#non specific antitumor drug | Explore Tumblr posts and blogs

edenmartinez · 7 months ago

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peptide-ltd · 8 months ago

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Poziotinib Researches on Cancers

Poziotinib has been investigated in clinical trials for the treatment of various cancers. Some of the specific conditions studied include:

Breast Cancer

Metastatic Breast Cancer

Increased Drug Resistance

Adenocarcinoma of Lung Stage IV

Adenocarcinoma of Lung Stage IIIB

These trials explore the effectiveness of Poziotinib in targeting cancers that overexpress or have mutations in the epidermal growth factor receptors (EGFR), including HER2 and HER4. Its use is particularly focused on cancers with EGFR exon 20 insertion mutations.

What Is Poziotinib Peptide?

Poziotinib peptide is an orally bioavailable, quinazoline-based, small-molecule, irreversible pan-epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR or HER) inhibitor with potential antineoplastic activity. It inhibits EGFR (HER1 or ErbB1), HER2, HER4, and EGFR mutants, thereby hindering the proliferation of tumor cells that overexpress these receptors. EGFRs, which are cell surface receptor tyrosine kinases, are frequently upregulated in various cancer cell types and play crucial roles in cellular proliferation and survival.

Poziotinib has been investigated in clinical trials for the treatment of various cancers, including breast cancer, metastatic breast cancer, increased drug resistance, adenocarcinoma of the lung (Stage IV and Stage IIIB), among others.

For your safety, please buy and use Poziotinib with caution.

What Benefits Can You Get From Poziotinib on NSCLC?

The antitumor activity of poziotinib was found to be significant in patients with EGFR exon 20 positive non–small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). The efficacy of the treatment was found to be highly dependent on the location of the exon 20 loop insertion. These findings were published in Cancer Cell. The results were published in Cancer Cell.

The study, designated as phase 2 (NCT03066206), included 50 patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) who exhibited point mutations or insertions in the EGFR exon 20. The study achieved its primary end point with a confirmed objective response rate (ORR) of 32% (95% CI, 20.7%-45.8%) and 31% (95% CI, 19.1%-46%) by investigator and blinded independent review, respectively.

Moreover, researchers found a median progression-free survival (PFS) of 5.5 months (95% CI, 5.4-10.4) with a PFS rate of 43% (95% CI, 30%-60%) at 6 months, and 29% (95% CI, 18%-46%) at 12 months. Median overall survival also appeared to be beneficial at 19.2 months (95% CI, 11.8-24.1) with a disease control rate of 84% (95% CI, 71.5%-92%).

“EGFR exon 20 mutant lung cancers typically don’t respond well to the types of tyrosine kinase inhibitors that have been largely successful in targeting classical EGFR mutations, leaving this patient population with few effective treatment options,” said senior author of the study, John Heymach, MD, PhD, chair of the Thoracic/Head & Neck Medical Oncology at the MD Anderson Cancer Center, in a press release.2 “Our study gives hope for not only a potentially beneficial treatment option, but for a new level of precision to better target EGFR exon 20 mutations and to design more effective clinical trials.”

A new drug application for poziotinib was accepted by the FDA for patients with advanced or metastatic NSCLC harboring HER2 exon 20 insertion mutations in February 2022. Poziotinib also received fast track designation from the FDA in March 2021 for patients with HER2 exon 20 insertion–mutated NSCLC.

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gomedsin · 2 years ago

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What is Lysodren used to treat and How does it work?

Lysodren 500mg is a cancer medicine used to treat certain types of cancer, specifically adrenocortical carcinoma (a type of cancer that starts in the outer layer of the adrenal gland). It works as a anti cancer agent by destroying the cells in the outer layer of the adrenal gland, which are the cells that are most likely to become cancerous.

Lysodren (mitotane) is a cytostatica that is used to treat certain types of cancer, specifically adrenocortical carcinoma and certain types of breast cancer. It works by inhibiting the growth and division of cancer cells, which ultimately leads to the death of the cells.

Lysodren (mitotane) is usually taken as a single daily dose, but the specific dosage will be determined by a healthcare provider based on the patient's specific needs. Normal incidental effects incorporate sickness, retching, looseness of the bowels, and loss of craving. It is important to note that Lysodren(antineoplastic medication) can cause serious side effects, including damage to the liver and kidneys, so it should only be taken under the close supervision of a doctor.

Lysodren is considered as an antitumoral medication different from most cytotoxic drugs in that it is specific to adrenal cancer cells, thus it has less general toxicity on the body. It is usually used in combination with other cancer treatments and close monitoring by a healthcare provider is needed as it can cause significant side effects.

Lysodren is not typically used to treat anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) positive cancer. ALK positive cancer is a subtype of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) that is characterized by a genetic alteration in the ALK gene. The ALK gene provides instructions for making a protein called anaplastic lymphoma kinase, which plays a role in cell growth and division. ALK positive cancer is treated with specific ALK inhibitors, such as crizotinib and ceritinib, which target and inhibit the activity of the ALK protein.

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#adrenal cortical carcinoma #adrenaline cancer #LYSODREN #MITOTANE

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minbiotch · 2 years ago

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Dosage, adverse reactions, and contraindications of pirarubicin

Pirarubicinis an anthracycline cell cycle non-specific antineoplastic drug synthesized from doxorubicin and dihydropyran. It is suitable for the treatment of breast cancer. It is also effective in patients with drug resistance.

The mechanism of action of the drug is that it can directly intercalate between DNA double strands, inhibit DNA polymerase, prevent nucleic acid synthesis, and prevent cells from dividing in the G2 phase, resulting in tumor cell death.

Dosage

Dissolve this product in 10ml of 5% glucose injection or water for injection. Intravenous, arterial, and intravesical infusion.

Intravenous administration: generally 25-40 mg/m2 per body surface area. For breast cancer, the recommended combination is 40-50 mg/m2 each time. It is administered on the first day of each course of treatment and can be repeated at 21-day intervals according to the patient's blood picture. For acute leukemia, the adult dose is 25 mg/m2 once based on body surface area.

Arterial administration: For head and neck cancer, 7-20 mg/m2 per body surface area, once a day, for 5-7 days, or 14-25 mg/m2 each time, once a week.

Intravesical administration: for the prevention of postoperative recurrence of superficial bladder cancer. According to the body surface area, 15~30mg/m2 once, diluted to 500~1000μg/ml concentration, injected into the bladder cavity for 0.5h, once a week, 4~8 times in a row; then once a month, a total of 1 year.

Doctors can adjust the time, dosage, and frequency of administration according to the patient's condition.

Adverse reactions

1. Myelosuppression is dose-limiting toxicity, mainly neutropenia, with an average minimum value of 14 days and recovery on the 21st day, anemia and thrombocytopenia are rare;

2. Cardiotoxicity is lower than doxorubicin, acute cardiotoxicity is mainly reversible ECG changes, such as arrhythmia or non-specific ST-T abnormalities, and chronic cardiotoxicity is dose-accumulating. The incidence of acute and chronic cardiotoxicity of this product is about 1/7 and 1/4 of doxorubicin.

3. Hair loss: The overall incidence of hair loss with this product is about 40%, which is significantly lower than that of doxorubicin (80%); the incidence of severe hair loss is about 20%, which is significantly lower than that of doxorubicin (60%).

4. Gastrointestinal reactions: nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, oral mucositis, and sometimes diarrhea;

5. Others: abnormal liver and kidney function, skin pigmentation, etc., occasional rash. The intravesical injection can cause bladder irritation symptoms such as frequent urination, dysuria, occasional hematuria, and rarely bladder atrophy.

Taboo

1. Patients with obvious bone marrow suppression due to chemotherapy or radiotherapy are contraindicated;

2. Patients with severe structural heart disease or abnormal cardiac function and those who are allergic to this product are prohibited;

3. Patients who have used high-dose anthracyclines (such as doxorubicin or daunorubicin) are contraindicated;

4. Women of pregnancy, lactation, and childbearing age are prohibited.

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Introduction to Biosimilars

#non specific antitumor drug #antineoplastic drugs pirarubicin #inhibits dna polymerase

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cciedump · 4 years ago

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Is the prescription effective The growth rate of the retail end of the six major anticancer drugs exceeded 500 and Roche Hengrui and AZ products rank

On June 4, the first municipal electronic prescription information sharing service platform in Shanxi Province was officially launched, led by the Health Committee of Jincheng City, Shanxi Province. The platform will cover 22 secondary and above medical institutions in the city. Through the his system of the above medical institutions, the city's unified standard prescription database will be established.

in fact, similar models have been launched in many places in recent years. The launch of regional prescription information sharing platform has accelerated the realization of "prescription outflow". According to the data of Minet, the proportion of prescription drugs sold by urban retail pharmacies in 2019 will reach 51.0%, more than half for the first time. Among them, the highest annual growth rate is the chemical drugs of anti-tumor and immunomodulators, reaching 85.7%.

Internet plus Internet novel coronavirus pneumonia has dominated local

. Since its issuance on the promotion of Internet plus medical health, the state and relevant ministries and commissions have issued several documents, involving access, payment, supervision and many other aspects, and the new crown pneumonia epidemic has accelerated the policy of "non-contact".

policy benefits attract many enterprises layout, such as the health of Ali, which announced the 2020 fiscal year results a few days ago, in April this year, combined with Alipay, in Ji'nan, Shandong took the lead in innovating the pilot's first internet medical mode based on electronic medical insurance vouchers, including "medical insurance electronic voucher application + online referral + online prescription transfer + online medical insurance payment + drugs". Including "home delivery", online medical insurance covering from consultation to drug purchaseOne stop service.

However, analysts also pointed out that the prescription information sharing platform led by the local health department, such as Jincheng, Shanxi Province, opens the port for the government's regulatory departments, so as to supervise the circulation of prescriptions in real time and in the whole process. Therefore, it is easier to obtain the qualification of Online payment and reimbursement of medical insurance, and finally realize the connection with the existing services, becoming a one-stop closed-loop drug purchase .

from the perspective of the whole chain of medical circulation, the greater significance of prescription information sharing platform is to connect the fragmented information systems between different levels of medical institutions, and solve the problem of online prescription circulation and sharing between hospitals and pharmacies. A hospital official who has launched the extension service disclosed that because the extension platform is not limited by the drug types of medical institutions, it can make prescriptions according to the specific conditions of patients through the platform, which enriches the doctor's diagnosis and treatment programs and benefits patients more.

antitumor drug retail terminal

rapid increase from the "Internet plus medical insurance" development trend, the current medical insurance payment is mainly involved in chronic diseases and common diseases, re visit treatment fees and related prescription fees. In fact, as major diseases such as cancer gradually show a trend of chronic disease, the number of patients who benefit from it is gradually expanding, and drugs for common diseases, chronic diseases, major diseases and other long-term use are also flowing out of hospital.

according to the data of MI Nei network, chemical drugs accounted for 54.5% of the drug sales scale of China's urban physical pharmacies (including cities at prefecture level and above) in 2019, an increase of 3.2 percentage points compared with 2018. fromIn terms of drug types, prescription drugs successfully accounted for half of the country, with a market share of 51.0%, an increase of 2.7 percentage points compared with 2018. Non prescription drugs accounted for 39.8%, and double span drugs accounted for 9.2%.

according to the analysis, this is closely related to the sales of new anti-tumor drugs approved in recent two years through out of hospital channels such as DTP pharmacy. A similar situation can be seen from the annual growth rate of each sub category. According to the data of mienei.com, the highest annual growth rate of chemical drugs in urban entity pharmacies in 2019 is anti-tumor and immunomodulators, accounting for 85.7%; coincidentally, the highest annual growth rate of Chinese patent medicines is also cancer drugs, accounting for 31.0%.

specifically, in 2019, the growth rate of terminal sales of retail pharmacies in China's cities will exceed 500%, and six of them will be antineoplastic drugs.

over 100 million chemical drug brands (unit: 10000 yuan) with a sales growth rate of more than 500% in urban retail drugstores in 2019

Among them, the most powerful is the Roche aletinib hydrochloride capsule, which was included in the priority review in March 2018 and approved to enter the Chinese market in August of the same year. It is used to treat locally advanced or metastatic non-small cell lung cancer with positive ALK. According to the data of minenet, at the terminals of public medical institutions in China, the sales volume of Roche's aletinib hydrochloride capsules was 8.88 million yuan in 2018, and soared to 139 million yuan in 2019, with a growth rate of 1461.71%;In China's urban retail drugstore terminals, the sales volume of the product was 890000 yuan in 2018 and soared to 211 million yuan in 2019, with a growth rate of 23608.99%. Considering that aletinib hydrochloride capsule has been successfully included in the national medical insurance negotiation catalogue of 2019, it is expected that the sales of the product in China's public medical institutions will continue to rise in 2020.

the paclitaxel for injection (albumin binding type) of Hengrui medicine, which was approved for production in 2018, was regarded as over evaluated. According to the pattern data of retail pharmacies in China's cities on minet.com, the sales of this drug increased by 6434.85% in 2019, exceeding 900 million yuan. Xinji, the original research enterprise of the product, was announced by the State Food and Drug Administration in March this year. It was found that some key production facilities did not meet the basic requirements of China's drug production quality management during the on-site inspection of overseas production, and the aseptic safeguard measures were not in place in the production process. Therefore, the import, sales and use of the product were suspended in accordance with the law. It is expected that domestic brands will continue to share market space.

the growth rate of olaparide of AstraZeneca was the third. In January 2018, the drug was included in the priority review on the grounds of "obvious treatment advantages compared with existing treatment methods"; then it was approved for maintenance treatment of platinum sensitive recurrent ovarian cancer patients in August. According to the overseas market data, as the world's first listed PARP inhibitor, olapari accounted for 64% of the global PARP inhibitor market share in 2017, with global sales reaching US $297 million, with a year-on-year growth rate of 36.24%.In 2019, olapali also achieved sales of more than 200 million pocketprep cissp yuan in China's urban retail drugstore terminal, with a year-on-year growth of 952.31%. Considering that the product was approved for the first-line maintenance treatment of BRCA mutation advanced ovarian cancer in December 2019, another indication was expanded in China, and the applicable population was significantly expanded. At present, the drug has also successfully entered the 2019 version of medical insurance catalog, and its sales are expected to continue to maintain an upward trend.

in recent years, pharmaceutical companies have also increased their market share in the retail market. Of course, this is also in line with the cisa exam scoring method fact that the physical retail drugstores actively grasp the varieties of drug companies that flow and discard the standard after purchasing with volume, increase the opportunities of retail layout, speed up the layout of hospital side stores, DTP drugstores and pharmaceutical e-commerce, and vigorously improve the capacity of undertaking prescription drugs and pharmaceutical service.

#helath tips

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abeomicsinc · 5 years ago

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Cancer Immunotherapy

Recent advances in treating cancer patients have resulted in the development of biological therapies that can prove to be a promising alternative to conventional cancer therapies. Immunotherapy harnesses the body’s immune system to identify and fight effectively against cancer cells. Immunotherapy works by attacking the growth of cancer cells or stimulating the immune system to kill cancer cells. Contradictory to the standard cancer treatment regimes such as chemotherapy, radiation therapy, which act on both normal and cancerous cells, immunotherapeutic treatments are highly specific. A wide range of cancer immunotherapy approaches exists such as immune checkpoint blockers, cancer vaccines, immune-modulators, monoclonal antibodies and cell based immunotherapies have demonstrated to be effective against cancer patients.

The most commonly targeted form of cancer chemotherapy is the use of monoclonal antibodies as they can be tailor-made in the laboratory. They have unique antigen specificity thereby allowing themselves to attach to specific epitopes on cancer cells. This flags the cancer cells and makes it more visible to the immune system so that it can find and destroy those cells. Currently, most of the monoclonal antibodies are undergoing phase 3 clinical trials or awaiting FDA review process. Unlike monoclonal antibodies, non-specific immunotherapy approaches such as administration of immunomodulatory cytokines are also being used to treat melanoma. Cytokines are hormones that are endogenously produced by the body to enhance or suppress T-cell response against cancer cells. IFN-α and IL-2 are most commonly characterized cytokines used in cancer immunotherapy.

The primary cell-based immunotherapy strategy which is successful these days is the use of T-cell therapy, wherein cancer T cells removed from blood are modified with chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) and is then infused back into the patients to treat metastatic cancer. Another form of cell-based immunotherapy used is tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) therapy, wherein TIL is surgically removed from tumor tissue and is considerably increased in the laboratory by adding cytokines to it and is then reinfused back into the patient.

A promising treatment that has emerged in recent times for treatment of melanoma is the use of immune checkpoint inhibitors. They act by inhibiting the checkpoint receptors on T cells that act as brakes to the immune system thereby mediating antitumor responses. Some of the commonly used antibody inhibitors that have been commercialized are PD-1, PDL-1, and CTLA-4.

Another more focused approach to cancer immunotherapy is the use of vaccines to encourage the immune system to generate antibodies that can target tumor specific antigens, thereby eradicating cancerous cells. Cancer vaccines include peptide-based, dendritic cell-based, tumor cell-based and DNA cell based. Cancer vaccines can be broadly classified as preventive or therapeutic. Preventive vaccines are commercially available for against cervical and liver cancer causing viruses such as human papillomavirus and hepatitis B virus, respectively.

However, in spite of these advances, limitation such as tumor heterogeneity, unpredictable efficacy and identification of potential markers still exist in the field of cancer immunotherapy. Therefore, new more targeted cancer immunotherapies and preventive strategies are being developed and tested, which will deliver novel efficacious therapy against relapsed or refractory cancer patients.

ABEOMICS Inc. provides innovative, well validated research reagents to support research in the field of immune oncology. The product line includes Stable cell lines and Reporter cell lines, Antibodies, ELISA kits, Recombinant proteins as well as compound screening services for new drug molecules.

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copelandli6-blog · 6 years ago

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Health Advantages Of Cannabidiol Products

CBD is just one of the 100+ cannabinoids present in cannabis and it has become the subject of much research due to its diverse and many health applications. Nevertheless, CBD Supplements isn't merely its therapeutic attributes that have sparked such widespread interest in CBD in the last few years. The compound is also non psychoactive (meaning it does not produce the 'high' related to cannabis usage), which makes it a safe and effective choice for patients who may worry about the mind changing effects of other cannabinoids like THC. Oils that are CBD dominant are called CBD oils. Nevertheless, the specific ratio and concentrations of CBD to THC can vary depending upon the product and manufacturer. Regardless, CBD oils are proven to provide a selection of health benefits which could potentially improve the quality of life to patients across the globe. Here are just five of the key health benefits of CBD oils: 1. Pain relief Perhaps one of the most distinguished healthbenefits of CBD supplements is its own analgesic (pain relieving) effects. It's thought that CBD interacts with receptors within the brain and immune system to reduce inflammation and alleviate anxiety. Several studies, such as this analysis published in the Journal of Chemical Medicine, found that cannabidiol significantly reduces inflammation in mice and rats - however it's perhaps not merely rodents which experience these results. A 2008 review found that CBD offered effective treatment without inducing adverse side effects in patients.

2. Anti-Seizure Properties Seizures occur when there is a stunning fluctuation of electric activity from the brain. Through the years, lots of high profile cases have increased understanding of CBD's anti-seizure properties, but it's only recently that science has managed to ensure this URL. A randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled trial published at The New England Journal of Medicine researched the consequence of CBD drugs on young adults using Dravet syndrome, an uncommon type of epilepsy with seizures that are often induced by fever. Those who received CBD experienced watched their seizure frequency drop by a% of 38.9 per cent. 3. Combat Stress While CBD is most commonly used as a treatment for physiological symptoms, there's an increasing body of research that indicates it can be used at the therapy of a range of mental health conditions, for example stress. A study by the University of São Paulo found that CBD somewhat reduces subjective stress, causing researchers to conclude "These results imply that CBD reduces stress from social anxiety disorder and that this is connected to its effects on activity in limbic and paralimbic brain places." 4. Fight Cancer Research indicates that CBD can be valuable in the cure of cancer in a number of unique ways. CBD in addition to a number of the other chemicals present in cannabis have an antitumor effect and will amplify the passing of tumor cells in the cancer of the colon and leukemia. Furthermore, investigations have shown that CBD can be used to stop the spread of cancer cells in cervical cancer cells. It is crucial to mention that the vast majority of CBD and cancer studies are preclinical, meaning they aren't conducted human and even mammalian evaluation areas, and also the findings -- while asserting -- should be interpreted as conclusive proof that CBD can cure cancer. 5. Reduce the Risk of Diabetes A rarely discussed health benefit of CBD petroleum is the way that it is able to cut the possibility of developing cardiovascular disease. At research published in Neuropharmacology, researchers attempted to explore what effect cannabidiol might have on non-obese diabetes-prone female mice. Only 32 percent of the mice who received the CBD were identified as having diabetes, when compared with 100 per cent of their untreated group. In closing, cbd oil is also an incredibly valuable medicine which may be used as a treatment for a variety of health conditions. While this report is definately not an exhaustive list, it does highlight only a few of the manners CBD could possibly help your overall health and fitness.

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paullui2002 · 2 years ago

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Monoclonal Antibodies Market 2021 Global Industry Size, Demand, Growth Analysis, Share, Revenue and Forecast 2028

Food and Drug Administration (FDA) defines monoclonal antibodies as immunoglobulin molecules which are secreted from a population of identical cells. They are homogenous in structure and binding specificity. These are used as multifunctional components for the immune system. They facilitate numerous cellular and humoral reactions to a variety of antigens, which includes host and foreign substances.

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According to our latest study on “Monoclonal Antibodies Market Size and Forecast to 2028 – COVID-19 Impact and Global Analysis – by Source, Production Method, Indication, Application, End-User,” the market is projected to reach US$ 243.05 billion by 2028 from US$ 111.01 billion in 2021; it is expected to grow at a CAGR of 11.8% from 2021 to 2028. The report highlights the key factors driving the market growth and prominent players with their developments in the market.

Based on indication, the monoclonal antibody market is segmented into cancer, autoimmune diseases, infectious diseases, inflammatory diseases, microbial diseases, and others. The cancer segment held the largest share of the market in 2021 and is projected to register the highest CAGR during the forecast period. On the other hand, the autoimmune diseases segment is estimated to register the second-highest CAGR in the market during the forecast period. Cancer metastasis causes a majority of mortalities and morbidities among cancer patients. A traditional cancer therapy focuses on the removal or destruction of tumor cells through surgery, radiation, and rather non-selective types of chemotherapy. Therefore, there is a high demand for antitumor monoclonal antibodies (mABs). For example, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)has approved several specially engineered humanized or chimeric mABs; these include Alemtuzumab, Bevacizumab, and Cetuximab. Apart from the direct use of mAbs for treating various cancer types, mABs are also used for delivering radioisotopes selectively to cancer cells. For example, mAB-tagged radioisotopes are used for treating patients suffering from non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and are often used in combination with Rituximab.

The monoclonal antibodies market is majorly comprised of top players involving Novartis AG, Pfizer, Inc., GlaxoSmithKline Plc, Amgen, Inc., Daiichi Sankyo Company, Limited, F.Hoffmann-La Roche AG, AstraZeneca, Elli Lilly and Company, Bayer AG, Bristol-Myers Squibb Company.

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The companies listed above are implementing various strategies that have resulted in the growth of the company and in turn, have brought about various changes in the worldwide market. Additionally, the companies have adopted several inorganic and organic strategies for accelerating their growth and improving their market position.

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edenmartinez · 2 years ago

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sweetyiarc · 3 years ago

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Catharanthine Market Size Forecast to Reach $942 Million by 2026

Catharanthine Market size is forecast to reach US$942 million by 2026, and is growing at a CAGR of 3.6% during 2021-2026. Catharanthine is an organic heteropentacyclic compound and monoterpenoid indole alkaloid produced by the medicinal plant Catharanthus roseus via strictosi forecast to reach US$942 million by 2026, and is growing at a CAGR of 3.6% during dine. It is a bridged compound, an organic heteropentacyclic compound, a methyl ester, a monoterpenoid indole alkaloid, a tertiary amino compound and an alkaloid ester. Catharanthine is one of the two precursors that form vinblastine, the other being vindoline. Vinblastine (VBL), is a chemotherapy medication, typically used with other medications, to treat a number of types of cancer. This includes Hodgkin's lymphoma, non-small cell lung cancer, bladder cancer, brain cancer, melanoma, and testicular cancer. Catharanthine sulfate is a vinblastine-type alkaloid precursor with antitumor activity while Catharanthine tartrate is the starting material for the synthesis of the antitumor drugs. Catharanthine finds a number of application in the healthcare and pharmaceutical industry. Hence a growth in the market is predicted.

COVID-19 Impact

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Pharmaceutical Industry was majorly impacted. Most of the raw material manufacturing plants were shut down, which declined the production of catharanthine and the medications derived from catharanthine. Due to countrywide Lockdown and cross border Import Export restrictions, supply chain disrupted. Raw material delays or non-arrival, disrupted financial flows, and rising absenteeism among production line staff, OEMs have been forced to function at zero or partial capacity, resulting in lower demand and consumption for catheranthine in 2019-2020. However, due to the burden of cancer incidence and mortality is rapidly growing worldwide, the demand for catheranthine will grow and recover the market with minor economical disruption in the forecast period.

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Catharanthine Market Segment Analysis – By Type

Catharanthine sulphate segment held the largest share in the Catharanthine Marketin 2020 and is growing at a CAGR of 4.4% during 2021-2026.Catharanthine sulfate is a vinblastine-type alkaloid precursor with antitumor activity. It inhibits AChR (Acetylcholine Receptor) by ion channel blocking and desensitization. Whie, Catharanthine tartrate is a precursor for synthesis of Vinblastine and Vincristine. Vincristine is more neurotoxic than vinblastine. Vinblastine and other vinca alkaloids are cell cycle-specific antitumor agents. The drug specifically binds to tubulin and blocks the ability of tubulin to polymerize into microtubules, leading to arrest of cell division in metaphase. Without proper chromosomal segregation during mitosis, cell death presumably occurs. Vincristine is one of the most commonly used pediatric chemotherapeutic agents and is used to treat both hematologic malignancies and solid tumors. It is a natural alkaloid that interferes with the assembly of microtubule structures leading to cell apoptosis. Due to the crucial role of Catharane sulphate and catharanthine tartrate in catharanthine market, it is projected to grow in the forecast period.

Catharanthine Market Segment Analysis - By Application

Pharmaceutical segment held the largest share in the Catharanthine Market in 2020 and is growing at a CAGR of 7.6% during 2021-2026.The most important indole alkaloids, VLB(Vinblastine ) and VCR(Vincristine), are clinically useful anticancer agents. Vinblastine is administered systemically in the treatment of leukemias, lymphomas, and testicular cancer. Vinblastine administered IL has been used for the treatment of KS. It is also used in treatment of non-Hodgkin lymphoma and is an active agent in the treatment of breast cancer. Vincristine is one of the most commonly used pediatric chemotherapeutic agents and is used to treat both hematologic malignancies and solid tumors. According to International Agency for Research on Cancer, an estimated 19.3 million new cancer cases and almost 10.0 million cancer deaths occurred in 2020 globally. One in five people develop cancer during their lifetime, and 1 in 8 men and 1 in 11 women die from the disease. These new estimates suggest that more than 50 million people are living within five years of a past cancer diagnosis. Hence the concerning cancer cases and deaths around the world increase the demand for Catharanthine market in the forecast period.

Catharanthine Market Segment Analysis – By Geography

North America region held the largest share in the Catharanthine Market in 2020 up to 52%, owing to the rising chronic disease patients such as cancer, tumor in the region. According to Internal Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, the pharmaceutical market worldwide has significantly increased. In 2019, the value of the market was on the order of USD 1.25 trillion. The E7 countries such as Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Russia and Turkey accounting for one fifth of global pharmaceutical sales. According to IQVIA, Brand spending in developed markets will increase by $298 billion in the 5 years to 2020 driven by new products and price increases primarily in the U.S., China's pharmaceutical market has been constantly growing in recent years, and is estimated to reach US$161.8 billion by 2023, taking a 30% share of the global market. China is the world's second-largest pharmaceutical market followed by India. China's pharmaceutical market has been constantly growing in recent years, it will reach US$160-US$190 billion in spending. According to IQVIA, the Pharmaceutical industry in India is the 3rd largest in the world in terms of volume and14th largest in terms of value. According to Make in India, The Pharmaceutical sector currently contributes to around 1.72% of the country’s GDP. Pharmaceuticals industry expected to reach US$ 65 billion by 2024, and US$ 120-130 billion by 2030.Due to huge investment in Pharmaceutical industry the Catharanthine Market is projected to grow in the forecast period.

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Catharanthine Market Drivers

Rising Per capita spending on Healthcare globally :

According to OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) Health statistics, In 2019, per capita health spending in the U.S. exceededUS$10,000, more than two times higher than in Australia, France, Canada, New Zealand, and the U.K. Public spending. In the U.S., per-capital spending on private health insurance premiums, is higher than in any of the countries at $4,092 per capita, U.S. private spending is more than five times higher than Canada, the second-highest spender. In Sweden and Norway, private spending made up less than $100 per capita. As a share of total spending, private spending is much larger in the U.S. (40%) than in any other country (0.3%–15%).The average U.S. resident paid US$1,122 out-of-pocket for health care. The residents of France and New Zealand pay less than half of what Americans spend. Hence the increasing per capita spending on Healthcare will boost the Catharanthine Market in the forecast period.

Rising cancer Patients:

According to IARC(International Agency for Cancer and Research) Globocan 2020 new estimates shows that global cancer burden has risen to 19.3 million cases and 10 million cancer deaths in 2020.According to National Cancer Institute, an estimated 1,806,590 new cases of cancer was diagnosed in the United States and 606,520 people died from the disease. As of January 2019, there were an estimated 16.9 million cancer survivors in the United States. The number of cancer survivors is projected to increase to 22.2 million by 2030.Approximately 39.5% of men and women will be diagnosed with cancer at some point during their lifetime. National costs for cancer care were estimated to be US$208.9 billion in 2020 an increase of 10 % from previous years that is only due to the aging and growth of the U.S. population. Due to the medicinal use of Catharanthine in Cancer disease, the market is going to grow in the forecast period.

Catharanthine Market Challenges

High manufacturing cost of Catharanthine:

In the process of Catharanthine preparation, 1 kg of Vincristine has a cost of US$ 3.5 million, while Vinblastine has a cost of US$1 million. Half a ton of dry leaves of Catharanthus roseus are needed for the obtaining 1 g of vinblastine while to produce 1 kg of vincristine 530 kg are used. Besides, their extraction is very complicated since it is carried out in the presence of 200 molecules with similar chemical and physical properties. Therefore, 530 kg of dry leaves are necessary to produce 1 kg of Vincristine. The high cost is due to the low concentrations in the aerial portion. Due to the high market price, it can act as a restraining factor in the Catharanthine Market.

Catharanthine Market Landscape

Technology launches, acquisitions, and R&D activities are key strategies adopted by players in the Catharanthine Market. Catharanthine Market top companies are AK Scientific Inc, Stanford Chemicals, Cayman Chemicals, Bio Vision Inc, Enzo Biochem Inc, Hainan Yueyang Biotech Co Ltd, Abcam and ChemFaces.

Key Takeaways

North America dominates the Catharanthine Market, owing to the increasing contribution and maximum share in the global pharmaceutical industry. This is typically due to the prominent role of US pharmaceutical sector.

Asia Pacific is also expected to demonstrate highest growth rate in the global catharanthine market. This is basically due to the growing pharmaceutical industry in emerging economies such as India and China.

In the United States, colorectal cancer and lung cancer, Breast cancer are among the most rapidly increasing cancers in younger populations and represent the most common cancers in men and women, respectively, between ages 18 and 49.

It is important to build on this situation, in order to improve prevention, detection, and treatment of cancers in this population. Hence Catharanthine being vastly used in various cancer treatment medication has huge potential to grow in the forecast period.

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#CatharanthineMarket

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marketinsightshare · 3 years ago

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Catharanthine Market Size Forecast to Reach $942 Million by 2026

COVID-19 Impact

Request for Sample Report @ https://www.industryarc.com/pdfdownload.php?id=15679

Report Price: $ 4500 (Single User License)

Catharanthine Market Segment Analysis – By Type

Catharanthine Market Segment Analysis - By Application

Catharanthine Market Segment Analysis – By Geography

Inquiry Before Buying @ https://www.industryarc.com/reports/request-quote?id=15679

Catharanthine Market Drivers

Rising Per capita spending on Healthcare globally :

Rising cancer Patients:

Catharanthine Market Challenges

High manufacturing cost of Catharanthine:

Catharanthine Market Landscape

Key Takeaways

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#Catharanthine Market share Catharanthine Market size Catharanthine Market forecast

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industryarcmarket · 3 years ago

Text

Catharanthine Market Size Forecast to Reach $942 Million by 2026

COVID-19 Impact

Request for Sample Report @ https://www.industryarc.com/pdfdownload.php?id=15679

Report Price: $ 4500 (Single User License)

Catharanthine Market Segment Analysis – By Type

Catharanthine Market Segment Analysis - By Application

Catharanthine Market Segment Analysis – By Geography

Inquiry Before Buying @ https://www.industryarc.com/reports/request-quote?id=15679

Catharanthine Market Drivers

Rising Per capita spending on Healthcare globally :

Rising cancer Patients:

Catharanthine Market Challenges

High manufacturing cost of Catharanthine:

Catharanthine Market Landscape

Key Takeaways

Related Reports

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https://www.industryarc.com/Report/11680/coating-resins-market.html

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#CatharanthineMarket

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marketwire · 3 years ago

Text

Catharanthine Market Size Forecast to Reach $942 Million by 2026

COVID-19 Impact

Request for Sample Report @ https://www.industryarc.com/pdfdownload.php?id=15679

Report Price: $ 4500 (Single User License)

Catharanthine Market Segment Analysis – By Type

Catharanthine Market Segment Analysis - By Application

Catharanthine Market Segment Analysis – By Geography

Inquiry Before Buying @ https://www.industryarc.com/reports/request-quote?id=15679

Catharanthine Market Drivers

Rising Per capita spending on Healthcare globally :

Rising cancer Patients:

Catharanthine Market Challenges

High manufacturing cost of Catharanthine:

Catharanthine Market Landscape

Key Takeaways

Related Reports

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https://www.industryarc.com/Report/11680/coating-resins-market.html

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For more Chemicals and Materials Market reports, please click here

#Catharanthine Market #Catharanthine Market share #Catharanthine Market size

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bitchyphilosopherprince · 3 years ago

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Global TIGIT Inhibitor Market Trends, Application and Regional Forecast to 2021-2022

Bharat Book Bureau Provides the Trending Market Research Report on “Global TIGIT Inhibitor Drug Opportunity & Clinical Research Insight 2022”under Life Sciences Market Research Reports Category. The report offers a collection of superior market research, market analysis, competitive intelligence and Market reports.

Global TIGIT Inhibitor Drug Opportunity & Clinical Research Insight 2022 Report Highlights: • Global TIGIT Inhibitor Market Dynamics • Clinical Approaches to Target TIGIT • Role of TIGIT Inhibitors in Cancer, HIV, Autoimmune Disorders • Number of TIGIT Inhibitor Drug In Trials • TIGIT Inhibitors Trials By Phase, Company, Country, Indication • Clinical Trials Adverse Events Scenario • Company Agreement/Partnership/Deals For Ongoing Trials • Global TIGIT Inhibitor Market Future Outlook

T-cell immunoreceptor with Ig and ITIM domains (TIGIT) is one of the most recently identified immune checkpoint inhibitor which is being evaluated as potential immunotherapeutic target. TIGIT is transmembrane glycoprotein receptor with Ig-like V-type domain and an ITIM in its cytoplasmic domain and is expressed on wide range of cells including memory T-cells, NK cells, and Tregs. Apart from this, studies have demonstrated high expression of TIGIT on wide range of solid tumors and hematological malignancies, thus making it potential target in drug development.

Several pharmaceutical companies have developed a robust pipeline of TIGIT inhibitors in their pipeline indicated for the management of several cancers. Current clinical trials are mainly evaluating the role of TIGIT inhibitors in combination with PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitor or CTLA-4 inhibitors. Immunotherapy combinations featuring dual blockade of TIGIT and PD-1/PD-L1 are promising due to their synergistic enhancement of antitumor responses. More recently, Compugen in colloaboration with Bristol Meyer Squibb is evaluating triple combination of Opdivo, BMS-986207 (anti-TIGIT), and COM701 (anti-PVRIG). The preliminary data suggest that the triple combination was safe and well tolerated.

Apart from cancer, researchers are also evaluating the role of novel immune checkpoint in other therapeutic conditions including HIV and autoimmune disorders. TIGIT has emerged out to be attractive target in HIV due to its expression on NK cells and almost all HIV-specific CD8+ T cells. Preclinical studies have favored the co-blockade of TIGIT with PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitor in HIV patients. The encouraging response from preclinical trials is expected to be translated in clinical studies in coming years. Further, researchers have also suggested the relationship between TIGIT expressing Treg cells and different autoimmune diseases including atopic dermatitis, autoimmune thyroiditis, type-1 diabetes, autoimmune uveitis, aplastic anemia, multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematous, arthritis, and colitis. As of now, these studies are mainly confined to in-vivo and preclinical studies.

Currently, the market for TIGIT inhibitor is mainly domination by therapeutic monoclonal antibodies. Several monoclonal antibodies targeting TIGIT have entered the clinical development including Tiragolumab, Ociperlimab, Vibostolimab, ASP-8374, and COM902. Further enhancement in the field of biotechnology and promising results of TIGIT inhibitor in combinational therapies have led to the development of novel bispecific constructs. Currently, a few bispecific antibodies including AGEN1777, IBI321 and HLX301 have entered initial stages of clinical trials. The emergence of bispecific antibody constructs is expected to show enhanced efficacy and will reduce the overall cost of therapy and drug development.

Globally, there are more than 30 clinical trials ongoing which are evaluating novel anti-TIGIT antibodies in wide range of diseases. Some of the major indications which are anticipated to show a better outcome by the launch of these drugs include triple negative breast cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, colorectal cancer, melanoma, gastric cancer, and esophageal cancer. The global market is anticipated to show positive growth due to launch of TIGIT therapies during forthcoming years. Tiragolumab developed by Roche is leading drug candidate which has received priority review by US FDA and is expected to be launched in market by 2022. The emerging trend in TIGIT next generation immunotherapies with continuous headway movement along with the development of new technologies for the development of targeted therapies provides hope for better therapeutic alternatives in coming years.

US will dominate the TIGIT Inhibitor development and commercialization landscape which is mainly attributed to large number of ongoing clinical trials in the region. Further, the high concentration of key players in the region which actively invest in research and development will also propel the growth of market. Beside US, China and South Korea will also emerge as key markets for TIGIT inhibitors drugs driven by increasing research and development activities.

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Juniper Publishers- Open Access Journal of Environmental Sciences & Natural Resources

A Comprehensive Phytopharmacological Review of Dioscorea bulbifera Linn

Authored by Galani Varsha J

Abstract

Dioscorea bulbifera Linn. is an important medicinal plant, which has long been used in traditional Indian and Chinese medicine for various diseases. This plant is pharmacologically studied for antitumor, anti HIV, antidyslipidemic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, diuretic, gastroprotective, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiviral, antifungal, anthelmintic, neuropharmacological, cardioprotective, anorexiant, plasmid curing activities and anti-hyperthyroid activities. A wide range of phytochemical constituents have been isolated from this plant. A comprehensive account of the morphology, microscopical characters, phytochemical constituents and pharmacological activities reported are included in view of the many recent findings of importance on this plant.

Keywords: Dioscorea bulbifera; Neuropharmacological activity; Antitumor activity, Diosgenin

Abbreviations: CFA: Complete Freunds Adjuvant; LPS: Lipo Poly Saccharides; PLSN: Partial Ligation Sciatic NervE; NOS: Nitric Oxide Synthase; VRE: Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococci; LVDP: Left Ventricular Developed Pressure

Introduction

Ayurveda is a system of traditional medicine native to India and a form of alternative medicine. Recently traditional medicine worldwide is being re-evaluated by extensive research works on different plant species and their active therapeutic principles. The untapped wealth of plant kingdom can represent a novel source of newer compounds with significant therapeutic activities [1]. One such plant, Dioscorea bulbifera Linn, which have various medicinal properties, is widely used in Ayurveda, the ancient traditional medicinal system in India. Dioscorea bulbifera is an aerial yam commonly known as Varahikanda. In this review a comprehensive account of the morphology, microscopical characters, phytochemical constituents and pharmacological activities are included in view of the many recent findings of importance on this plant.

Taxonomic Classification

Kingdom: Plantae

Subkingdom: Viridaeplantae

Superdivision: Streptophyta

Division: Tracheophyta

Class: Magnoliopsida

Superorder: Lilinanae

Order: Dioscoreales

Family: Dioscoreaceae

Genus: Discorea L.

Species: Dioscorea bulbifera L.

Vernacular Names

English: PotatoYam, Air potato

Sanskrit: Varahikanda, Aluka, Shukara

Hindi: Varahi kanda, Kadu Kanda, Ratalu

Gujarati: Dukkarkanda

Bengali: Ratalu, Ban Alu

Tamil: Kodikilanga, Kaattu-k-kaay-valli

Marathi: Manakund, Kadu-karanda, Varahi

Kannada: Kuntagenasu

Konkani : Karamdo

Malayalam: Pannikizhangu, Kattukachil

Oriya: Pita Alu

Telugu: Adavi Dumpa

Synonyms

D. crispate Roxb, D. pulchella Roxb, D. sativa sensu Hook.f [3,4].

Ayurvedic Preparations

Ajamamsa Rasayanam, Narasimha Churna, Pancha Nimbadi Churna, Vastyamayantaka Ghrita, Varahytadighurdam [3,4].

Substitute

Varahikanda is used as substitute for Riddhi and Vriddhi drugs of Astavarya in Ayurveda [3,4].

Occurrence and Distribution

The species is native to the tropics of the old world and occurs in rain forests extending from the west coast of Africa to the farthest island in the specific. It is common throughout India ascending up to 6,000 ft. in the Himalayas. It does not thrive in the dried part of the India. The wild form also occurs in South East Asia, West Africa, South, and Central America, Australia, Louisiana, Texas, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Polynesia, and Florida [3, 5,6].

Flowers

September-November

Fruit

December onwards

Parts Used

Tubers, Bulbils, Roots,

Morphology

Dioscorea bulbifera is a vigorously twining, long-stemmed perennial vine with non-spiny stems to 20 m or more in length, freely branching above; internodes round or slightly angled in cross section and they twine counter-clockwise. Plant has two types of storage organs. The plant forms bulbils in the leaf axils of the twining stems, and tubers beneath the ground. Tubers are like small, oblong potatoes with bitter taste. Conspicuous aerial tubers (called bulbils) are pale, round to globose in shape, up to 13 cm wide and in inflorescence that give D. bulbifera the common name "air potato." The leaves are attractive, alternate, broadly heart-shaped, attached by long petioles. Leaves 10-15 x 7.5-10 cm, ovate-suborbicular, base deeply cordate, apex acuminate to shortly caudate, membranous, glabrous, basally 9-11-ribbed; petiole to 20 cm long. They are divided longitudinally into lobes by prominent arching veins all radiating out from a single point of origin where the petiole attaches to the leaf. Flowers rarely occur in D. bulbifera; where occurring, they are small, pale green and fragrant, and arising from leaf axils. Male flowers in slender, axillary panicled spikes, pendulous, to 18 cm long; bracteoles ovate, acute [5,6].

Perianth light green; lobes 6, biseriate, 2.5 mm long, linearoblong. Stamens 6 free. Female spikes 1-3 together; staminodes 3; ovary triquetrous, 3-locular, ovules 2-per locule; styles 3;stigma 2-fid, reflexed. Capsules 1.5-2.3 x 1-1.5 cm, oblong, 3-winged. The fruit is a capsule and the seeds partially winged. This species reproduces sexually by seeds and vegetatively by underground and aerial tubers (bulbils) which enable it to spread rapidly and colonize entire forests in a single growing season. The aerial stems of air potato die back in winter season, but resprouting occurs from bulbils and underground tubers.

Morphology of Bulbils and Tumors

The bulbil is fairly hard and heavy. Dish shaped with to 12 cm (5") x 10 cm (4") brown with prominent numerous, uniformly distributed tubercle like eyes. Bulbils abundant and of different sizes and shapes; in certain cultigens the tuber is suppressed in favour of rather large bulbils, having all the reserve food; small bulbils are, as a rule warted, but they may be smooth when large. Tubers are usually small and round, but large under cultivation. They are weighing up to 1 kg. Tubers are toxic or edible according to the variety; they are renewed annually. Their skin is purplish black or earth colored, usually coated with abundant small feeding roots, but smooth in some cultivated varieties having flesh of white to lemon yellow, sometimes marked with purple flecks and very mucilaginous (Figure 1) A few root and root scars present in tubers, outer surface dark brown, inner yellow to light brown; odour- indistinct; taste-bitter [5,6].

Microscopic Characteristics

Subasini, 2013 reported microscopic features of tubers and bulbil of D. bulbifera. The T.S of tubers showed wide, well developed periderm, vascular bundles and triangular starch grains. Major microscopic characters of bulb include periderm, ground tissue, vascular bundle, and triangular starch grains. Ground tissue, forming major portion of bulb composed of oval to polygonal cells having a few scattered closed vascular bundles. Starch grains found both in cortex and ground tissues, but abundant in ground tissue, rounded to oval, three sided with rounded angles or rod-shaped, simple, solitary or in groups, 1128 n in diameter; hilum present at the narrower extremity [7].

Phytochemical Constituents

Phytochemical analysis of Dioscorea bulbifera revealed presence of alkaloids, glycosides, proteins, fats, sterols, alkaloids, polyphenols and tannins, flavonoids and saponins which may vary according to country origin [7]. Inorganic micronutrients present include Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn, Co, Mo, V, B, Cl, I, Br and Na [7].

a) Steroidal Saponins [8]: Dioscoreanoside A-K, Dioscoreanoside B, Dioscoreanoside C, Dioscoreanoside D, Dioscoreanoside E, Dioscoreanoside F, Dioscoreanoside G, Dioscoreanoside H, Dioscoreanoside I, Dioscoreanoside J, Dioscoreanoside K, Dioscin

b) Steroidal Sapogenin, Spirostane Glycosides, Cholestane Glycosides [9-11]: Diosbulbisin A, Diosbulbisin B, Diosbulbisin C, Diosbulbisin D, Diosbulbisides A, Diosbulbisides B, Diosbulbisides C, Diosgenin, Sinodiosgenin

c) PNorclerodane Diterpenoids [12-16]: Diosbulbin A, Diosbulbin B, Diosbulbin C, Diosbulbin D, Diosbulbin E, Diosbulbin F, Diosbulbin G, Diosbulbin H, Diosbulbin I, Diosbulbin J, Diosbulbin K, Diosbulbin L, Diosbulbin M, Diosbulbin N, Diosbulbin O, Diosbulbin P, 8-Epidiosbulbin E Acetate

d) Clerodane Diterpenoids [17-19]: Bafoudiosbulbin A, Bafoudiosbulbin B, Bafoudiosbulbin C, Bafoudiosbulbin F, Bafoudiosbulbin G.

e) Flavanoids Derivatives [20,21]: Quercetin-3-O-β-D- glucopyranoside, Quercetin-3-O-β-D-galactopyranoside, Myricetin-3-O- β-D-galactopyranoside, Myricetin-3-O- β-D glucopyranoside, 3,5-dimethoxy-kaempferol, 3, 5, 3'-trimethoxyquercetin, Caryatin, Hyperoside, Kaempferol, Kaempferol-3-O-β-D-galactopyranoside, Kaempferol- 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, Kaempferol-3,5-dimethyl ether, Quercetin-3-O-galactopyranoside, Myricetin, Isoquercitrin, Lutein, Quercetin-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, 7- bis-(4-hydroxyphenyl) -4E, 6E- heptadien-3-one, 5,3,4-trihydroxy-3,7- dimethoxyflavone.

f) Phenanthrenes 4-methoxyphenanthrene, trimethoxyphenanthrene, trimethoxyphenanthrene [20-22]: 2,7-dihydroxy- 2,7-dihydroxy-3,4,6- 1,6-dihydroxy-2,5,7-

g) Carotenoids [3]: Neoxanthin, Auroxanthin, Violaxanthin, Cryptoxanthine

h) Phytosterols [14,18,20]: Daucosterol, β-sitosterol, 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-b-sitosterol, Stigmasterol

i) fatty acids [11,18,22]: Palmatic acid, Succinic acid, Shikimic acid, Tetracosanoic acid, 1-(tetracosanoyl)- glycerol, Trans-tetracosanylferulate, Mono-arachidin, C22 «-hydroxy fatty acid, 3-hydroxy-5-methoxybenzoic acid, Batatasin III, Behenic acid, Ethyl ester of undecanoic acid, Z-1,9-dodecadiene (C H), n-Hexadecanoic acid, Ethyl ester of Eicosanoic acid

j) Tannins [20,22]: Catechin, Protocatechuic acid, (+) Epicatechin, (-)Epicatechin

k) Volatile oils [20,23] : Vanillic acid, Isovanillic acid

l)Glycoside Derivatives [9,12,15, 24]: Alkaloid [25]: Dihydrodioscorine a) Methyl-O-α-D- fructofuranoside, Butyl-O-α-D-fructofuranoside, Ethyl- O-β-D-fructopyranoside, Butyl-O-β-D-fructopyranoside, 3-phenyl-2-propenyl-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, 2- (4-methoxyphenyl)-ethyl-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, Phenyl -methyl-O-β-D-glucopyranoside. Pennogenin, Pennogenin-3-O-α-Lrhamnopyranosyl-(1->3)-[α- L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1->2)]- β-D- glucopyranoside, Pennogenin-3-O-α-Lrhamnopyranosyl-(1->4)-[a- L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1->2)]- β-D- glucopyranoside, 3- O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1->2)-[α-L-rhamnopyranosyl- (1->3)]-β-D-g1ucopyranosyl pennogenin (spiroconazol A), 26-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(25R)- 5-en-furost- 3β,17α,22α,26-tetraol- 3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl- (1->4)-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl- (1->4)-[α-L- rhamnopyranosyl- (1->2)]-β-D-glucopyranoside, 23β,27-dihydroxy-pennogenin 3- O-α-L- hamnopyranosyl-(1->4)- α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1->4)-[α- L-mnopyranosyl-(1->2)]-β-Dglucopyranoside, 4-hydroxy- [2-trans-3',7'- dimethylocta-2',6'-dienyl]-6-methoxy acetophenone, 4,6-dihydroxy-2-O-(4'- hydroxybutyl) acetophenone, Diosbulbinoside D, Diosbulbinoside F, Diosbulbinoside G

m) Others [15,26]: Demethyl batatasin IV, Diarylheptanone, 3,5,4'-trihydroxy-3'- methoxybibenzy, 1,7- bis-(4-hydroxyphenyl)- 1E,4E,6E-heptatrien-3-one, 2,3'-di-hydroxy-4',5'- dimethoxybibenzy, Docosyl ferulate, Tristin, Adenosine.

Reported Pharmacological Activities Antitumour Activity

Reported Pharmacological Activities

Antitumour Activity

It has been reported that the extraction of components from D. bulbifera using organic solvents of little polarity significantly inhibited the growth of tumor and prolonged the survival of tumor-bearing mice and human liver cancer, colon cancer and other tumor cells [27-31]. D. bulbifera decoction could inhibit cell growth in the human squamous cell carcinoma cell line SiHa, in the human cervical cancer cells Hela, and in the human hepatoma cells HepG2, in a dosage and time-dependent manner [32] . Komori found that diosbulbins A and B had remarkable growth inhibition effect on solid sarcoma180 tumor cells [12]. Another study reported the anti-tumour-promoting effect of 75 % ethanol extracts of the rhizomes of Dioscorea bulbifera L. using the neoplastic transformation assay of mouse epidermal JB6 cell lines.

The ethyl acetate and n-butanol soluble fractions showed different inhibitory activities against tumour promotion of JB6 (Cl 22 and Cl 41) cells induced by the promoter of 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) [20]. Kaempferol- 3,5-dimethyl ether, caryatin, (1)-catechin, myricetin, quercetin- 3-O- galactopyranoside, myricetin-3-O-galactopyranoside, myricetin-3-O-glucopyranoside and diosbulbin B isolated from ethyl acetate soluble fraction of 75 % ethanol extract of the rhizomes of Dioscorea bulbifera L. from China showed an antitumor-promoting effect against the neoplastic transformation assay of mouse epidermal JB6 cell lines [21]. Petroleum ether fraction from chinese Dioscrea bulbifera showed potential effects against microstructure abnormality of HepA cells surface[33] . Two new steroidal saponins, diosbulbisides D (1) and E (2), along with five known saponins (3- 7) were isolated from the rhizomes of Dioscorea bulbifera L. Compounds 6 and 7, two 3- O-trisaccharides of diosgenin spirostanes, showed moderate cytotoxic activity against human hepatocellular carcinoma cells, with IC50 values of 3.89 μM and 7.47 μM on SMMC7721, and 10.87 μM and 19.10 μM on Bel-7402 cell lines, respectively [34].

The results of antitumour activity of water extract (fraction A), ethanol extract (fraction B), ethyl acetate extract (fraction C), non-ethyl acetate extract (fraction D) and isolated diosbulbin B showed that fractions B and C both decreased tumour weight in S180 and H22 tumour cells bearing mice, while fractions A and D had no such effect. Furthermore, fraction C altered the weight of spleen and thymus, and the amounts of total leukocytes, lymphocytes and neutrophils in tumour-bearing mice. Diosbulbin B was found to be the major antitumor bioactive component in the extracts and demonstrated anti-tumor effects in the dose-dependent manner at the dosage of 2 to 16 mg/kg without significant toxicity in vivo [35].

Immune system modulation might be related to antitumor effects of D. bulbifera rhizome, as reported in S180 and H22 tumor cells bearing mice [35]. Alcoholic extracts (70%, 80% and 90% alcohol) of D. bulbifera were found to in hibited the proliferation of human gastric cancer cell line SGC-7901 [36]. Zhao 2012 proved that D. bulbifera could significantly decrease the expression of SW579 Survivin mRNA and protein in human thyroid cancer cells and also induce apoptosis of cancer cells [37,38]. Pennogenin- 3-O-a-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 ->3)-[a-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1-> 2)]-b-D-glucopyranoside and Pennogenin-3-O-a-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 -> 4)-[a- L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1->2)]-b-D-glucopyranoside from D. bulbifera extract showed significant cytotoxic activity against the proliferation of Bel-7402 human hepatocellular carcinoma cells, with 99.1 and 92.6% inhibition, respectively.

Both compounds showed cell growth inhibition activity toward SMMC7721 human hepatocellular carcinoma cells of 4.54 and 4.85 lM respectively [9]. Spiroconazol A and Pennogenin-3- O-a-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1-> 4)-a- L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1->4)-[a-L-rhamnopyranosyl- (1->2)]-b-D-glucopyranoside showed moderate cytotoxicity against ECV304urinary bladder carcinoma cells, by membrane toxicity via lactic dehydrogenase (LDH) liberation with IC50 values of 8.5 lg/ml (8.3 lM) and 5.8 lg/ml (6.6 lM), respectively. 26-O-b-D-Glucopyranosyl-(25R)-5-en-furost- 3b,17a,22a,26-tetraol-3-Oa-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1->4)-a-L- rhamnopyranosyl- (1->4)-[a-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 -> 2)]-b-D- glucopyranoside showed moderate activity as well, by a direct influence on the mitochondrial metabolism without liberation of LDH with an IC50 value of 14.3 lg/ml [38]. Combination of D. bulbifera polysaccharides and Cyclophosphamide could potentially enhance the anti-tumor effect of Cyclophosphamide and attenuate Cyclophosphamide induced immunosuppression as well as oxidative stress in U14 cervical tumor-bearing mice [39]. Platinum-palladium bimetallic nanoparticles of Dioscorea bulbifera tuber extract showed anticancer activity against HeLa cells [40].

Anti HIV Activity

Anti-HIV-1 integrase activity was evaluated for 7 compounds isolated from ethyl acetate and water fractions of Dioscorea bulbifera bulbils. Flavanoid Myricetin exhibited the most potent anti-HIV-1 integrase activity (IC50 value of 3.15 mM) followed by 2,4,6,7-tetrahydroxy- 9,10-dihydrophenanthrene (IC50 value%14.20 mM), quercetin-3-O-b-D-glucopyranoside (IC50 value%19.39 mM) and quercetin-3-O-b-D-galactopyranoside (IC50 value%21.80 mM). Potential interactions of the active compounds with the IN active site were additionally investigated. These compounds interacted with Asp64, Thr66, His67, Glu92, Asp116, Gln148, Glu152, Asn155, and Lys159, which are involved in both the 3'-processing and strand transfer reactions of integrase enzyme [41,42].

Antidiabetic Activity

Aqueous extract of D. bulbifera tubers at 250, 500 and 1000 mg/kg doses administered for 3 weeks to glucose primed and streptozotocin induced diabetes in wistar rats treated rats showed significant antihyperglycemic activity [42]. Ethanolic extract of Dioscorea bulbifera (aerial yam) was studied against alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Intraperitoneal administration of a single dose of 380.0, 760.0 and 1140.0 mg/kg body weight of the extract were exhibited significant reduction in the blood glucose levels of the albino rats [43]. One study reported that among petroleum ether, ethyl acetate, methanol and 70% ethanol (v/v) extracts of bulbs of D. bulbifera, ethyl acetate extract showed highest inhibition upto 72.06 ± 0.51% and 82.64 ± 2.32% against a-amylase and a-glucosidase respectively. Diosgenin was isolated showed a a-amylase and a-glucosidase inhibition upto 70.94 ± 1.24% and 81.71 ± 3.39%, respectively by interacting with two catalytic residues (Asp352 and Glu411) from a-glucosidase [44]. Copper nanoparticles synthesized by D. bulbifera tuber extract also showed significant inhibition against a-glucosidase and murine intestinal glucosidase [45].

Antidyslipidemic Activity

Aqueous extract of D. bulbifera tubers at 250, 500 and 1000 mg/kg doses administered for 4 weeks to high fat diet fed C57BL/6J mice showed significant antidyslipidemic effects [42].

Analgesic and Anti-Inflammatory Activities

The aqueous and methanol extracts from the dry bulbils of Dioscorea bulbifera L. var sativa were evaluated (300 and 600 mg/kg, p.o.) against pain induced by acetic acid, formalin, pressure and against inflammation induced by carrageenan, histamine, serotonin and formalin in experimental animals. The results showed potent analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of the extracts which may be due to inhibition of inflammatory mediators such as histamine, serotonin and prostaglandins [46]. Antiinflammatory activity of ethanol extract of Dioscorea bulbifera leaf (500 mg/kg, 250 mg/kg, 125mg/kg, 62.5mg/kg, 31.25mg/kg, 15mg/kg p.o.) was reported against egg albumin induced rat paw oedema [47]. Diosbulbin B from D. bulbifera had inhibitory effects on both acute and subacute inflammation [48]. The effects of methanol extract of the bulb of Dioscorea bulbifera var sativa (250 and 500 mg/kg, p. o.) were tested in mechanical hypernociception induced by intraplantar injection of complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA), lipopolysaccharides (LPS) or prostaglandin-E2 (PGE2), as well as in partial ligation sciatic nerve (PLSN), nociception induced by capsaicin and thermal hyperalgesia induced by intraplantar injection of CFA. The therapeutic effects of Dioscorea bulbifera on PGE2-induced hyperalgesia were evaluated in the absence and in the presence of L-NAME, an inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and glibenclamide, an inhibitor of ATP-sensitive potassium channels. The extract showed significant antinociceptive effects in persistent pain induced by CFA and on neuropathic pain induced by PLSN. D. bulbifera significantly inhibited acute LPS-induced pain and PGE2 induced pain. The results showed the mechanism of antinociceptive activities of D. bulbifera in both inflammatory and neuropathic pain may be the activation of the NO-cGMP-ATP- sensitive potassium channels pathway [49]. Methanol extract of D. bulbifera could inhibit the nitric oxide production and iNOS mRNA expression of LPS-induced macrophages in vitro, which may be one of the mechanisms of its anti-inflammatory action [50].

Diuretic Activity

Diuretic activity of ethanol extract of Dioscorea bulbifera leaf (500 mg/kg, 250 mg/kg, 125mg/kg, 62.5mg/kg, 31.25mg/kg, 15mg/kg p.o.) was reported in rats [47].

Gastro Protective Activity

Gastroprotective activity of hydroalcoholic extract of D. bulbifera tubers (doses of 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg) was reported against indomethacin-induced gastric ulcers in rats [51].

Antioxidant Activity

Hydroalcoholic extract of D. bulbifera tubers (doses of 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg) reversed the indomethacin induced gastric ulcers associated free radical changes and showed antioxidant activity by inducing a significant increase of peroxidase and catalase while reduction in glutathione peroxidase, reduced glutathione, and lipid peroxidation level in tissues [51]. Scavenging activity of sequential extracts (petroleum ether, ethyl acetate, methanol and ethanol (70%) of D. bulbifera bulbs were checked against pulse radiolysis generated ABTS+ and OH radical, in addition to DPPH, superoxide and hydroxyl radicals by biochemical methods. Ethyl acetate extract of D. bulbifera bulbs which contain diosgenin as a major constituents exhibited excellent scavenging pulse radiolysis generated ABTS^+ and OH radical [52]. 70% and 80% alcoholic extracts of D.bulbifera showed significant antioxidant activity against hydroxyl radical scavenging test, reducing capacity test and total antioxidant capacity test [36]. Ethanol extract of tubers of D. bulbifera also showed antioxidant activity in enzymatic assays (glutathione peroxidase, catalase, superoxide dismutase, glucose-6- phosphate dehydrogenase and glucose-s-transferase) and non enzymatic assay (reduced glutathione, vitamin C and vitamin E) [53]. Copper nanoparticles synthesized by D. bulbifera tuber extract also showed significant scavenging activity against DPPH, nitric oxide and superoxide radicals respectively [45].

Effects on Immune Systems

Immune function of mice were studied after oral administration of decoction of D. bulbifera (1000, 490, 240 g/kg body weight) for 15 days. Results showed that in the high dose group could significantly suppress the phagocytosis activity of mononuclear macrophages. However, the medium dose group markedly enhanced the activities of natural killer cells, the antibody quantity of B cells and the quantity and proliferation of spleen T lymphocytes. This experiment indicated that high doses of D. bulbifera could suppress the immune function in mice, while medium doses could improve the immune function [54]. Dioscorea bulbifera polysaccharides (100 or 150mg/kg) lowered peripheral blood T-cell subpopulation CD4+/CD8+ ratio, and Dioscorea bulbifera polysaccharides + Cyclophosphamide combination attenuated Cyclophosphamide effect in lifting CD4+/CD8+ ratio [55].

Antimicrobial Activity

Acetone extract, ethyl acetate extract, 95% ethanol extract and methanol extract of D. bulbifera each showed a fair antibacterial activity on inhibition of bacteria isolated from animals and poultries using disc method. The acetone extract showed the most significant anti-bacterial effect when compared to other extracts [56]. Aqueous extract of D. bulbifera showed superior anti-bacterial activity on E. coli while the anti-bacterial effect of an ethanol extract of D. bulbifera was potent against S. aureus and Candida albicans when tested using disc-diffusion method of antimicrobial assay [57,58]. The methanol extract, fractions (DBB1 and DBB2) and six compounds isolated from the bulbils of D. bulbifera, namely bafoudiosbulbins A (1), B (2), C (3), F (4), G (5) and 2,7-dihydroxy-4-methoxyphenanthrene (6), were tested for their antimicrobial activities against Mycobacteria and gram-negative bacteria involving multidrug resistant (MDR) phenotypes expressing active efflux pumps using microplate alamar blue assay and the broth microdilution methods. The good activities of the crude extract, fractions and compound 3 on most of the tested microorganisms belonging to MDR phenotypes such as E.coli AG102, P. aeruginosa PA124, E. aerogenes CM64, K. pneumoniae KP55 and KP63 as observed [58]. Two clerodane diterpenoids, Bafoudiosbulbins A and Bafoudiosbulbins B showed significant activities against P. aeruginosa, S. typhi, S. paratyphi A and S. paratyphi B [59]. 8-epidiosbulbin E acetate showed broad-spectrum plasmid-curing activity against MDR bacteria, including Vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE). It cured antibiotic resistance plasmids from clinical isolates, including Enterococcus faecalis, E. coli, Shigella sonnei, P. aeruginosa and Bacillus subtilis with 12-48% curing efficiency [60]. In addition, vanillic acid and isovanillic acid showed antibacterial activities as well [61].

The successive extracts of bulbils of Dioscorea bulbifera (bulbils) was investigated for in vitro antimicrobial activity. Among all extracts, the petroleum ether and chloroform extracts showed significant activity against A. fumigatus and R. nigricans. The petroleum ether and distilled water extract showed good activity against K. pneumoniae. The chloroform extract showed feeble activity against S. aureus [62]. Beta-lactam (piperacillin) and macrolide (erythromycin) antibiotics showed synergistic effect with silver nanoparticles of D. bulbifera tuber extract against multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii. Chloramphenicol or Vancomycin also showed synergistic effect with silver nanoparticles of D. bulbifera tuber extract against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Streptomycin combined with silver nanoparticles showed strong evidence for the synergistic action against E. coli [63].

Anti-Viral Activity

The alcohol extract of D. bulbifera (0.017-0.034 mg/ml) reported to kill DNA virus and inhibit the transcription of RNA virus in direct or indirect inhibitory experiments. From different parts of the ethanol extracts of D. bulbifera (butanol fraction, ethyl acetate fraction, acetone and ether fraction), the inhibition effect of butanol and ethyl acetate fraction on Coxsackie B I-VI virus was better than that of the other two fractions. But their effects on herpes simplex virus I were nearly the same. After killing the virus, the cells still could continue to divide and be subcultured which was indicating that the drug is non-toxic and effective. But the decoction of D. bulbifera had no inhibitory effect on various types of viruses [64].

Antifungal Activity

The decoction of D. bulbifera (1:3 ratio of D. bulbifera to water) had different degrees of inhibitory effects on a variety of skin fungi, such as Trichophyton violaceum, T. concentricum and T. schoenleinii [65]. It has been proved that the isolated dihydrodioscorine from D. bulbifera at 0.1% concentration could inhibit the growth of fungi which could cause diseases in several types of plants [25].

Anthelmentic Activity

Methanolic extracts of the flesh and peel of the bulbils of D. bulbifera, showed in vitro anthelmintic activity on Fasciola gigantica and Pheritima posthuma at concentrations ranging from 10 to 100 mg/ml [66].

Neuropharmacological Activity

Central nervous depressant action of acute treatment of hydroalcoholic extract of tuber of Dioscorea bulbifera (100 and 300 mg/kg, p.o.) was observed as treatments significantly reduced spontaneous motor activity, rectal temperature and prolonged the pentobarbitone induced hypnosis in mice. However, no effect on motor co-ordination as determined by the rota rod test which confirmed central action rather than peripheral action of extract. Further extract treatments also showed anxiolytic activity in plus maze test and head-dip test [67].

Cardioprotective Activity

Myricetin, epicatechin, isovanilic acid and vanillic acid were shown to be important bioactive components in D. bulbifera that protect against cardiovascular diseases [68]. In another study, administration of 70% ethanolic extract of D. bulbifera to rats (150 mg/ kg of body weight, 30 days) resulted in significantly improved ventricular performance in terms of aortic flow, left ventricular developed pressure (LVDP) and the first derivative of developed pressure (LVmax dp/ dt) of D. bulbifera treated during post-ischemic reperfusion. D. bulbifera also significantly reduced the size of myocardial infarction by 20 ± 2.64% as compared to the control group.

The decreased number of apoptotic cardiomyocytes by 16.89 ± 1.7% revealed that D. bulbifera had anti-apoptotic activity. The modulation of pro- and anti-apoptotic proteins by D. bulbifera was also examined. The upregulation of procaspase 3 and downregulation of cleaved caspase 3 coupled with prevention of loss of phase II enzyme HO-1 suggested that D. bulbifera extract ameliorates rat myocardial ischemia and reperfusion injury with an associated reduction in apoptotic cell death [69].

Cardioprotective action of steroidal saponin Diosgenin, isolated from Dioscorea bulbifera, was reported against Hypoxia- reoxygenation Injury in H9c2 cardiomyoblast cells as evidenced from the improved cell survival after hypoxia-reoxygenation injury, decreased release of lactate dehydrogenase, during cell death, upregulated the pro-survival molecules like B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2), heme oxygenase-1 and the phosphorylation of ATK (at serine 473); and at the same time down regulated pro-death molecules like Bax [70].

Effects on Thyroid Glands

D. bulbifera had achieved good effect in the treatment of subacute thyroiditis [71]. In another study, thyroxine (T4) concentration and triiodothyronine (T3)-uptake level decreased in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats treated with sodium levothyroxine (160 lg/kg, 5 days) and extract of D. bulbifera (0.75 or 1.5 g/kg). The results suggested that D. bulbifera decreased excess thyroid hormone and increased metabolism, resulting in improvement of the hyperthyroid state [72].

Anorexient activity

Anorexient activity of Dioscorea bulbifera Linn Was reported [73].

Toxicity Study

Acute, subacute and chronic toxicity study of D. bulbifera showed that for mice the intraperitoneal LD50 was 25.49 g/ kg and the oral LD50 was 79.98 g/kg. The toxicity was mainly manifested as damage to liver and kidney. The degree of damage was related to the dose and time of drug administration [74]. Dioscin and diosbulbin B, derived from Chinese D. bulbifera roots (Huang-yao-zi) are responsible for liver toxicities, nausea, abdominal pain, coma and even death.

The mechanism of hepatotoxicity is relevant to its inhibition of antioxidant enzymes in liver mitochondria and the activity of drug metabolic enzymes, such as glutathione transferase, glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, glucose-6- phosphate and succinodehydrogenase [75-77]. Genetic studies found that the expression of the bad gene was increased in hepatocytes that promoted the apoptosis of mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum lead to death of hepatocytes [78]. Various other studies support that hepatotoxicity of D. bulbifera with methanol extract and its cholorform fraction [79,80] ethyl acetate fraction of 75% ethanolic extract and isolated diosbulbin D [80], diosbulbin B were observed [81]. Another study further confirmed the hepatotoxic effects induced by D. bulbifera using molecular function analysis of the changed metabolites including elevated levels of taurine, creatine, betaine, dimethylglycine, acetate and glycine, and decreased levels of succinate, 2-oxoglutarate, citrate, hippurate and urea [82].

8- Epidiosbulbin E from D. bulbifera has been reported to cause hepatotoxicity as electrophilic intermediate generated by the metabolic activation of furan ring of 8-Epidiosbulbin E acetate mediated by cytochromes P450 is responsible for liver injury [83]. Various studies also reported renal toxicity of D. bulbifera [74,77, 84]. The renal lesions mainly are cloudy swelling of renal tubular epithelial cells, luminal stenosis, and protein casts in renal tubes [74]. Direct cytotoxicity on glomerular and tubular cells, and acute tubular injury was caused by severe parenchymal liver injury [84].

One study reported that D. bulbifera also affects the function of the gastrointestinal system. 19.9, 8, 2.7 g/kg of200% decoction of D. bulbifera reported a high degree of gastrointestinal flatulence and congestion of the gastrointestinal vascular system in the dead mice. Pylorus ulcers in the stomach were also visible. Under a light microscope, superficial necrosis of gastric mucosa was observed [77]. D. bulbifera administration for long term can lead to increased thyroid masses with larger follicular diameters, thick colloid filling in their cavities and flattened follicles in mice and rats. These toxic reactions could be seen in diffuse colloid goiter, which is very similar to the symptoms of goiter induced by iodine poisoning [85].

Methods of Detoxifications

Major toxicity materials observed are saponins and sapogenins in Central American, South African and Indian species, tannins and polyphenols in Indo-Chinese varieties and furanoid norditerpenes (diosbulbins) mostly in China. Diosbulbin D (0.07 mg/g) is a major toxic compound in Australian variety of D. bulbifera. Treatment practices varying from baking, followed by overnight leaching of the sliced tubers for 12 h in running water, resulted in reduction of major bitter and toxic compound to a very low level under the taste threshold rendering the final food palatable [86].

Drug Interaction Study

D. bulbifera and Diosgenin effect on rat CYP450 enzymes and its important isoforms (CYP3A4, CYP2D6) was studied using high through put screening. In fluorometric assay, herb extract exhibited higher IC values (96.21 ± 1.32 to 180.42 ± 0.12 |ig/ml) when compared to positive inhibitors and lower than Diosgenin (172.54 ± 0.52 to 201.86 ± 1.49 μg/ml) on CYP3A4 and CYP2D6. Based on the inhibitory potential, test substances exhibited very less interaction capacity, thereby leading to less significant herb- drug interaction with co-administered drugs [87]. Synergistic compatibility detoxification, that is, combining D. bulbifera with other herbal medicines, has been shown to improve therapeutic effects and reduce toxic effects. Combination with Angelica sinensis can enhance D. bulbifera's anti-tumor effect [88] and reduce renal toxicity [89-92] and kidney toxicity [93]. Combination with Schisandra chinensis relieved the liver damage caused by D. bulbifera [94-96]. Potential synergistic anticancer activity of combination of diosbulbin B with scutellarin from Scutellaria barbata proved useful for the clinical treatment of cancer [97]. Combination with Glycyrrhiza uralensis reduced liver damage and renal toxicity of D. bulbifera [98].

Conclusion

Dioscorea bulbifera is one of the most widely-consumed aerial yam widely distributed throughout various tropical regions. The plants are characterized by the production of considerable number of aerial tubers or bulbils. Dioscorea bulbifera is widely used in traditional medicine among them many documented medicinal folk uses of the plant are presented here. It is reported to have wide chemical diversities as contains steroids, saponins, flavonoids, glycosides, tannins, alkaloid, fatty acids and essential oils. The plant appears to have a broad spectrum of activity on several ailments. Various parts of the plant have been explored for antitumor, anti HIV, antidyslipidemic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, diuretic, gastroprotective, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiviral, antifungal, anthelmintic, neuropharmacological, cardioprotective, anorexiant, plasmid curing activities and anti-hyperthyroid activities.

The pharmacological studies reported in the present review confirm the therapeutic value of Dioscorea bulbifera. Many polyherbal formulations containing this plant parts are available in the market. However, less information is available regarding the clinical study, standardisation method to avoid biological and geographical variation, advance food processing and detoxication techniques. The plant is pre-clinically evaluated to some extent; if these claims are scientifically and clinically evaluated then it can provide good remedies and help mankind in various ailments.

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