham offered, long ago, His son unto the Lord, and even The Everlasting Father in heaven Gave his, as a lamb unto the slaughter, So do I offer up my daughter.'" And Elsie adds: "My life is little, Only a cup of water, But pure and limpid. Take it, O Prince! Let it refresh you, Let it restore you. It is given willingly It is given fieely; May God bless the gift!'"
The proffered sacrifice is interfered with before its consummation; but its purposed method shows the estimate which was put, from of old, on voluntarily yielded life for life. There is said to be an Eastern legend somewhat like the story of Amys and Amylion; with a touch of the ancient Egyptian and Mexican legends already cited "The Arabian chronicler speaks of a king, who, having lost a faithful servant by his transformation into stone, is told that he can call his friend back to life, if he is willing to behead his two children, and to sprinkle the ossified figure with their blood.
He makes up his mind to the sacrifice; but as he approaches the children with his drawn sword, the will is accepted by heaven for the deed, and he suddenly sees the stone restored to animation." 1 This story, in substance, (only with the slaying and the resuscitating of the children, as in the English romance,) appears in Grimm's folk-lore tales, under the title of " Faithful John"; 2 but whether its origin was in the East or in the North, or in both quarters, is not apparent. Its reappearance East, North, and West, is all the more noteworthy.
In the romances of King Arthur and Ins knights, there is a story of a maiden daughter of King Vellinore, a sister of Sir Percivale, who befriends the noble Sir Galahad, and then accompanies him and his companions on their way to the castle of Carteloise, and beyond, in their search for the Holy Grail.
Citation from "Saturday Review," for Feb. 14, 1857, in Notes and Queries, supra.
See Grimm's Household Tales I., 23-30.
"And again they went on to another castle, from which came a band of knights, who told them of the custom of the place, that every maiden who passed by must yield a dish full of her blood.' That shall she not do' said Galahad,' while I live'; and fierce was the struggle that followed; and the sword of Galahad, which was the sword of King David, smote them down on every side, until those who remained alive craved peace, and bade Galahad and his fellows come into the castle for the night; 'and on the morn/ they said, 'we dare say ye will be of one accord with us, when ye know the reason for our custom' So awhile they rested, and the- knights told them that in the castle there lay a lady sick to death, who might never gain back her life, until she should be anointed with the blood of a pure maiden who was a king's daughter. Then said Percivale's sister, 'I will yield it, and so shall I get health to my soul, and there shall be no battle on the morn.' And even so was it done; but the blood which she gave was so much that she might not live; and as her strength passed away, she said to Percivale, 'I die, brother, for the healing of this lady.' . . . Thus was the lady of the castle healed; and the gentle maiden, [Percivale's sister,] . . . died." 1
In the old Scandinavian legends, there are indications of the traditional belief in the power of transferred life through a bath of blood. Siegfried, or Sigurd, a descendant of Odin, slew Fafner, a dragon-shaped guardian of ill-gotten treasure.
Cox and Jones's Popular Romances of the Middle Ages, pp. 85-87.
In the hot blood of that dragon he bathed himself, and so took on, as it were, an outer covering of new life, rendering himself sword-proof, save at a single point where a leaf of the linden-tree fell between his shoulders, and shielded the flesh from the life-imparting blood. 1 On this incident it is, that the main tragedy in the Nibelungen Lied pivots; where Siegfried's wife, Kriemhild, tells the treacherous Hagan of her husband's one vulnerable point:
"Said she, My husband's daring, and thereto Stout of limb; Of old, when on the mountain he slew the dragon grim, In its blood he bathed him, and thence no more can feel, In his charmed person, the deadly dint of steel. "As fiom the diagon's death-wounds gushed out theciimson gore, With the smoking torrent, the warrior washed him o'er. A leaf then 'twixt his shoulders fell from the linden bough; There, only, steel can harm him; fox that I tremble now." 2
Even among the blood-reverencing Brahmans of India there are traces of this idea, that life is to be guarded by the outpoured blood of others. In the famous old work, "Kalila wa-Dimna," there is the story of a king, named Beladh, who had a vision in the night, which so troubled him that he sought counsel of the Brahmans.
Cox and Jones's Romances of tht Middle Ages, p. 292.
Lettsom's Nibel. Lied, p. 158.
Their advice was, that he should sacrifice his favorite wife, his best loved son, his nephew, and his dearest friend, in conjunction with other valued offerings to the gods. "It will be necessaiy for you, O King," they said, "when you have put to death the persons we have named to you, to fill a cauldron with their blood, and sit upon it; and when you get up from the cauldron, we, the Brahmans, assembled from the four quarters of the kingdom, will walk around you, and pronounce our incantations over you, and we will spit upon you, and wipe off from you the blood, and will wash you in water and sweet-oil, and then you may return to the palace, trusting in the protection of heaven against the danger which threatens you." l
Here the king's offering to the gods was to be of that which was dearest to him ; and the bath of blood was to prove to him a cover of life. King Beladh wisely said that, if that were the price of his safety, he was ready to die. He would not prolong his life at such a cost But the story shows the primitive estimate of the life-giving power of blood among the Hindoos.
In China, also, blood has its place as a life-giving agency. A Chinese woman, on the Kit-ie River, tells a missionaiy of her occasional seasons of frenzy, under the control of spirits, and of her ministry of blood, at such seasons, for the cure of disease.
Kalila wa-Dimna, p. 315-319.
"Every year when there is to be a pestilence, or when cholera is to prevail, she goes into this frenzy, and cuts her tongue with a knife, letting some drops of her blood fall into a hogshead of water. This [homeopathically treated] water the people drink as a specific against contagion." Its sacred blood is counted a shield of life, "With the rest of the blood, she writes charms, which the people paste [as words of life] upon their doorposts, or wear upon their persons, as preventives of evil." 1
Receiving new blood as a means of receiving new life, seems to have been sought interchangeably, in olden time, in various diseases, by blood lavations, by blood drinking, and by blood transfusion. It is recorded that, in 1483, King Louis XL, of France, struggled for life by drinking the blood of young children, as a means of his revivifying. "Every day he grew worse," it is said; "and the medicines profited him nothing, though of a strange character; for he vehemently hoped to recover by the human blood which he took and swallowed from certain children." 2
Fielde's Pagoda Shadows, p. 88.
Croniques de France, 1516, feuillet c c i j, cited from Soane, in Notes and Queries, supra.
Again there is a disputed claim, that, in 1492, a Jewish physician endeavored to save the life of Pope Innocent VIII, by giving him in transfusion the blood of three young men successively. The Pope was not recovered, but the three young men lost their lives in the experiment. 1 Yet blood transfusion as a means of new life to the dying was not always a failure, even in former centuries; for the record stands, that "at Frankfort, on the Oder, the surgeons Balthazar, Kaufman, and Purmann, healed a leper, in 1683, bypassing the blood of a lamb into his veins." 2
Even to-day, in South Africa, "when the Zulu king is sick, his immediate personal attendants, or valets, are obliged to allow themselves to be wounded; that a portion of their blood may be introduced into the king's circulation, and a portion of his into theirs." 3 In this plan, the idea seems to be, that health may have power over disease, and that death may be swallowed up in life, by equalizing the blood of the one who is in danger, and of the many who are in strength and safety. Moreover, among the Kafirs those who are still in health are sometimes" washed in blood to protect them against wounds"; 4 as if an outer covering of life could be put on, for the protection of their life within.
Roussel's Trans. of Blood, p. 6. A different version of this story is given, in Bruy's Histoire des Papes, IV., 278; but the other version is supported by two independent sources, in Infessurae Diarium, and Burchardi Diarium. See Notes and Queries, 5th Series, III., 496, and IV., 38; also Hare's Walks in Rome, p. 590.
Diet. Med. ct Chirurg. Prat., Art. " Transfusion."
Shooter's Kafirs of Natal, p. 117.
Ibid., p. 216.
Transfused human blood is also said to be a common prescription of the medicinemen of Tasmania, for the cure of disease. 1 And so it would appear, that, whatever may be its basis in physiological science, the opinion has prevailed, widely and always, that there is a vivifying power in transferred blood; and that blood not only represents but carries life.
Berwick's Daily Life and Origin of Tasmanians, p. 89 ; cited in Spencer's Des. Soc., III., 43.
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O que fazer em Arcos de La Frontera
Andaluzia – Espanha: o que fazer em Arcos de La Frontera
Arcos de La Frontera é considerada a porta de entrada para os Pueblos Blancos, uma rota turística bastante visitada na região da Andaluzia – Sul da Espanha. O povoado situa-se na província de Cádiz, sendo um dos mais expressivos da região. Fica a cerca de 90 km de Sevilha e a somente 23 km de Cádiz. A cidadela estrategicamente construída no alto de um penhasco, é uma autêntica fortaleza. Conserva ainda traços da arquitetura mourisca, deixados pelo período em que os árabes dominaram a região. Contudo, os muçulmanos não foram os únicos que contribuíram para a riqueza cultural local – Romanos e Cristãos, por exemplo, também por ali deixaram suas marcas. Veja abaixo o que fazer em Arcos de La Frontera, onde dormir e outras informações indispensáveis.
Onde dormir em Arcos de La Frontera
Hospedar-se na região central do Casco Viejo, é a melhor opção para os turistas que pretendem ficar próximos às atrações de Arcos de La Frontera. Nós ficamos hospedados no Hotel Parador e recomendamos a todos os viajantes!
Aliás, vale referir que o Parador de Arcos de La Frontera está entre os melhores hotéis da Andaluzia. Caso você procure um alojamento mais econômico, considere a Casa Mirador San Pedro e a Casa Campana – ambas com excelente localização e atendimento personalizado.
Nota: os alojamentos citados têm uma taxa de ocupação alta nos meses de primavera-verão, de Março a Setembro. Por isso, se você pretendo conhecer a cidade durante esses meses, faça a sua reserva com antecedência através do Booking. Reservar hotel com até 50% desconto.
Pormenores do charmoso pátio interior do Parador Arcos de La Frontera, nosso hotel preferido na cidade
Centro histórico de Arcos de La Frontera
Arcos de La Frontera é cheia de encantos e mistérios. Localiza-se estrategicamente no topo de um penhasco à beira do rio Guadalete. As construções e monumentos árabes do século XI, as ruas estreitas e os becos tortuosos enfeitados com arcos caiados de branco, fazem do povoado um dos mais belos da Andaluzia.
Detalhes da Basílica de Santa María de la Asunción, Plaza Del Cabildo – Arcos de La Frontera
A melhor forma de percorrer o centro histórico é a pé. E, certamente, o melhor ponto de partida para explorar as atrações turísticas, é a partir da centralíssima Plaza Del Cabildo. Estacione por ali e faça a Rota Monumental de Arcos de La Frontera.
Comece percorrendo as ruas como a Callejón de las Monjas, Cuesta de Belén e a Plaza Boticas. Durante o percurso conheça a Basílica de Santa María de la Asunción, o Miradouro de Abades (com vista para o rio Guadalete), a Igreja de São Pedro, o Palácio de Mayorazgo e, por fim, o presépio do Museu de Belém. Reserve pelo menos 1 dia para conhecer os pontos turísticos mencionados acima.
+ Reserve Hotel através do Booking com até 50% desconto – Cancelamento – Gratuito !
Fachada principal da prefeitura com o castelo de Arcos de la Frontera em pano de fundo
Quando ir
Arcos de La Frontera pode ser visitada em qualquer época do ano. No entanto, se puder, evite os meses de Junho a Setembro. Além do calor extremo, os pontos de interesse ficam lotados, sobretudo aos fins de semana. De Dezembro a Fevereiro as chuvas e as temperaturas baixas podem atrapalhar os passeios ao ar livre. Por isso, recomendamos conhecer a localidade entre Março e Maio ou entre Setembro e Novembro.
Onde comer bem em Arcos de La Frontera
A culinária da região de Arcos de La Frontera é ampla e variada, com grande inspiração na cozinha árabe de Al-Andalus. Não é difícil encontrar bons restaurantes e bares de tapas para comer na cidade. Verifique abaixo os restaurantes que mais gostamos e os seus respectivos endereços.
Jamón Ibérico, uma das pérolas da gastronomia espanhola
Taberna Jovenes Flamencos
Endereço: Calle Dean Espinosa 10, 11630 Arcos de La Frontera, Espanha
Restaurante Alcaravan
Endereço: Calle Nueva 1, 11630 Arcos de La Frontera, Espanha
Bar la Carcel
Endereço: Calle Dean Espinosa 18, 11630 Arcos de La Frontera, Espanha
*Dicas extras
Buscando informações da região da Andaluzia? Confira os nossos posts sobre o que fazer em Sevilha, Ronda e Granada. Descubra também os 5 Pueblos Blancos mais bonitos da Andaluzia. Para concluir, verifique os artigos sobre onde ficar em Córdoba, Granada e Ronda. Em breve mais dicas do Sul da Espanha. Aguarde!
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Ayer termine de leer el monumental estudio de José Luis Romero, La revolución burguesa en el mundo feudal (1967).
Se origina como todo gran libro de historia: atravesado por las contradicciones de su tiempo, construye un problema para pensar el presente e intervenir políticamente
No es cualquier problema: trata el origen y desarrollo de la cultura en su forma moderna y la particularidad local latinoamericana “un paso atrás” (en su concepción liberal)
De fondo lo mueve un deseo emancipatorio humano (y humanista), aun en su lectura socialdemócrata moderada
Con semejante empresa, elabora una obra que, sin dejar de lado la profunda erudición y la penetrante historicidad, se eleva en el plano de la abstracción (¡crea sus propios conceptos!) para sacar conclusiones positivas
En última instancia lo que constituye su gran aporte es su forma de trabajo: gran muestra del oficio del historiador, tan artesanal como científico, que solo se aprehende en su propia práctica (y los ejemplos que tenemos, objetivados en libros)
Por cierto, se pregunta por la mentalidad revolucionaria de nuestra época (proletaria) y su desprendimiento -o no- de la que le dio origen (la burguesa), para impulsar desarrollo ulterior
Para esto rastrea el origen de la burguesía y su mentalidad: para él, en las ciudades que renacen en el siglo XI en el seno de la sociedad feudal
Acá el gran cisma (que nos divide): retoma la línea circulacionista de Pirenne y Sweezy, entre otros, quienes ven el origen del capitalismo en el intercambio mercantil, que en última instancia se introduce externamente por el comercio con otras sociedades
Su tesis, entonces, es que las habitantes del burgo engendran una nueva sociedad (burguesa) que se desarrolla desde el siglo XI, sin interrupción aunque con distintas fases, hasta el XVII-XVIII cuando toman el poder político plenamente
Se oponen en su esquema “economía natural” y “economía monetaria”. Ahí no piensa dialécticamente (en otros aspectos sí, y la rompe)
Muchísimos historiadores (desde el marxismo, los Annales e incluso -y sobretodo, para mi- el medievalismo argentino posterior) demostraron su error:
- La clases del capitalismo no surgen en la ciudad sino en el campo feudal: en la polarización campesina tienen su origen las protoclases de acumuladores y asalariados
- La burguesía feudal encontraba un limite a la acumulación de k porque se organizaba corporativamente priorizando la reproducción del grupo (busquen esto, es más extenso)
- La burguesía feudal luego oligarquía urbana desarrolló el comercio FEUDAL: no funcionaba la ley del valor y servía a la reproducción de toda la clase dominante feudal una vez consolidada
Además, lo desarrolla en un capítulo muy escueto que es verdaderamente pobre al lado del resto del libro
Aun así, su obra está más que vigente por lo siguiente: constituye un verdadero ejemplo para PENSAR la historia, y hay grandes aportes y discusiones que profundizad
Menciono sólo uno: su concepción de mentalidad no tiene nada que ver con la estructuralista de los franceses
El sujeto, como sujeto colectivo, no sólo incide sobre el proceso histórico sino que se auto transforma mientras construye su poder en la lucha, creando su propias formas de percibir el mundo y su propia imagen
Es idealista a lo Rickert, pero jerarquiza la lectura de conjunto y la visión de totalidad, así como la dialéctica entre condiciones objetivas (procesos socioeconómicos) y acción del sujeto (procesos socioculturales) atravesado por el cambio histórico
Algo que hoy está muchas veces perdido entre tanto posmodernismo abstracto, irreal, que no piensa ni cuestiona el mundo (sociólogxs incluidxs)
Quien quiera hacer ciencia (histórica y social) tiene un paso obligatorio por esta magistral elaboración
También recomiendo su ensayo El ciclo de la revolución contemporánea (1948), donde desarrolla su hipótesis de trabajo.
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India Vs Cricket Australia Eleven Virat Kohli And Prithvi Shaw Hist Fifty India Bowled Out For 358 Runs | India vs cricket australia XI: टेस्ट से पहले कोहली समेत सिर्फ इन पांचों बल्लेबाजों ने ही किया 'अभ्यास'
India Vs Cricket Australia Eleven Virat Kohli And Prithvi Shaw Hist Fifty India Bowled Out For 358 Runs | India vs cricket australia XI: टेस्ट से पहले कोहली समेत सिर्फ इन पांचों बल्लेबाजों ने ही किया ‘अभ्यास’
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