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cincinnatusvirtue · 4 years ago

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Battle of Alcacer Quibir (1578 AD) (Battle of the Three Kings). Portugal’s attempt at colonialism in Morocco backfires and a new Moroccan dynasty secures its independence from foreign intervention.

Overview:

-Morocco’s history is largely driven by its strategic location. The Northwest corner of Africa at the tip of the Sahara Desert region, just south of the Iberian Peninsula in Southern Europe and hugging the gateway to the Mediterranean Sea at the Atlantic Ocean. Its position was crucial to geostrategic considerations with access to so many sea & overland trade routes.

-Its native peoples were Berber or Amazigh who encountered the Greeks & Romans of antiquity, they were a varied people across North Africa united by some common language and customs. After the rise & spread of Islam by Arabs from the Middle East, North Africa including Morocco became a target of conquest and religious conversion. The Berbers in time took on the Islamic religion while somewhat retaining their own customs. Gradually, they took on a cultural Arabization that takes place today with most of Morocco’s population being ethnic Berbers with Arab acculturalization becoming Arab-Berbers. There were however some Arab colonists who migrated from the Arabian Peninsula, Syria and other parts of the Middle East who settled & setup their lives in Morocco mixing with the local Berbers. Arabs & Berbers went on to invade the Iberian Peninsula in 711 AD under the Visigoth Kingdom which they largely over threw aside from the north of modern day Spain. In time Muslim dynasties ruled in Iberia and the Arabs and Berbers set up a colonial presence there while some Visigoths and Iberian Romans converted to Islam making up the majority of Iberia’s population well into the Middle Ages and the combination of Arabs, Berbers & European converts to Islam became known as Moors which covered no single ethnic group but rather the cultural ties that bonded these various peoples, though was previously used to describe just Berbers.

-In time, civil war amongst the Muslim dynasties that came & went along with the Reconquista, a centuries long Christian Crusade to rid the Iberian Peninsula of a Muslim presence weakened the Moorish hold over southern Europe. Arab & Berber dynasties from Morocco would often intervene in Iberia to reverse the tide of misfortune befallen its Muslims but inevitably they too would be brushed aside or retreat to Morocco which had become so intertwined with Iberia at that point. By the end of the 15th century, the Emirate of Granada, the last Muslim power in Iberia had fallen. The Kingdoms of Portugal & Spain had arisen from earlier Iberian Christian kingdoms and become more powerful than their Muslim rivals.

-Complicating matters was the rise of the Turkish Islamic dynasty in the east, the Ottoman Empire. By the 15th & 16th centuries, The Ottomans found themselves masters of the eastern Mediterranean and in competition with the Spanish Hapsburgs for control of the Mediterranean Sea. By then Spain had established dynastic control over parts of Italy & small colonial possessions on the coasts of North Africa spreading from Morocco to Libya. This was contested by the local Arab-Berber presence and the Ottomans. Likewise the Ottomans were overtaking North Africa from both their European rivals & the Arab-Berber dynasties of North Africa. Though direct Ottoman power would be varied depending on location and sometimes they relied on governors of theirs to rule in their stead, which in turn became increasingly semi-autonomous. these dynasties engaged in piracy of European trade and in particular in the enslavement of European Christians giving rise to the Barbary Pirates of Barbary Corsairs, so named for the Barbary (Berber) Coast of North Africa from which they operated, ranging in port cities from Morocco to Libya.

-The Ottomans and Spanish eyed Morocco as an area of political control. The Ottomans hoping to make it a protectorate like the rest of North Africa and the Spanish a home to various ports to counteract the Ottoman attacks against their shipping lanes. Meanwhile, Spain had for the last century engaged in exploration and conquest of the so called New World, the Americas. Spain’s other Iberian counterpart, the Kingdom of Portugal, likewise has engaged in colonization and conquest with the Americas, namely Brazil. Both Spain & Portugal saw it in their interest to secure the shipping to their ports from the threat of Ottoman and other Muslim piracy which confiscated their gold and other raw materials from the Americas. To this end they were determined to and did indeed conquer Moroccan port cities. Likewise the previous overland Trans-Saharan trade routes of gold, ivory and enslaved Sub-Saharan Africans which had previously enriched the Arabs & Berbers were of less importance due to both European investment in the Americas and control of Moroccan ports. This had lead to impoverishment of the Moroccan economy & flight of its many intellectuals draining its infrastructure and governance as well.

The Power Players:

Morocco & domestic politics...

-16th century Morocco had seen the foreign encroachment of the Portuguese & Spanish hold strong. Portugal held many of its Atlantic ports while Spain its Mediterranean. Meanwhile, the Ottomans who had overtaken neighboring Algeria were threating invasion to oust the Europeans but likewise overrule the local Arab-Berber population.

-At the start of the century Morocco was nominally ruled by the Berber dynasty known as the Wattasids. They had come to power in 1472 AD overthrowing their fellow Berbers, the Marinids. However, Wattasid rule only held sway in the north of Morocco with their kingdom being centered around the city of Fez. The south of the country was much more divided into various principalities and the populace in general resented the Wattasids for their seeming political and military impotence to eject the Europeans from their port cities. They failed in their promise to recapture these cities time & again.

-In the south of Morocco, a new power was rising that promised to remove the weak Wattasids & eject all foreign influence on Morocco. This new promising power was the Saadi dynasty. The Saadis were of Arab origin with a known ancestor going back to 13th century Arabia from the port city of Yanbu on the Red Sea who migrated to Morocco. The family is generally considered to be of Sharifian origin, which is an Arab honorific word meaning “noble or highborn” and reserved by Arabs for descendants from the Prophet Muhammad. The Saadis claimed descent through Muhammad’s daughter Fatimah and her marriage to Ali ibn Abi Talib, the prophet’s cousin & companion. The descent to the Saadis then continued through Ali & Fatimah’s son Hassan and as descendants of Hassan, the Saadis became known as Hassanids and were given the title of Sharif. Whereas descendants of Muhammad’s other grandson through Ali & Fatimah, Husayn were given the honorific title of Sayyid.

-The descent from Muhammad of the Saadi dynasty is a matter of some political conjecture, with their rivals trying to down play it as mere propaganda. Others will concede they descended from a relative of Muhammad but not his daughter Fatimah herself. It will probably be next to impossible to establish its veracity but it was promoted by the dynasty along with numerous other Islamic dynasties throughout history even into the present.

-The Saadis derive their name from the word for “happiness or salvation” and were settled by the 14th century in Morocco from their Arab ancestors in the southern part of the country. Centered around the city of Tagmadert in the Draa River valley. It was a region that neared the Sahara Desert. It was here that the family intermixed with the Arab-Berber populace and gave rise to the popularity of Sufism in Morocco. Sufism is a form of Islamic mysticism akin to the Kabbalah in Judaism or Gnosticism in Christianity.

-The chief (Sharif) of the Saadi family circa 1510 was Abu Abdallah al-Qaim who ventured to Medina in modern day Saudi Arabia as part of his religious pilgrimage and evidently while there had a dream involving two lions leading a large crowd of people to a tower. Taking this mystical vision as a sign he visited with a Sufi mystic who confirmed it as God’s mission for his son’s who would play a crucial role in the family and indeed Moroccan history. Al-Qaim returned to Morocco and aligned with the Sufi orders in the south of Morocco around the Draa Valley and organized them into a military order to declare jihad on both the Wattasids & the Europeans with a now holy mission to save Morocco.

-The Saadis gradually overtook by force and diplomacy much of southern Morocco’s other principalities. They captured the city of Tidsi in 1510 and al-Qaim’s two sons ventured to Fez to beseech the Wattasid sultan to undertake a nationwide jihad against the Europeans. When this did not materialize the Saadis gradually felt it was their duty to save the nation.

-The Saadis began a campaign against the Portuguese ports in the south of Morocco and had gradual success in retaking these port cities. Making them increasingly popular with the locals at the expense of the Wattasids in Fez. 1524 saw the Saadis capture the city of Marrakesh. Al Qaim’s son Mohammed al-Shaykh became the leader of the dynasty in 1517 and Al-Shaykh’s campaign against the Portuguese now turned to the Wattasids. His brother Ahmad Al-Araj was placed in charge of Marrakesh while Al-Shaykh controlled the city of Taroudannt and in 1527 the Saadis defeated the Wattasids in the Battle of Wadi al-Abid after which they recoginzed a divided dominion in the south for the Saadis and north for the Wattasids.

-However, Al-Araj & Al-Shaykh soon turned on each other and the brothers engaged in a civil war with Al-Araj seeking Wattasid assistance. Additionally he fought the Portuguese and successfully took the port city of Agadir in 1541 which led to other port cities to be evacuated by the Portuguese. His brother was defeated and fled to eastern Morocco to live out his days in exile. Meanwhile, the Wattasid capital of Fez was captured in 1549 using a reformed army that was based on the Ottoman model, including modern artillery.

-The capture of Fez gave the Saadis a chance to now attack Portuguese ports in the north with more success. However, some cities like Tangier remained in Portuguese hands.

-The Saadis also expanded into Western Algeria and captured a portion of that territory.

-Meanwhile Saadian expansion, concerned the Ottomans who hoped for it to become a protectorate. The ousted Wattasids cut a deal with the Turks to invade Morocco, oust the Saadis and become Turkish vassals in their own right.

-Al-Shaykh and the Saadis were driven out of Fez in 1554 by a combined Wattasid-Ottoman-Algerian army. The recapture was short lived as in the September of 1554, the Saadian army once more met the Wattasids & Turks in the Battle of Tadla and defeated them, the Wattasid ruler, Ali Abu Hassun was killed by the Saadian troops in battle and ended the threat of their dynasty.

-Al-Shaykh having united the country against the Europeans with success, having defeated his brother, the Wattasids & Ottomans had unified his rule over Morocco as undisputed Sultan. The Saadi dynasty was now firmly established, but much work remained and in the process of the Saadian conquest they had made many enemies.

-1557 saw plans for Morocco to ally with the Spanish against the Turks who still sought a foothold in Morocco. As this came to fruition, the Ottoman governor of Algeria ordered Sultan Al-Shaykh’s assassination. A number of Ottoman assassins claiming to be deserters infiltrated the Saadian armed guard of the Sultan, earning his trust before killing him.

- Al-Shaykh had multiple sons but three sons: Al-Ghalib, Al-Malik & Al-Mansur who would all play important roles in the coming years.

-Al-Ghalib being the oldest became the new sultan of Morocco. He had to defend against an Ottoman Algerian invasion in 1558 which was successfully halted at the Battle of Wadi al-Laban. The battle was inconclusive itself but word had reached the Turco-Algerian forces of a Spanish counterinvasion of Algeria and they were forced to turn back, sparing Morocco a potential take over.

-As so often happens in history, the concern over dynastic struggle takes place. Worried about civil war with his younger brothers Al-Malik & Al-Mansur, the two younger siblings went into exile with the Ottoman Empire, visiting its capital of Constantinople and living in Turkey with lavish existence.

-The two exiled Saadi princes served in the Ottoman army, battling in the famous 1571 naval confrontation off the Greek coast known as the Battle of Lepanto against Spain and a Holy League. It was a Christian victory that cost the Turks their best naval commanders and while their navy did replenish its numbers it never again had the level of experienced commanders and subsequently its training and experience stagnated, beginning a slow withdrawal from direct Ottoman involvement in the Mediterranean. Likewise, Lepanto contributed to the rise in its North African governors taking de-facto power for themselves. Giving rise to the age of the Barbary Corsairs who operated out of the North African city-states of Tunis, Algiers, Tripoli and later various Moroccan ports with these pirates peaking their powers in the 17th century and lasting until well into the 19th century.

-Al-Ghalib fought the Spanish and Turks and for 17 years kept Morocco in virtual peace. He improved the economy and built new mosques and other architecture, raising the stature of Marrakesh, which became the primary center of Saadian power.

-Al-Ghalib died of asthma in 1574 and was succeeded by his son, Abdallah Mohammed. Abdallah Mohammed like his father suspected struggle with brothers, one of whom was killed on his orders while the other was imprisoned. The reign of Abdallah however was challenged by his uncles Al-Malik & Al-Mansur. Now in Ottoman Algeria, they invaded Morocco with Ottoman backing in 1576

-Fez was captured by the Ottoman backed Saadian prince Al-Malik. Whose now ousted nephew Abdallah Mohammed fled first to Spain and ironically then to Portugal, former enemy of his grandfather & great-grandfather.

-1576 saw Al-Malik take power but with the understanding that he was a de-facto vassal of the Ottomans. However, his nephew sought to regain the throne and was willing to work with Portugal to regain it...

Portugal & King Sebastian...

-Sebastian of Portugal was born in 1554 and a member of the Aviz dynasty which had ruled Portugal since 1385 and was responsible for Portugal’s global empire, sometimes in competition with neighboring Spain. They had established control of Brazil in the Americas and had colonies as far flung as Macau in China, parts of India where they fought against the Ottomans in the Indian Ocean and even in Africa with control of Angola, Mozambique and elsewhere. Though the Portuguese and Spanish had rival colonial ambitions they had a common enemy against the Ottomans and Portugal in particular conflicted with the Turks in the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Ethiopia and other parts of Africa.

-Sebastian’s mother was of the Hapsburg dynasty that had ruled Austria and Spain which with Spain’s global empire had become the most powerful dynasty in Europe if not the world. His grandfather was Charles V and uncle was Philip II of Spain.

-His father died when he was an infant and his mother later remarried in Spain. while his grandmother Catherine of Austria helped raise him. He grew to be tall and physically fit. He was also given a stern religious upbringing under Jesuits tasked with his education.

-He technically took the throne at age three with the death of his paternal grandfather and a regency was put in place for him. As he grew older he became more stubborn in his personality but was always devoutly religious. Sebastian also had several marriage proposals made but none had come to fruition.

-Under his personal rule he improved relations with Spain, France, England & the Holy Roman Empire wanting to secure the peace and trade of all for his global empire. He also rewarded natives in Brazil who aided the Portuguese against the French by giving them their own grants of land and freed them from slavery by decree. He also restructured the laws of administration and the judiciary in Portugal. Hoping to expand education for his people, he also created royal scholarships for students of medicine at university.

-Finally, he sough to patronize the arts with poems & operas being written during this time and dedicated to him. He also reformed the military which proved successful in fending off attacks in India against the Portuguese colony of Goa.

-However, one everlasting goal of his since 1568 at the age of 14 was to conquer Morocco by Crusade against the Saadi dynasty which had expelled the Portuguese from control over numerous ports. These ports were important as way stations for Portuguese ships traveling in India where its colonies were important in the spices, gems & other precious commodities trade. A combination of religious fervor and economic concerns over nearby Morocco guided Sebastian.

-The opportunity for his Crusade arose in 1576 with the ouster of former Saadian Sultan Abdallah Mohammed who had been overthrown by his uncle, the Ottoman backed Al-Malik.

-Abdallah Mohammed had fled first to Spain and then Portugal asking for aid in the restoration of his throne. After which he promised his support against the Turks, Portugal & Spain’s principal rival. Sebastian was intrigued by the offer and visited with his uncle, Philip II of Spain to discuss joint plans for a combined Portuguese-Spanish invasion of Morocco to restore Abdallah Mohammed as their friendly ally who would allow future use of Moroccan ports for trade and as launching points against Ottoman Algeria. Philip refused to participate whole heartedly since he sought a treaty with the Ottomans to give some much needed breathing space for other concerns, namely England. He did offer a smattering of Spanish volunteers though.

-Despite Spain’s lack of full commitment, Sebastian decided to go it alone. Absolutely convinced of the technological superiority and training of his army against the Moroccan army. Technically this was true with advances in gunpowder driven small arms, artillery and armor being superior along with overall discipline. Whereas Morocco relied on light cavalry, had less artillery and mostly ill trained and ill equipped irregular troops.

The invasion and Battle of Alcaber Quibir.

-Sebastian began preparations for summer campaign in 1578. He departed Lisbon with an army of 17,000 men made up of Portuguese regulars at foreign mercenaries from Germany, Spain, Italy & the Netherlands. He also asked the Portuguese nobility to accompany him. Convinced the campaign would be quick, he wanted to demonstrate his power before them while also establishing colonial holdings in a Portuguese controlled Morocco. Some nobles brought over their whole retinues & families as well as a fully stocked kitchens, portable chapels and even a whole church choir, giving the crusade an almost picnic or hunting expedition feel for some.

-The fleet stopped at Cadiz for the promised Spanish volunteers, they did not materialize and so on they sailed for Morocco. Arriving in June south of Tangier they joined Abdallah Mohammed with 6,000 loyal Moorish troops.

-Upon reaching the shores and in front of his still disembarking nobility Sebastian and a small contingent chased away an enemy contingent. This demonstrated to many assembled that Sebastian was a brave commander fully confident in his mission. To some of his commanders though there was concern it might mean he was also too headstrong to listen to reason.

-They suggested to the king that he first capture ports along the coast and avoid venturing into the interior of Morocco at this juncture. The ports would be important for reopening Portuguese trade and weakening the Moroccan economy. From there they could also resupply by sea for future operations, typically sound military advice.

-Sebastian did not heed the caution, he sought a decisive victory to end the campaign quick. He ordered a march into the Moroccan interior. Despite knowing he would face a numerically superior opponent. Confident Portuguese technology, training & God’s will were on their side.

-Al-Malik as Sultan of Morocco, took advantage of the Turkish backing, training his troops in advanced Ottoman techniques and acquiring some Turkish arquebusiers (early muskets) and artillery. Nevertheless, the majority of his forces were Berber and Arab irregulars from the Moroccan countryside or Moors expelled from Iberia, though some Ottoman Turks and Algerians had joined in the army. While his army was of poorer quality training & technology, it was made up for in raw numbers of men and morale for defense of their homeland.

-Al-Malik also suffered one more setback going into the battle, his own health was suffering by some undisclosed illness, possibly the plague. Only his brother (Al-Mansur) and physician knew of this illness as Al-Malik did not want to discourage his troops morale, to it was kept secret. He rode out from Marrakesh with at fast speed the drive of which gave Al-Malik barely any rest and only worsened his condition. Al-Mansur rode out from Fez and the two planned to meet and intercept the invaders & their nephew’s army.

-The two opposing armies would meet at the town of Ksar-el-Kebir rendered in Portuguese as Alcacer Quibir. Sebastian had 23,000 troops at his disposal against the Moroccan 50,000 strong under Al-Malik. Fearing being outflanked by a larger foe, he ordered his forces in a fortified square. Placing his artillery & arquebusiers in the front with cavalry & pikemen in the rear on the sides.

-Al-Malik was so ill he had to be strapped to his horse. He would choose to give a rousing speech to his troops before the battle’s start. His army formed in a crescent shape

-The battle began with volleys of artillery & arquebusiers from both sides while the Crusaders elite cavalry charged the Moroccan center. The Portuguese made headway until Al-Malik and his personal bodyguard and other cavalry rode out to blunt the charge and hold the center. Likewise he signaled Al-Mansur to command the tribal horsemen from the Berber tribes of the northern mountains of Morocco he had been hidden in reserve with the goal of enveloping the main Portuguese square which was now without the use of its best cavalry. Al-Malik has setup a surprise trap. now the task of enveloping the whole Portuguese army was to begin.

-Al Malik and his bodyguard joined his brother while the Moroccan center reorganized having surrounded the Portuguese cavalry. Seeing what was happening, Sebastian rode out personally leading his reserve heavy knights & nobles along with the horsemen of his ally, the deposed Abdallah Mohammed. The goal was to take down Al-Malik personally and break the Moroccan army’s morale.

-The retinues of all three kings met in the middle, with Al-Malik losing many men around him but the sultan and his bodyguard fought on while his brother Al-Mansur continued with the encirclement of the main square.

-Al-Mansur’s cavalry encircled the square and using dragoon tactics charged the square only to turn around just before being impaled by the Portuguese pikemen. Once the Moroccan horse pirouetted around the rider fired their musket at point blank range inflicting casualties on the European infantry. This tactic continued for hours in order to wear down the Crusaders.

-Meanwhile, Sebastian and his retinue fell back trying to rally the square. Soon the whole square was attacked on all sides. At some point while bravely fighting he lead another charge and was cut down, his body never recovered. He was only 24 years old and without wife or heir.

-Eventually the flanks of the Portuguese square were worn down and soon the Moroccans pushed onto the center which overwhelmed it.

-The battle ended after four hours of heavy fighting resulting in a decisive Moroccan victory. Sebastian had been killed in the fighting along with much of the nobility with 8,000 Crusader & Moorish troops in the Portuguese army dying. Another 15,000 troops including their camp followers were taken prisoner and enslaved. Roughly only 100 are believed to have escaped to the coast or Portuguese controlled ports. Abdallah Mohammed had escaped the battle on horseback but drowned crossing a river in hasty escape. However, for Al-Malik and the Moroccan army, it was costly too. Al-Malik, sick with a fever and plague died of natural cause due to over exertion due to riding on horseback and personally fighting, the exact point he died is uncertain but kept secret from his army so as not to break their morale until after the battle had been decided. The Moroccan army also suffered around 7,000 dead according to Portuguese sources as the bravery and determination of the Portuguese were acknowledged despite their defeat. With the deaths of Sebastian & the rival Saadian sultans Abdallah Mohammed & Al-Malik, the day be became known as the Battle of the Three Kings.

-Though it could be called the battle of four kings as Al-Malik’s younger brother and second in command, Al-Mansur would become his heir and successor as Sultan of Morocco. Al-Mansur also became the pinnacle of the Saadian dynasty reigning from 1578 until 1603 during which time he was the absolute ruler of a Morocco that was unified and expansive. He extended control to parts of Algeria and southward into Mauretania & Mali where he conquered the Songhai Empire and revived the important gold, ivory & African slave trade overland routes of the Trans-Sahara, vastly improving Morocco’s economy. He also went on to eject the Ottoman influence and army from his court. Asserting an independent Morocco free of European and Turkish influence. While there remained some European controlled ports, Al-Mansur was mostly successful in stabilizing his country. He also built up Marrakesh & Fez including vast palaces and the Saadian Tombs, considered the peak of Saadian architecture.

-After Al-Mansur’s death in 1603 Morocco fell into civil war and relative chaos once more. As had typified the Saadian dynasty from the start, the sons fought over control of the country. This time, the Moroccans had joint sultans who ruled divided portions of the country, creating a power vacuum that allowed for the rise of Barbary Corsairs and their pirates republics which would claim de-facto independence from the sultans, most notably the Republic of Sale headed by the Dutch privateer turned Barbary pirate, Jan Janszoon Van Haarlem also known by his Muslim name as Murad Reis the Younger.

-Eventually the Saadi dynasty was overthrown in the mid 17th century by the Alaouite dynasty which was another Arab Sharifian dynasty and which rules Morocco to this day. Though the Saadis are still regarded by the Moroccans for their architecture and role in securing an independent and stable Morocco, free from foreign influence.

-As for Portugal, it lost its king without an heir and much of its nobility. It was in this power vacuum that subsequently it was overtaken by the Kingdom of Spain being in a so called Iberian Union for the next 60 years before it became independent once again.

-Meanwhile, the Ottomans increasingly lost their ability to have a direct hold over North Africa altogether and despite nominal over lordship of Egypt to Algeria, Morocco remained relatively untouched by Turkish influence, given it a special place in the Muslim world. Additionally, the Turks with a stagnating navy turned their attention to expansion in the Middle East and Europe with the 17th century being the start of a long stagnation for them as well, their best days long behind them.

-The Battle of Alcacer Quibir fought on August 4th, 1578 was the culmination of domestic and foreign power struggles for Morocco, the product of colonial and imperial desires amid a succession crisis and civil war. Ironically, it triggered a succession crisis in the invading country and resolved one in the very country that triggered the foreign intervention. It was also a case in point of the arrogant illusion of the inevitability of European and Ottoman colonialism in North Africa and of course became a great symbolic victory in the psyche of an independent Morocco...

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gwendolynlerman · 6 years ago

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Discovering the world

Saudi Arabia 🇸🇦

Basic facts

Official name: المملكة العربية السعودية (al-Mamlaka al-ʿArabiyya as-Suʿūdiyya) (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia)

Capital city: Riyadh

Population: 33.2 million (2023)

Demonym: Saudi

Type of government: unitary Islamic absolute monarchy

Head of state: Salman (King)

Head of government: Mohammed bin Salman (Crown Prince and Prime Minister)

Gross domestic product (purchasing power parity): $2.11 trillion (2024)

Gini coefficient of wealth inequality: 45.9% (medium) (2013)

Human Development Index: 0.875 (very high) (2022)

Currency: Saudi riyal (SAR)

Fun fact: It is home to the tallest flagpole in the world.

Etymology

The country’s name comes from the dynastic name of the royal family, Al Saud, and the Arabian Peninsula, which literally means “island of the Arabs”.

Geography

Saudi Arabia is located in West Asia and borders Jordan, Iraq, and Kuwait to the north, the Indian Ocean, Bahrain, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates to the east, Oman to the southeast, Yemen to the south, and the Red Sea to the west.

The predominant climate is hot desert, with some pockets of cold desert in the north- and southwest. Temperatures range from 9 °C (48.2 °F) in winter to 43 °C (109.4 °F) in summer. The average annual temperature is 26.8 °C (80.3 °F).

The country is divided into thirteen regions (manatiq idāriyya), which are further divided into 118 governorates (muḥāfażah). The largest cities in Saudi Arabia are Riyadh, Jeddah, Mecca, Medina, and Hofuf.

History

9th-7th millennium BCE: Al-Magar culture

4th millennium-538 BCE: Dilmun

224-651 CE: Sasanian Empire

622-632: Islamic State of Medina

450-550: Kingdom of Kinda

632-633: Ridda Wars

632-661: Rashidun Caliphate

661-750: Umayyad Caliphate

750-1517: Abbasid Caliphate

909-1171: Fatimid Caliphate

1037-1194: Seljuk Empire

1063-1174: Sulaymanid dynasty

1171-1260: Ayyubid Sultanate

1194-1250: Zengid State

1250-1517: Mamluk Sultanate

1446-1744: Sheikhdom of Dir’iyah

1454-1517: Tahirid Sultanate

1517-1918: Ottoman Empire

1597-1849: Qasimid State

1633-1934: Principality of Najran

1669-1796: Bani Khalid Emirate

1727-1818: Emirate of Dir’iyah

1824-1891: Emirate of Nejd

1836-1921: Emirate of Jabal Shammar

1902-1913: Emirate of Riyadh

1908-1930: Idrisid Emirate of Asir

1916-1920: Sheikdom of Upper Asir

1916-1918: Arab Revolt

1916-1925: Hashemite Kingdom of Hejaz

1921-1926: Sultanate of Nejd

1924-1931: Sharifian Empire

1926-1932: Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd

1932-present: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

1934: Saudi-Yemeni war

1938: discovery of oil

1962-1970: North Yemen civil war

1979: Qatif Uprising, Grand Mosque seizure

1990-1991: Gulf War

2003: Riyadh compound bombings

Economy

Saudi Arabia mainly imports from China, the United Arab Emirates, and the United States and exports to China, India, and Japan. Its top exports are crude oil, liquefied petroleum gas, and bread.

It has the second-largest oil reserves and the fourth-largest natural gas reserves in the world. Services represent 53.2% of the GDP, followed by industry (44.2%) and agriculture (2.6%).

Saudi Arabia is a member of the Arab League, the Gulf Cooperation Council, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, and the Organization of the Petroleum-Exporting Countries.

Demographics

90% of the population is Arab, while 10% is Afro-Arab. The state religion is Islam, practiced by 93% of the population, 90% of which is Sunni.

It has a positive net migration rate and a fertility rate of 2.1 children per woman. 85% of the population lives in urban areas. Life expectancy is 76.9 years and the median age is 28.5 years. The literacy rate is 97.5%.

Languages

The official language of the country is Arabic. The main regional dialects are Gulf (2.8% of the population), Hejazi (31%), and Najdi (43.9%). Widely spoken immigrant languages include Bengali and Urdu.

Culture

Since 2017, women over the age of 21 no longer have a male guardian and can apply for official documents, drive, travel abroad, and undergo certain medical procedures on their own.

Men wear a long-sleeved ankle-length robe (thawb) and a headdress (kufiyyeh) held by a black cord (egel). Women wear a long, loose-fitting black gown (abaya) and a black head covering (hijab). Some also wear a full face veil (niqāb).

Architecture

Traditional houses in Saudi Arabia are made of mud bricks and have flat roofs and white battlements.

Cuisine

The Saudi diet is based on bread, meat, and vegetables. Typical dishes include hininy (round balls made of brown bread, dates, and ghee), jareesh (crushed wheat with meat and yogurt), kabsa (rice with meat, spices, and vegetables), matazeez (a round piece of dough dipped into a meat and vegetable stew), and tharid (bread soup with chickpeas, meat, and vegetables).

Holidays and festivals

Like other Muslim countries, Saudi Arabia celebrates Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha. Specific Saudi holidays include Founding Day on February 22 and National Day on September 23.

National Day

Other celebrations include the Janadriyah Festival, which celebrates customs and handicraft; the Jeddah Summer Festival, which includes concerts, poetry, and sports events, and the Riyadh Spring Festival, which features agricultural displays and flower carpets.

Janadriyah Festival

Landmarks

There are eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites: Al-Ahsa Oasis, At-Turaif District, Cultural Landscape of Al-Faw Archeological Area, Hegra, Ḥimā Cultural Area, Historic Jeddah, the Gate to Makkah, Rock Art in the Hail Region, and ‘Uruq Bani Mu’arid Protected Area.

Hegra

Other landmarks include the Masmak Fortress, the Hejaz Railway, King Abdullah Park, the Masjid al-Haram, and the Sarawat Mountains.

Masjid al-Haram

Famous people

Arwa al-Banawi - fashion designer

Ashraf Fayad - artist

Fai Khadra - model and singer

Faique Habib - cricket player

Ghazi al-Gosaibi - poet and writer

Haifaa al-Mansour - movie director

Kariman Abuljadayel - athlete

Loujain al-Hathloul - activist

Sami al-Jaber - soccer player

Shams - actress and singer

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karmaroc · 5 years ago

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EL MORO ( THE OLD FUTURE ) - The majority of the Moroccan culture nowadays comes from the time after the conflict between the Arabs and the Jews fighting over the control of the country. The war led the country into an unstable status however; a man by the name of Ahmed I al-Man-Sur brought the stability back to the country during his rule under the Sharifian dynasty. He established and unified the country between 1579 and 1603. Moors and Jews were expelled from the country and the Spanish began to settle in the area during this the same time period. Each nation brought many cultures such as art, food, etc. to Morocco, making Morocco became really diverse and filled with many cultures until its present day. . . . . . . . . . . #artwork #morocco #illustration #poster #surreal #oldmoroccan #artlover #art #artinsta #behance #creative #resistance #warrior #neworder #machine #popart #digitalart #compisition #photoshop #karmaroc http://www.karmaa.ml/2019/11/el-moro-old-future-majority-of-moroccan.html

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ujamaalive · 6 years ago

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The French protectorate in Morocco (French: Protectorat français au Maroc; Arabic: حماية فرنسا في المغرب‎ Ḥimāyat Faransā fi-l-Maḡrib) was established by the Treaty of Fez. It existed from 1912, when a protectorate was formally established, until independence (18 November 1955), and consisted of the area of Morocco between the Corridor of Taza and the Draa River.

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Prelude

Despite the weakness of its authority, the Alaouite dynasty distinguished itself in the 18th and 19th centuries by maintaining Morocco’s independence while other states in the region succumbed to French or British domination. However, in the latter part of the 19th century, Morocco’s weakness and instability invited European intervention to protect threatened investments and to demand economic concessions. The first years of the 20th century witnessed a rush of diplomatic manoeuvring through which the European powers and France in particular furthered their interests in North Africa.

French activity in Morocco began during the end of the 19th century. In 1904 the French government was trying to establish a protectorate over Morocco, and had managed to sign two bilateral secret agreements with Britain (8 April 1904, see Entente cordiale) and Spain (7 October 1904), which guaranteed the support of the powers in question in this endeavour. France and Spain secretly partitioned the territory of the sultanate, with Spain receiving concessions in the far north and south of the country.

First Moroccan Crisis: March 1905 – May 1906

The First Moroccan Crisis grew out of the imperial rivalries of the great powers, in this case, between Germany on one side and France, with British support, on the other. Germany took immediate diplomatic action to block the new accord from going into effect, including the dramatic visit of Wilhelm II to Tangier in Morocco on March 31, 1905. Kaiser Wilhelm tried to get Morocco’s support if they went to war with France or Britain, and gave a speech expressing support for Moroccan independence, which amounted to a provocative challenge to French influence in Morocco.

In 1906 the Algeciras Conference was held to settle the dispute, and Germany accepted an agreement in which France agreed to yield control of the Moroccan police, but otherwise retained effective control of Moroccan political and financial affairs. Although the Algeciras Conference temporarily solved the First Moroccan Crisis it only worsened international tensions between the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente.

First Moroccan Crisis: March 1905 – May 1906

Agadir Crisis

The French artillery at Rabat in 1911

In 1911, a rebellion broke out in Morocco against the Sultan, Abdelhafid. By early April 1911, the Sultan was besieged in his palace in Fez and the French prepared to send troops to help put down the rebellion under the pretext of protecting European lives and property. The French dispatched a flying column at the end of April 1911 and Germany gave approval for the occupation of the city. Moroccan forces besieged the French-occupied city. Approximately one month later, French forces brought the siege to an end. On 5 June 1911, the Spanish occupied Larache and Ksar-el-Kebir. On 1 July 1911, the German gunboat Panther arrived at the port of Agadir. There was an immediate reaction from the French, supported by the British.

French protectorate 1912–1956

France officially established a protectorate over Morocco with the Treaty of Fez, ending what remained of the country’s de facto independence. From a strictly legal point of view, the treaty did not deprive Morocco of its status as a sovereign state. The Sultan reigned but did not rule. Sultan Abdelhafidabdicated in favour of his brother Yusef after signing the treaty. On April 17, 1912, Moroccan infantrymen mutinied in the French garrison in Fez, in the 1912 Fes riots The Moroccans were unable to take the city and were defeated by a French relief force. In late May 1912, Moroccan forces again unsuccessfully attacked the enhanced French garrison at Fez.

French Moroccan medal

Bond of the French protectorate Morocco, issued 1st March 1918

In establishing their protectorate over much of Morocco, the French had behind them the experience of the conquest of Algeria and of their protectorate over Tunisia; they took the latter as the model for their Moroccan policy. There were, however, important differences. First, the protectorate was established only two years before the outbreak of World War I, which brought with it a new attitude toward colonial rule. Rejecting the typical French assimilationist approach to culture and education as a liberal fantasy, Morocco’s conservative French rulers attempted to use urban planning and colonial education to prevent cultural mixing and to uphold the traditional society upon which the French depended for collaboration. Second, Morocco had a thousand-year tradition of independence and had never been subjected to Ottoman rule, though it had been strongly influenced by the civilization of Muslim Iberia and there were periods during the Almoravid and Alhomad dynasties when areas on both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar were under the same rulers. These circumstances and the proximity of Morocco to Spain created a special relationship between the two countries.

Morocco was also unique among the North African countries in possessing a coast on the Atlantic, in the rights that various nations derived from the Conference of Algeciras, and in the privileges that their diplomatic missions had acquired in Tangier. Thus the northern tenth of the country, with both Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts, were excluded from the French-controlled area and treated as a Spanish protectorate.

Although being under the protectorate, Morocco retained –de jure– its personality as a state in international law, according to an International Court of Justice statement, and thus remained a sovereign state, without discontinuity between pre-colonial and modern entities. In fact, the French enjoyed much larger powers.

Under the protectorate, French civil servants allied themselves with the French colonists and with their supporters in France to prevent any moves in the direction of Moroccan autonomy. As pacification proceeded, the French government promoted economic development, particularly the exploitation of Morocco’s mineral wealth, the creation of a modern transportation system, and the development of a modern agriculture sector geared to the French market. Tens of thousands of colonists entered Morocco and bought up large amounts of the rich agricultural land. Interest groups that formed among these elements continually pressured France to increase its control over Morocco.

Lyautey and the Protectorate (1912–1925)

Hubert Lyautey, the first Resident-General of the protectorate, was an extraordinary personality with royalist leanings who made it his mission to develop Morocco. Unlike his compatriots, Lyautey didn’t believe that France should annex Morocco like French Algeria but rather remodel and re-educate Moroccan society. He promised that in this process that he would:

offend no tradition, change no custom, and remind ourselves that in all human society there is a ruling class, born to rule, without which nothing can be done… enlist the ruling class in our service…. and the country will be pacified, and at far less cost and with greater certainty than by all the military expeditions we could send there

Lyautey’s vision was ideological: a powerful pro-French westernized monarchy that would work with France and look to France for culture and aid. Unlike in Algeria where the entire nobility and government was displaced, Lyautey worked with the Moroccan nobility, offering them support and even building elite private schools where they could send their children (a benefit not given to the majority of Moroccans). One notable product of this schooling is Thami El Glaoui.

Lyautey allowed the sultan to retain his powers: he issued decrees in his own name and seal and was allowed to remain the religious leader of Morocco. He was even allowed an all-Arab court. Lyautey once said:

In Morocco, there is only one government, the sharifian government, protected by the French

Walter Burton Harris, a British journalist who wrote extensively on Morocco, wrote:

At the Moorish court. scarcely a European is to be seen, and to the native who arrives at the Capital there is little or no visible change from what he and his ancestors saw in the past

Opposition to French control

Rif Rebellion

Sultan Yusef‘s reign, from 1912 to 1927, was turbulent and marked with frequent uprisings against Spain and France. The most serious of these was a Berber uprising in the Rif Mountains, led by Abd el-Krim who managed to establish a republic in the Rif. Though this rebellion originally began in the Spanish-controlled area in the north of the country, it reached to the French-controlled area until a coalition of France and Spain finally defeated the rebels in 1925. To ensure their own safety, the French moved the court from Fez to Rabat, which has served as the capital of the country ever since.

Nationalist parties

In December 1934, a small group of nationalists, members of the newly formed Moroccan Action Committee (Comité d’Action Marocaine – CAM), proposed a Plan of Reforms that called for a return to indirect rule as envisaged by the Treaty of Fez, admission of Moroccans to government positions, and establishment of representative councils. The moderate tactics used by the CAM to obtain consideration of reform – including petitions, newspaper editorials, and personal appeals to French. Nationalist political parties, which subsequently arose under the French protectorate, based their arguments for Moroccan independence on such World War II declarations as the Atlantic Charter.

During World War II, the badly divided nationalist movement became more cohesive and informed Moroccans dared to consider the real possibility of political change in the post-war era. However, the nationalists were disappointed in their belief that the Allied victory in Morocco would pave the way for independence. In January 1944, the Istiqlal Party, which subsequently provided most of the leadership for the nationalist movement, released a manifesto demanding full independence, national reunification, and a democratic constitution. The sultan had approved the manifesto before its submission to the French resident general, who answered that no basic change in the protectorate status was being considered.

Exile of Sultan Mohammed

The general sympathy of the sultan for the nationalists had become evident by the end of the war, although he still hoped to see complete independence achieved gradually. By contrast, the residency, supported by French economic interests and vigorously backed by most of the colonists, adamantly refused to consider even reforms short of independence. Official intransigence contributed to increased animosity between the nationalists and the colonists and gradually widened the split between the sultan and the resident general.

Mohammed V and his family were transferred to Madagascar in January 1954. His replacement by the unpopular Mohammed Ben Aarafa, whose reign was perceived as illegitimate, sparked active opposition to the French protectorate both from nationalists and those who saw the sultan as a religious leader. By 1955, Ben Arafa was pressured to abdicate; consequently, he fled to Tangier where he formally abdicated.

Later on, faced with a united Moroccan demand for the sultan’s return, on a great scale, rising violence in Morocco, and the deteriorating situation in Algeria, Mohammed V was returned from exile on November 16, 1955, and declared independence on November 18, 1955. In February 1956 he successfully negotiated with France to enforce the independence of Morocco, and in 1957 took the title of King.

1956 independence

In late 1955, Mohammed V successfully negotiated the gradual restoration of Moroccan independence within a framework of French-Moroccan interdependence. The sultan agreed to institute reforms that would transform Morocco into a constitutional monarchy with a democratic form of government. In February 1956, Morocco acquired limited home rule. Further negotiations for full independence culminated in the French-Moroccan Agreement signed in Paris on March 2, 1956. On April 7 of that year, France officially relinquished its protectorate in Morocco. The internationalized city of Tangier was reintegrated with the signing of the Tangier Protocol on October 29, 1956. The abolition of the Spanish protectorate and the recognition of Moroccan independence by Spain were negotiated separately and made final in the Joint Declaration of April 1956. Through these agreements with Spain in 1956 and 1958, Moroccan control over certain Spanish-ruled areas was restored, though attempts to claim other Spanish possessions through military action were less successful.

In the months that followed independence, Mohammed V proceeded to build a modern governmental structure under a constitutional monarchy in which the sultan would exercise an active political role. He acted cautiously, having no intention of permitting more radical elements in the nationalist movement to overthrow the established order. He was also intent on preventing the Istiqlal Party from consolidating its control and establishing a one-party state. In August 1957, Mohammed V assumed the title of king.

Monetary policy

The French minted coinage for use in the Protectorate from 1921 until 1956, which continued to circulate until a new currency was introduced. The French minted coins with a denomination of francs, which were divided into 100 centimes. This was replaced in 1960 with the reintroduction of the dirham, Morocco’s current currency.

The Algeciras Conference gave concessions to the European bankers, ranging from a newly formed State Bank of Morocco to issuing banknotes backed by gold, with a 40-year term. The new state bank was to act as Morocco’s Central Bank, but with a strict cap on the spending of the Sherifian Empire, with administrators appointed by the national banks that guaranteed the loans: the German Empire, United Kingdom, France and Spain.

Postal history

A French postal agency had sent mail from Tangier as early as 1854, but the formal beginning of the system was in 1891 when French post offices were established throughout the sultanate. The office’s issued postage stamps of France surcharged with values in pesetas and centimos, at a 1–1 ratio with the denominations in French currency, using both the Type Sage issues and after 1902, Mouflon issue inscribed “MAROC” (which were never officially issued without the surcharge). In 1911, the Mouflon designs were overprinted in Arabic; in the same year, the Sherifian post was created to handle local mail, using special stamps.

The first stamps of the protectorate appeared 1 August 1914, and were just the existing stamps with the additional overprint reading “PROTECTORAT FRANCAIS”. The first new designs were in an issue of 1917, consisting of 17 stamps in six designs, denominated in centimes and francs, and inscribed “MAROC”.

Railways

Morocco had from 1912–1935 one of the largest 600 mm (1 ft 11 5⁄8 in) gauge networks in Africa with a total length of more than 1,700 kilometres. After the treaty of Algeciras where the representatives of Great Powers agreed not to build any standard gauge railway in Morocco until the standard gauge Tangier–Fez Railway being completed, the French had begun to build military 600 mm (1 ft 11 5⁄8 in) gauge lines in their part of Morocco.

Source: Wikipedia under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License

French protectorate in Morocco The French protectorate in Morocco (French: Protectorat français au Maroc; Arabic: حماية فرنسا في المغرب‎ Ḥimāyat Faransā fi-l-Maḡrib) was established by the

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