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Curiosity Sends Back Radioed Words and New Telephoto industrial wireless router   View of Mars

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A chapter of the layered geological history of Mars is laid bare in this postcard from NASA’s Curiosity rover. The image shows the base of Mount Sharp, the rover’s eventual science destination. Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS

Using the 100-millimeter telephoto lens and the 34-millimeter wide angle lens of the Mast Camera instrument, Curiosity beamed back a new image of the base of Mount Sharp and also sent back the first planet to planet radioed words.

Pasadena, California — NASA’s Mars Curiosity has debuted the first recorded human voice that traveled from Earth to another planet and back.

In spoken words radioed to the rover on Mars and back to NASA’s Deep Space Network (DSN) on Earth, NASA Administrator Charles Bolden noted the difficulty of landing a rover on Mars, congratulated NASA employees and the agency’s commercial and government partners on the successful landing of Curiosity earlier this month, and said curiosity is what drives humans to explore.

“The knowledge we hope to gain from our observation and analysis of Gale Crater will tell us much about the possibility of life on Mars as well as the past and future possibilities for our own planet. Curiosity will bring benefits to Earth and inspire a new generation of scientists and explorers, as it prepares the way for a human mission in the not too distant future,” Bolden said in the recorded message.

The voice playback was released along with new telephoto camera views of the varied Martian landscape during a news conference today at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California.

“With this voice, another small step is taken in extending human presence beyond Earth, and the experience of exploring remote worlds is brought a little closer to us all,” said Dave Lavery, NASA Curiosity program executive. “As Curiosity continues its mission, we hope these words will be an inspiration to someone alive today who will become the first to stand upon the surface of Mars. And like the great Neil Armstrong, they will speak aloud of that next giant leap in human exploration.”

The telephoto images beamed back to Earth show a scene of eroded knobs and gulches on a mountainside, with geological layering clearly exposed. The new views were taken by the 100-millimeter telephoto lens and the 34-milllimeter wide angle lens of the Mast Camera (Mastcam) instrument. Mastcam has photographed the lower slope of the nearby mountain called Mount Sharp.

“This is an area on Mount Sharp where Curiosity will go,” said Mastcam principal investigator Michael Malin, of Malin Space Science Systems in San Diego. “Those layers are our ultimate objective. The dark dune field is between us and those layers. In front of the dark sand you see redder sand, with a different composition suggested by its different color. The rocks in the foreground show diversity — some rounded, some angular, with different histories. This is a very rich geological site to look at and eventually to drive through.”

A drive early Monday placed Curiosity directly over a patch where one of the spacecraft’s landing engines scoured away a few inches of gravelly soil and exposed underlying rock. Researchers plan to use a neutron-shooting instrument on the rover to check for water molecules bound into minerals at this partially excavated target.

During the news conference, the rover team reported the results of a Prognostics and Health Management   test on Curio vending vms sity’s Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) instrument, which can measure the composition of samples of atmosphere, powdered rock or soil. The amount of air from Earth’s atmosphere remaining in the instrument after Curiosity’s launch was more than expected, so a difference in pressure on either side of tiny pumps led SAM operators to stop pumping out the remaining Earth air as a precaution. The pumps subsequently worked, and a chemical analysis was completed on a sample of  Vending Telemetry  Earth air.

“As a test of the instrument, the results are beautiful confirmation of the sensitivities for identifying the gases present,” said SAM principal investigator Paul Mahaffy of NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. “We’re happy with this test and we’re looking forward to the next run in a few days when we can get Mars data.”

Curiosity already is returning more data from the Martian surface than have all of NASA’s earlier rovers combined.

“We have an international network of telecommunications relay orbiters bringing data back from Curiosity,” said JPL’s Chad Edwards, chief telecommunications engineer for NASA’s Mars Exploration Program. “Curiosity is boosting its data return by using a new capability for adjusting its transmission rate.”

Curiosity is 3 weeks into a two-year prime mission on Mars. It will use 10 science instruments to assess whether the selected study area ever has offered environmental conditions favorable for microbial life.

JPL manages the mission for NASA’s Science Mission Directorate in Washington. The rover was designed, developed and assembled at JPL. NASA’s DSN is an international network of antennas that supports interplanetary spacecraft missions and radio and radar astronomy observations for the exploration of the solar system and the universe. The network also supports selected Earth-orbiting missions.

Image: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS

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Cassini Reveals Monstrous Ice Cloud in Titan’s Sout wordpress plugins shop  h Polar Region

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As winter sets in at Titan’s south pole, a cloud system called the south polar vortex (small, bright “button”) has been forming, as seen in this 2013 image. Credits: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Space Science Institute

NASA’s Cassini Spacecraft has detected a monstrous new cloud of frozen compounds in the Titan’s low- to mid-stratosphere – a stable atmospheric region above the troposphere, or active weather layer. The new observations made near VPN industrial router for commercial and industrial and M2M/IoT applications   the south pole of Titan add to the evidence that winter comes in like a lion on this moon of Saturn.

Cassini’s camera had already imaged an impressive cloud hovering over Titan’s south pole at an altitude of about 186 miles (300 kilometers). However, that cloud, first seen in 2012, turned out to be just the tip of the iceberg. A much more massive ice cloud system has now been found lower in the stratosphere, peaking at an altitude of about 124 miles (200 kilometers).

The new cloud was detected by Cassini’s infrared instrument – the Composite Infrared Spectrometer, or CIRS – which obtains profiles of the atmosphere at invisible thermal wavelengths. The cloud has a low density, similar to Earth’s fog but likely flat on top.

For the past few years, Cassini has been catching glimpses of the transition from fall to winter at Titan’s south pole – the first time any spacecraft has seen the onset of a Titan winter. Because each Titan season lasts about 7-1/2 years on Earth’s calendar, the south pole will still be enveloped in winter when the Cassini mission ends in 2017.

This 2012 close-up offers an early snapshot of the changes taking place at Titan’s south pole. Cassini’s camera spotted this impressive cloud hovering at an altitude of about 186 miles (300 kilometers). Cassini’s thermal infrared instrument has now detected a massive ice cloud below it. Credits: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Space Science Institute

“When we looked at the infrared data, this ice cloud stood out like nothing we’ve ever seen before,” said Carrie Anderson of NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. “It practically smacked us in the face.”

Anderson is presenting the findings Vending Telemeter   at the annual Meeting of the Division of Planetary Sciences of the American Astronomical Society at National Harbor, Maryland, on November 11.

The ice clouds at Titan’s pole don’t form in the same way as Earth’s familiar rain clouds.

For rain clouds, water evaporates from the surface and encounters cooler temperatures as it rises through the troposphere. Clouds form when the water vapor reaches an altitude where the combination of temperature and air pressure is right for condensation. The methane clouds in Titan’s troposphere form in a similar way.

However, Titan’s polar clouds form higher in the atmosphere by a different process. Circulation in the atmosphere transports gases from the pole in the warm hemisphere to the pole in the cold hemisphere. At the cold pole, the wa remote monitoring  rm air sinks, almost like water draining out of a bathtub, in a process known as subsidence.

The sinking gases – a mixture of smog-like hydrocarbons and nitrogen-bearing chemicals called nitriles – encounter colder and colder temperatures on the way down. Different gases will condense at different temperatures, resulting in a layering of clouds over a range of altitudes.

Cassini arrived at Saturn in 2004 – mid-winter at Titan’s north pole. As the north pole has been transitioning into springtime, the ice clouds there have been disappearing. Meanwhile, new clouds have been forming at the south pole. The build-up of these southern clouds indicates that the direction of Titan’s global circulation is changing.

“Titan’s seasonal changes continue to excite and surprise,” said Scott Edgington, Cassini deputy project scientist at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, California. “Cassini, with its very capable suite of instruments, will continue to periodically study how changes occur on Titan until its Solstice mission ends in 2017.”

The size, altitude and composition of the polar ice clouds help scientists understand the nature and severity of Titan’s winter. From the ice cloud seen earlier by Cassini’s camera, scientists determined that temperatures at the south pole must get down to at least -238 degrees Fahrenheit (-150 degrees Celsius).

The new cloud was found in the lower stratosphere, where temperatures are even colder. The ice particles are made up of a variety of compounds containing hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen.

Anderson and her colleagues had found the same signature in CIRS data from the north pole, but in that case, the signal was much weaker. The very strong signature of the south polar cloud supports the idea that the onset of winter is much harsher than the end.

“The opportunity to see the early stages of winter on Titan is very exciting,” said Robert Samuelson, a Goddard researcher working with Anderson. “Everything we are finding at the south pole tells us that the onset of southern winter is much more severe than the late stages of Titan’s northern winter.”

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Amazing Image of a Chee DIN-Rail router  tah on the Hunt

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National Geographic knows a thing or two about quality photographs. The photo above was taken by Stefano Pesarelli in the Masai Mara National Reserve in Kenya and received an Honorable Mention in this year’s National Geographic photo contest. It’s easy to see why. It is a striking ph DIN-Rail router  oto that illustrates the amazing speed of the Cheetah.

Pesarelli says, “This panning effect, even in its imperfection, with the chromatic harmony of the background, with all the needless information eliminated and the luck of having the big cat’s lifted tail in symmetry with the impala4g modem router horns, brings the observer inside the hunting without distractions.”

If it seems all a blur of speed to you, just imagine how its prey felt. Cheetahs can reach speeds of up to 120 km/h over short distances. They stalk their prey until they are less than 30 meters away. That’s when they make the su retrofit  dden dash after them.

The contest had over 20,000 photographs submitted from over 130 countries depicting scenes of people, places, or nature. You can see all of the winners here.

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[inhandnetworks-blog]

Yale Engineers Develop  joomla webdesign  New Colors for Solar Energy

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In photo: vials containing host materials and the guest materials of the solar cells (courtesy of the Transformative Materials and Devices Lab)

Engineers from the School of Engineering & Applied Science at Yale University have developed a solar cell that widens the choice of co da monitoring  lors without decreasing its power conversion efficiency.

The technology of solar energy has progressed dramatically in the last few decades, as it operates with increasing efficiency and at lower costs.

But the matter of how solar panels look remains an obstacle. Most photovoltaic panels are blue or black and cover large portions of buildings with a monotone hue. That might not jibe with your personal taste – or that of your homeowners’ association. It’s a limitation that has hindered the integration of solar energy into some commercial applications. In fact, architects and designers have long requested a wider choice of colors for solar cells to allow them to seamlessly blend into a building’s façade or an electronic system.

Up to now, however, expandin VPN gateway ��g the palette of colors that solar energy engineers can work with has proven notoriously difficult. That could be changing, though, with work from the lab of industrial router   Andre Taylor, associate professor of chemical & environmental engineering. Researchers there have developed a solar cell that widens the choice of colors without decreasing its power conversion efficiency. Their findings are published in Nano Energy.

Researchers have previously tried a few methods to vary the colors of solar panels. One approach involved adjusting a layer of the solar cell so that it would reflect different colors – this has proved to be costly and with limited results, however. Another method introduced what’s known as a “dye molecule” to allow for more colors. This approach, however, diminishes the efficiency at which the system converts sunlight to energy.

The research team in Taylor’s Transformative Materials and Devices Lab also used a dye molecule, but this one doesn’t diminish the power conversion efficiency. Jaemin Kong, a post-doctoral associate and lead author of the paper, explains that this is because the molecule – a squaraine known as ASSQ – acts not only as a color agent, but as an energy transfer donor. It works in conjunction with two polymers – one that serves as an electron donor and the other as a non-fullerene electron acceptor. By changing the ratios of those three elements, the researchers were able to make adjustments that allowed for a gradual color variation from blue-green to purple-red.

“I think that’s a pretty impressive part of this paper – there was no major sacrifice of the power conversion efficiency,” Taylor said. “And the nice thing about this is that the dye can be used at low concentrations, so it doesn’t necessarily affect the overall mechanism.”

Other authors of the paper are Megan Mohadjer Beromi, Marina Mariano,Tenghooi Goh, Francisco Antonio, and Nilay Hazari.

Publication: Jaemin Konga, et al., “Colorful polymer solar cells employing an energy transfer dye molecule,” Nano Energy, Volume 38, August 2017, Pages 36–42; doi:10.1016/j.nanoen.2017.05.032

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[inhandnetworks-blog]

New Battery Overhead Line Monitoring   Design Extends the Life of Low-Cost, Lightweight Batteries

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Researchers demonstrating the ability of aluminum to repel oil underwater. Courtesy of the researchers

New battery design could greatly extend the shelf life of single-use metal-air batteries for electric vehicles, off-grid storage, and other applications.

Metal-air batteries are one of the lightest and most compact types of batteries available, but they can have a major limitation: When not in use, they degrade quickly, as corrosion eats away at their metal electrodes. Now, MIT researchers have found a way to substantially reduce that corrosion, making it possible for such batteries to have much longer shelf lives.

While typical rechargeable lithium-ion batteries only lose about 5 percent of their charge after a month of storage, they are too costly, bulky, or heavy for many applications. Primary (nonrechargeable) aluminum-air batteries are much less expensive and more compact and lightweight, but they can lose 80 percent of their charge a month.

The MIT design overcomes the problem of corrosion in aluminum-air batteries by introducing an oil barrier between the aluminum electrode and the electrolyte — the fluid between the two battery electrodes that eats away at the aluminum when the battery is on standby. The oil is rapidly pumped away and replaced with electrolyte as soon as the battery is used. As a result, the energy loss is cut to just 0.02 percent a month — more than a thousandfold improvement.

The findings are reported today in the journal Science by former MIT graduate student Brandon J. Hopkins ’18, W.M. Keck Professor of Energy Yang Shao-Horn, and professor of mechanical engineering Douglas P. Hart.

Photo shows the proof-of-concept battery built by the research team to demonstrate how their system could work in practice. The battery lasted through 24 days of use and standby cycles, compared to just three days for a comparable battery without the new protective system inpower sensor place. Courtesy of the researchers

While several other methods have been used to extend the shelf life of metal-air batteries (which can use other metals such as sodium, lithium, magnesium, zinc, or iron), these methods can sacrifice performance Hopkins says. Most of the other approaches involve replacing the electrolyte with a different, less corrosive chemical formulation, but these alternatives drastically reduce the battery power.

Other methods involve pumping the liquid electrolyte out during storage and back in before use. These methods still enable significant corrosion and can clog plumbing systems in the battery pack. Because aluminum is hydrophilic (water-attracting) even after electrolyte is drained out of the pack, the remaining electrolyte will cling to the aluminum electrode surfaces. “The batteries have complex structures, so there are many corners for electrolyte to get caught in,” which results in continued corrosion, Hopkins explains.

To demonstrate the ability of aluminum to repel oil underwater, the researchers plunged this sample of aluminum into a beaker containing a layer of oil floating on water. When the sample enters the water layer, all the oil that clung to the surface on the way down quickly falls away, showing its property of underwater oleophobicity. Courtesy of the researchers.

A key to the new system is a thin membrane placed between the battery electrodes. When the battery is in use, both sides of the membrane are filled with a liquid electrolyte, but when the battery is put on standby, oil is pumped into the side closest to the aluminum electrode, which protects the aluminum surface from the electrolyte on the other side of the membrane.

The new battery system also takes advantage of a property of aluminum called “underwater oleophobicity” — that is, when aluminum is immersed in water, it repels oil from its surface. As a result, when the battery is reactivated and electrolyte is pumped back in, the electrolyte easily displaces the oil from the aluminum surface, which restores the power capabilities of the battery. Ironically, the MIT method of corrosion suppression exploits the same property of aluminum that promotes corrosion in conventional systems.

The result is an aluminum-air prototype with a much longer shelf life than that of conventional aluminum-air batteries. The researchers showed that when the battery was repeatedly used and then put on standby for one to two days, the MIT design lasted 24 days, while the conventional design lasted for only three. Even when oil and a pumping system are included in scaled-up primary aluminum-air battery packs, they are still five times lighter and twice as compact as rechargeable lithium-ion battery packs for electric vehicles, the researchers report.

Hart explains that aluminum, besides being very inexpensive, is one of the “highest chemical energy-density storage materials we know of” — that is, it is able to store and deliver more energy per pound than almost anything else, with only bromines, which are expensive and hazardous, being comparable. He says many experts think aluminum-air batteries may be the only viable replacement for lithium-ion batteries and for gasoline in cars.

Aluminum-air batteries have been used as r4g lte modemange extenders for electric vehicles to supplement built-in rechargeable batteries, to add many extra miles of driving when the built-in battery runs out. They are also sometimes used as power sources in remote locations or for some underwater vehicles. But while such batteries can be stored for long periods as long as they are unused, as soon as they are turned on for the first time, they start to degrade rapidly.

Such applications could greatly benefit from this new system, Hart explains, because with the existing versions, “you can’t really shut it off. You can flush it and delay the process, but you can’t really shut it off.” However, if the new system were used, for example, as a range extender in a car, “you could use it and then pull into your driveway and park it for a month, and then come back and still expect it to have a usable battery. … I really think this is a game-changer in terms of the use of these batteries.”

With the greater shelf life that could be afforded by this new system, the use of aluminum-air batteries could “exten industrial IoT router  d beyond current niche applications,” says Hopkins. The team has already filed for patents on the process.

“The technique introduced here is eloquent in that it uses fundamental surface physics to estimate required oil and membrane properties, and the results demonstrate predicted performance,” says Robert Savinell, a professor of engineering at Case Western Reserve University in Ohio, who was not involved in this research. “This work may indeed mitigate the need for costly high-purity metals and alloys for primary metal-air batteries, and might reduce the complexities of electrolyte additives.”

Savinell adds, “The ability to efficiently extract usable energy from high energy-density aluminum-air batteries, especially under intermittent use conditions, will facilitate the development and improvement of technologies requiring very high energy-densities for extended operation.”

The research was supported by MIT Lincoln Laboratory.

Publication: Brandon J. Hopkins, et al., “Suppressing corrosion in primary aluminum–air batteries via oil displacement,” Science 09 Nov 2018: Vol. 362, Issue 6415, pp. 658-661 DOI: 10.1126/science.aat9149

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[inhandnetworks-blog]

MIT Neuroscien cost effective  tists Research Brain Activity Related to Face Recognition

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How does the human brain recognize faces and distinguish between genuine faces and objects that resemble faces? A new study by Professor Pawan Sinha at MIT and his colleagues indicates that looked at brain activity indicates that both hemispheres are involved in this decision.

Objects that resemble faces are everywhere. Whether it’s New Hampshire’s erstwhile granite “Old Man of the Mountain,” or Jesus’ face on a tortilla, our brains are adept at locating images that look like faces. However, the normal human brain is almost never fooled into thinking such objects actually are human faces.

“You can tell that it has some ‘faceness’ to it, but on the other hand, you’re not misled into believing that it is a genuine face,” says Pawan Sinha, professor of brain and cognitive sciences at MIT.

A new study fro industrial 4G/3G router  m Sinha and his colleagues reveals the brain activity that underlies our ability to make that distinction. On the left side of the brain, the fusiform gyrus — an area long associated with face recognition — carefully calculates how “facelike” an image is. The right fusiform gyrus then appears to use that information to make a quick, categorical decision of whether the object is, indeed, a face.

This distribution of labor is one of the first known examples of the left and right sides of the brain taking on different roles in high-level visual-processing tasks, Sinha says, although hemispheric differences have been seen in other brain functions, most notably language and spatial perception.

Lead author of the paper, published Jan. 4 in the Proceedings of the Royal Society B, is Ming Meng, a former postdoc in Sinha’s lab and now an assistant professor at Dartmouth College. Other authors are Tharian Cherian ’09 and Gaurav Singal, who recently earned an MD from the Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology and is now a resident at Massachusetts General Hospital.

Face versus nonface

Many earlier studies have shown that neurons in the fusiform gyrus, located on the brain’s underside, respond preferentially to faces. Sinha and his students set out to investigate how that brain region decides what is and is not a face, particularly in cases where an object greatly resembles a face.

To help them do that, the researchers created a continuum of images ranging from those that look nothing like faces to genuine faces. They found images that very closely resemble faces by examining photographs that machine vision systems had falsely tagged as faces. Human observers then rated how facelike each of the images were by doing a series of one-to-one comparisons; the results of those comparisons allowed the researchers to rank the images by how much they resembled a face.

The research team then used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to scan the brains of research subjects as they categorized the images. Unexpectedly, the scientists found different activity patterns on each side of the b router industrial  rain: On the right side, activation patterns within the fusiform gyrus remained quite consistent for all genuine face images, but changed dramatically for all nonface images, no matter how much they resembled a face. This suggests that the right side of the brain is involved in making the categorical declaration of whether an image is a face or not.

Meanwhile, in the analogous region on the left side of the brain, activity patterns changed gradually as images became more facelike, and there was no clear divide between faces and nonfaces. From this, the researchers concluded that the left side of the brain is ranking images on a scale of how facelike they are, but not assigning them to one category or another.

“From the computational perspective, one speculation one can make is that the left does the initial heavy lifting,” Sinha says. “It tries to determine how facelike is a pattern, without making the final decision on whether I’m going to call it a face.”

Key to the research was imaging-analysis technology that allowed the scientists to look at patterns of activity across the fusiform gyrus.

“This is a relatively recent innovation — looking at the pattern of activation as opposed to overall activation,” says Thomas Busey, associate professor of psychological and brain sciences at Indiana University, who was not involved in this research. “Anytime you have a measure that replicates and correlates with human behavior, that seems to be a pretty compelling story.”

Timing is instructive

The researchers found that activation in the left side of the fusiform gyrus preceded that of the right side by a couple of seconds, supporting the hypothesis that the left side does its job first and then passes information on to the right side.

Sinha says that given the sluggishness of fMRI signals (which rely on blood-flow changes), the timing does not yet constitute definitive evidence, “but it’s a very interesting possibility because it begins to tease apart this monolithic notion of face processing. It’s now beginning to get at what the constituents are of that overall face-processing system.”

The researchers hope to obtain mo inhand network  re solid evidence of temporal relationships between the two hemispheres with studies using electroencephalography (EEG) or magnetoencephalography (MEG), two technologies that offer a much more precise view of the timing of brain activity. They also hope to discover how and when the right and left sides of the fusiform gyrus develop these independent functions by studying blind children who have their sight restored at a young age. Many such children have been treated by Project Prakash, an effort initiated by Sinha to find and treat blind children in India.

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[inhandnetworks-blog]

Ancient Antarctica Was Much Warmer and Wette LangShan Technology  r than Previously Suspected

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A new study finds ancient Antarctica was much warmer and wetter than previously suspected, with a climate that was suitable to support substantial vegetation—including stunted trees—along the edges of the frozen continent. This artist’s rendition created from a photograph of Antarctica shows what Antarctica possibly looked like during the middle Miocene epoch, based on pollen fossil data. The landscape featured freshwater algae growing in meltwater ponds, low tundra vegetation on coastal plains and tundra with shrub-like southern beech and low podocarp trees growing on warmer sites, with shrubs as high as approximately 20 inches (50 centimeters). Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Dr. Philip Bart, LSU

In an effort to better understand what the future of climate change may look like, a team of scientists examined plant leaf wax remnants in sediment core samples taken from beneath the Ross Ice Shelf, finding that ancient Antarctica was much warmer and wetter than previously suspected.

Pasadena, California — A new university-led study with NASA participation finds ancient Antarctica was much warmer and wetter than previously suspected. The climate was suitable to support substantial vegetation — including stunted trees — along the edges of the frozen continent.

The team of scientists involved in the study, published online June 17 in Nature Geoscience, was led by Sarah J. Feakins of the University of Southern California in Los Angeles, and included researchers from NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, and Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge.

By examining plant leaf wax remnants in sediment core samples taken from beneath the Ross Ice Shelf, the research team found summer temperatures along the Antarctic coast 15 to 20 million years ago were 20 degrees Fahrenheit (11 degrees Celsius) warmer than today, with temperatures reaching as high as 45 degrees Fahrenheit (7 degrees Celsius). Precipitation levels also were found to be several times higher than today.

Pollen grains and leaf waxes record vegetation on Antarctica during a time of global warmth 20-15 million years ago, when greenhouse gas concentrations may have been similar to projections for the end of the 21st Century. Image credit: Sophie Warny and Kate Griener (Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge

“The ultimate goal of the study was to better understand what the future of climate change may look like,” said Feakins, an assistant professor of Earth sciences at the USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences. “Just as history has a lot to teach us about the future, so does past climate. This record shows us how much warmer and wetter it can get around the Antarctic ice sheet as the climate system heats up. This is some of the first evidence of just how much warmer it was.”

Scientists began to suspect that high-latitude temperatures during the middle Miocene epoch were warmer than previously believed when co-author Sophie Warny, assistant professor at LSU, discovered large quantities of pollen and algae in sediment cores taken around Antarctica. Fossils of plant life in Antarctica are difficult to come by because the movement of the massive ice sheets covering the landmass grinds and scrapes away the evidence.

Rendering of drilling operations during the ANDRILL campaign in Southern McMurdo Sound, Antarctica, October – December 2007. The successful drilling campaign recovered more than 3,280 feet (1,000 meters) of sediments using new drilling technology on an ice sheet platform. Image credit: University of Nebraska-Lincoln

“Marine sediment cores are ideal to look for clues of past vegetation, as the fossils deposited are protected from ice sheet advances, but these are technically very difficult to acquire in the Antarctic and require international collaboration,” said Warny.

Tipped off by the tiny pollen samples, Feakins opted to look at the remnants of leaf wax taken from sediment cores for clues. Leaf wax acts as a record of climate change by documenting the hydrogen isotope ratios of the water the plant took up while it was alive.

“Ice cores can only go back about one million years,” Feakins said. “Sediment cores allow us to go into ‘deep time.'”

Based upon a model originally developed to analyze hydrogen isotope ratios in atmo router industrial  spheric water vapor data from NASA’s Aura spacecraft, co-author and JPL scientist Jung-Eun Lee created experiments to find out just how much warmer and wetter climate may have been.

“When the planet heats up, the biggest changes are seen toward the poles,” Lee said. “The southward movement of rain bands associated with a warmer climate in the high-latitude southern hemisphere made the margins of Antarctica less like a polar desert, and more like present-day Iceland.”

The peak of this Antarctic greening occurred during the middle Miocene period, between 16.4 and 15.7 million years ago. This was well after the age of the dinosaurs, which became extinct 64 million years ago. During the Miocene epoch, mostly modern-looking animals roamed Earth, such as three-toed horses, deer, camel and various species of apes. Modern humans did not appear until 200,000 years ago.

Warm conditions during the middle Miocene are thought to be associated with carbon dioxide levels of around 400 to 600 parts per million (ppm). In 2012, carbon dioxide levels have climbed to 393 ppm, the highest they’ve been in the past several million years. At the current rate of increase, atmospheric carbon dioxide levels are on track to reach middle Miocene levels by the end of this century.

High carbon dioxide levels during the middle Miocene epoch have been documented in other studies through multiple lines of evidence, incPower Fault Detectionluding the number of microscopic pores on the surface of plant leaves and geochemical evidence from soils and marine organisms. While none of these ‘proxies’ is as reliable as the bubbles of gas trapped in ice cores, they are the best evidence available this far back in time. While scientists do not yet know precisely why carbon dioxide was at these levels during the middle Miocene, high carbon dioxide, together with the global warmth documented from many parts of the world and now also from the Antarctic region, appear to coincide during this period in Earth’s history.

This reseaGrid Analytics Systemrch was funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation with additional support from NASA. The California Institute of Technology in Pasadena manages JPL for NASA.

Images: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Dr. Philip Bart, LSU; Sophie Warny and Kate Griener; University of Nebraska-Lincoln

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Ancient DNA Reveals the First Detailed Genetic History of Moder inhand  n Europe

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An international team of researchers used ancient DNA to reconstruct the first high-resolution genetic record of modern European lineages through time, observing both human DNA evolving in ‘real-time’ and the dramatic population changes that have taken place in Europe.

Ancient DNA recovered from a series of skeletons in central Germany up to 7500 years old has been used to reconstruct the first detailed genetic history of modern Europe.

The study, published today in Nature Communications, reveals a dramatic series of events including major migrations from both Western Europe and Eurasia, and signs of an unexplained genetic turnover about 4000-5000 years ago.

The research was performed at the University of Adelaide’s Australian Centre for Ancient DNA (ACAD). Researchers used DNA extracted from bone and teeth samples from prehistoric human skeletons to sequence a group of maternal genetic lineages that are now carried by up to 45% of Europeans.

The international team also included the University of Mainz in Germany and the National Geographic Society’s Genographic Project.

“This is the first high-resolution genetic record of these lineages through time, and it is fascinating that we can directly observe both human DNA evolving in ‘real-time’, and the dramatic population changes that have taken place in Europe,” says joint lead author Dr Wolfgang Haak of ACAD.

“We can follow over 4000 years of prehistory, from the earliest farmers through the early Bronze Age to modern times.”

“The record of this maternally inherited genetic group, called Haplogroup H, shows that the first farmers in Central Europe resulted from a wholesale cultural and genetic input via migration, beginning in Turkey and the Near East where farming originated and arriving in Germany around 7500 years ago,” says joint lead author Dr Paul Brotherton, formerly at ACAD and now at the University of Huddersfield, UK.

ACAD Director Professor Alan Cooper says: “What is intriguing is that the genetic markcellular router wifiers of this first pan-European culture, which was clearly very successful, were then suddenly replaced around 4500 years ago, and we don’t know why. Something major happened, and the hunt is now on to find out what that was.”

The team developed new advances in molecular biology to sequence entire mitochon industrial IoT Gateway  drial genomes from the ancient skeletons. This is the first ancient population study using a large number of mitochondrial genomes.

“We have established that the genetic foundations for modern Europe were only established in the Mid-Neolithic, after this major genetic transition around 4000 years ago,” says Dr Haak. “This genetic diversity was then modified further by a series of incoming and expanding cultures from Iberia and Eastern Europe through the Late Neolithic.”

“The expansion of the Bell Beaker culture (named after their pots) appears to have been a key event, emerging in Iberia around 2800 BC and arriving in Germany several centuries later,” says Dr Brotherton. “This is a very interesting group as they have been linked to the expansion of Celtic languages along the Atlantic coast and into central Europe.”

“These well-dated ancient genetic sequences provide a unique opportunity to investigate the demographic history of Europe,” says Professor Cooper.

“We can not only estimate population sizes but also accurately determine the evolutionary rate of the sequences, providing a far more accurate timescale of significant events in recent human evolution.”

The team has been working closely on the genetic prehistory of Europeans for the past 7-8 years.

Professor Kurt Alt (University of Mainz) says: “This work shows the power of archaeology and ancient DNA working together to reconstruct human evolutionary history through time. We are currently expanding this approach to other transects across Europe.”

Genographic Project director Spencer Wells says: “Studies such as this on ancient remains serve as a valuable adjunct to the work we are doing with modern populations in the Genographic Project. While the DNA of people alive today can reveal the end result of their ancestors’ ancient movements, to really understand the dynamics of how modern genetic patterns were created we nee compact industrial router d to study ancient material as well.”

Publication: Paul Brotherton, et al., “Neolithic mitochondrial haplogroup H genomes and the genetic origins of Europeans,” 2013, Nature Communications 4, Article number: 1764; doi:10.1038/ncomms2656

Image: Digital Illustration of DNA from Shutterstock

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“Quantum Do cellular router  t” Nanoparticles Provide a New Path for Biological Imaging

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Engineers from MIT have discovered a way to make “quantum dots” that emit infrared light when injected into the body, providing researchers with highly detailed images of internal body structures. The new research may open up a new way of making detailed images of internal body structures such as fine networks of blood vessels.

For certain frequencies of short-wave infrared light, most biological tissues are nearly as transparent as glass. Now, a team of engineers has made tiny particles that can be injected into the body, where they emit tho Industrial LTE Router  se penetrating frequencies.

The new research is based on the use of light-emitting particles called quantum dots and is described in a paper in the journal Nature Biomedical Engineering. The study is led by MIT research scientist Oliver Bruns.

Near-infrared imaging for research on biological tissues, with wavelengths between 700 and 900 nanometers (billionths of a meter), is widely used, but wavelengths of around 1,000 to 2,000 nanometers have the potential to provide even better results, because body tissues are more transparent to that light. “We knew that this imaging mode would be better” than existing methods, Bruns explains, “but we were lacking high-quality emitters” — that is, light-emitting materials that could produce these precise wavelengths.

Light-emitting particles have been a specialty of Moungi Bawendi, the Lester Wolf Professor of Chemistry, whose lab has over the years developed new ways of making quantum dots. These nanocrystals, made of semiconductor materials, emit light whose frequency can be precisely tuned by controlling the exact size and composition of the particles.

The key was to develop versions of these quantum dots whose emissions matched the desired short-wave infrared frequencies and were bright enough to then be easily detec redundant  ted through the surrounding skin and muscle tissues. The team succeeded in making particles that are “orders of magnitude better than previous materials, and that allow unprecedented detail in biological imaging,” Bruns says. The synthesis of these new particles was initially described in a paper by graduate student Daniel Franke and others from the Bawendi group in Nature Communications last year.

The quantum dots the team produced are so bright that their emissions can be captured with very short exposure times, he says. This makes it possible to produce not just single images but video that captures details of motion, such as the flow of blood, making it possible to distinguish between veins and arteries.

The new light-emitting particles are also the first that are bright enough to allow imaging of internal organs in mice that are awake and moving, as opposed to previous methods that required them to be anesthetized, Bruns says. Initial applications would be for preclinical research in animals, as the compounds contain some materials that are unlikely to be approved for use in humans. The researchers are also working on developing versions that would be safer for humans.

The method also relies on the use of a newly developed camera that is highly sensitive to this particular range of short-wave infrared light. The camera is a commercially developed product, Bruns says, but his team was the first customer for the camera’s specialized detector, made of indium-gallium-arsenide. Though this camera was developed for research purposes, these frequencies of infrared light are also used as a way of seeing through fog or smoke.

Not only can the new method determine the direction of blood flow, Bruns says, it is detailed enough to track individual blood cells within that flow. “We can track the flow in each and every capillary, at super high speed,” he says. “We can get a quantitative measure of flow, and we can do such flow measurements at very high resolution, over large areas.”

Such imaging could Vending Telemetry   potentially be used, for example, to study how the blood flow pattern in a tumor changes as the tumor develops, which might lead to new ways of monitoring disease progression or responsiveness to a drug treatment. “This could give a good indication of how treatments are working that was not possible before,” he says.

“This is an exciting and potentially revolutionary development for small animal imaging,” says Guillermo Tearney, a professor of pathology at Harvard Medical School, who was not involved in this work. “By using probes that are tuned to wavelengths further out in the short-wave near-infrared, the investigators overcome scattering, which is the major phenomenon” limiting such in vivo microscopy, he says.

“In so doing, simpler and less invasive interrogation methods can be utilized to understand structure and function in animal models, on both the organ and cellular level,” Tearney says. “I anticipate that these probes will have a major impact on the field of intravital [done with living subjects] imaging and bioscience research.”

Publication: Oliver T. Burns, et al., “Next-generation in vivo optical imaging with short-wave infrared quantum dots,” Nature Biomedical Engineering 1, Article number: 0056 (2017) doi:10.1038/s41551-017-0056

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“Proximity Magnetism” Could remote communication   Be a Building Block for Quantum Computers

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This diagram shows the layered structure analyzed for its  Grid Analytics System magnetic properties. Yellow spheres represent tellurium atoms; light blue spheres represent antimony-bismuth; and black spheres represent sulfur. The black sphere with an arrow represents an atom of dopant, and green spheres with arrows show atoms of europium. Different colored arrows show various ways an europium ion can be affected by the interface between the materials: within the plane via Heisenberg interaction (orange), between the planes (green) through super-exchange interaction, or spin-polarized states at the topological insulator surface (blue).

Researchers reveal an unusual magnetic behavior that could be used to probe a variety of exotic physical phenomena, and could ultimately be used to produce key components of future quantum computers.

An exotic kind of magnetic behavior, driven by the mere proximity of two materials, has been analyzed by a team of researchers at MIT and elsewhere using a technique called spin-polarized neutron reflectometry.

The novel phenomenon occurs at the boundary between a ferromagnet and a type of material called a topological insulator, which blocks electricity from flowing through all of its bulk but whose surface is, by contrast, a very good electrical conductor. In the new work, a layer of topological insulator material is bonded to a ferromagnetic layer. Where the two materials meet, an effect takes place called proximity-driven magnetic order, producing a localized and controllable magnetic pattern at the interface.

The research is described in a paper appearing this week in the journal Physical Review Letters, written by MIT doctoral student Mingda Li, postdoc Cui-Zu Chang, professor of nuclear science and engineering Ju Li, senior scientist Jagadeesh Moodera, and seven others.

This “proximity magnetism” effect could create an energy gap, a necessary feature for transistors, in a topological insulator, making it possible to turn a device off and on as a potential building block for spintronics, says Mingda Li, the lead author of the paper. “However, the proximity effect is usually weak,” he says, without this team’s use of a magnetic topological insulator “to enhance it and lock new magnetic order near the interface.”

“This could be a building block of quantum computers,” Moodera says. “It also opens up some fundamental new phenomena” for study by physicists.

“The interaction at the interface makes this exotic phenomenon possible,” Chang adds.

O cloud VMS ne of the new findings of this research is that the magnetism induced by the proximity of the two materials is not just at the surface, but actually extends into the interior of the topological insulator material. “We were able to show that the magnetism exists inside the topological insulator,” Moodera says.

Possible applications of the new findings include the creation of spintronics, transistors based on the spin of particles rather than their charge. These are expected to have low energy dissipation if based on topological insulators, and are a very active area of research.

Because the interface produces a channel with virtually no dissipation, it can act as “a perfect quantum wire,” Ju Li says. “It cannot be better than that for a quantum conductance channel. So having this precise control of the magnetic structure could lead to novel quantum spintronics.”

He adds that the findings, in addition to near-term practical applications, “from a physics point of view, opens up a huge area of productive work.” This includes the study of predicted physical phenomena such as Majorana fermions, particles predicted in 1937 but not yet observed, which, unlike all known subatomic particles, serve as their own antiparticles. These theorized particles “have yet to be explored. It opens another avenue to explore these things,” he says.

“The significance of this work is threefold,” says Qi-Kun Xue, a professor of physics at Tsinghua University in China who was not involved in this work. The three areas, he says, are “to demonstrate proximity magnetism, the enhancement of such magnetism … and the tunability of this interfacial m wi fi  agnetic structure.” He adds that the finding is a significant step toward a device application of magnetic topological insulators. “In particular,” he explains, “the consistent results from independent experimental tools” make the results “robust.”

The work included researchers at the National Institute of Standards and Technology, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Northeastern University, and Boston College. It was supported by the National Science Foundation, the Office of Naval Research, and the Department of Energy.

Publication: Mingda Li, et al., “Proximity-Driven Enhanced Magnetic Order at Ferromagnetic-Insulator–Magnetic-Topological-Insulator Interface,” Phys. Rev. Lett., 2105, 115, 087201; doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.115.087201

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Researchers View Connection Between Kink Instability and Rayleig Wireless ATM Solution  h-Taylor Instability

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While using high-speed cameras to look at jets of plasma, researchers at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) discovered a surprisi Industrial 3g router  ng connection between kink instability and Rayleigh-Taylor instability that ha Remote Automation  s never been seen before.

PASADENA, California — January saw the biggest solar storm since 2005, generating some of the most dazzling northern lights in recent memory.

The source of that storm—and others like it—was the sun’s magnetic field, described by invisible field lines that protrude from and loop back into the burning ball of gas. Sometimes these field lines break—snapping like a rubber band pulled too tight—and join with other nearby lines, releasing energy that can then launch bursts of plasma known as solar flares. Huge chunks of plasma from the sun’s surface can zip toward Earth and damage orbiting satellites or bump them off their paths.

These chunks of plasma, called coronal mass ejections, can also snap Earth’s magnetic field lines, causing charged particles to speed toward Earth’s magnetic poles; this, in turn, sets off the shimmering light shows we know as the northern and southern lights.

Industrial 3G Router  Even though the process of field lines breaking and merging with other lines—called magnetic reconnection—has such significant effects, a detailed picture of what precisely is going on has long eluded scientists, says Paul Bellan, professor of applied physics in the Division of Engineering and Applied Science at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech).

Now, using high-speed cameras to look at jets of plasma in the lab, Bellan and graduate student Auna Moser have discovered a surprising phenomenon that provides clues to just how magnetic reconnection occurs. They describe their results in a paper published in the February 16 issue of the journal Nature.

“Trying to understand nature by using engineering techniques is indeed a hallmark of the Division of Engineering and Applied Science at Caltech,” says Ares Rosakis, the Theodore von Kármán Professor of Aeronautics and professor of mechanical engineering and the chair of engineering and applied science.

In the experiments, Moser fired jets of hydrogen, nitrogen, and argon plasmas at speeds of about 10 to 50 kilometers per second across a distance of more than 20 centimeters in a vacuum. Plasma is a gas so hot that atoms are stripped of their electrons. As a throughway for speeding electrons, the jets act like electrical wires. The experiment requires 200 million watts of power to produce jets that are a scorching 20,000 degrees Kelvin and carry a current of 100,000 amps. To study the jets, Moser used cameras that can take a snapshot in less than a microsecond, or one millionth of a second.

As in all electrical currents, the flowing electrons in the plasma jet generate a magnetic field, which then exerts a force on the plasma. These electromagnetic interactions between the magnetic field and the plasma can cause the jet to writhe and form a rapidly expanding corkscrew. This behavior, called a kink instability, has been studied for nearly 60 years, Bellan says.

But when Moser looked closely at this behavior in her experimental plasma jets, she saw something entirely unexpected.

She found that—more often than not—the corkscrew shape that developed in her jets grew exponentially and extremely fast. The jets in the experiment formed 20-centimeter-long coils in just 20 to 25 microseconds. She also noticed tiny ripples that began appearing on the inner edge of the coil just before the jet broke—the moment when there was a magnetic reconnection.

In the beginning, Moser and Bellan say, they did not know what they were seeing—they just knew it was strange. “I thought it was a measurement error,” Bellan says. “But it was way too reproducible. We were seeing it day in and day out. At first, I thought we would never figure it out.”

But after months of additional experiments, they determined that the kink instability actually spawns a completely different kind of phenomenon, called a Rayleigh-Taylor instability. A Rayleigh-Taylor instability happens when a heavy fluid that sits on top of a light fluid tries to trade places with the light fluid. Ripples form and grow at the interface between the two, allowing the fluids to swap places.

What Moser and Bellan realized is that the kink instability creates conditions that give rise to a Rayleigh-Taylor instability. As the coiled plasma expands—due to the kink instability—it accelerates outward. Just like a passenger being pushed back into the seat of an accelerating car, the accelerated plasma is pushed down on the vacuum behind it. The plasma tries to swap places with the trailing vacuum by forming ripples that then expand—just like when gravity forces a heavy fluid to try to change places with a light fluid underneath. The Rayleigh-Taylor instability—as revealed by the ripples on the trailing side of the accelerating plasma—grows in about a microsecond.

“People have not observed anything like this before,” Bellan says.

Although the Rayleigh-Taylor instability has been studied for more than 100 years, no one had considered the possibility that it could be caused by a kink instability, Bellan says. The two types of instabilities are so different that to see them so closely coupled was a shock. “Nobody ever thought there was a connection,” he says.

What is notable is that the two instabilities occur at very different scales, the researchers say. While the coil created by the kink instability spans about 20 centimeters, the Rayleigh-Taylor instability is much smaller, making ripples just two centimeters long. Still, those smaller ripples rapidly erode the jet, forcing the electrons to flow faster and faster through a narrowing channel. “You’re basically choking it off,” Bellan explains. Soon, the jet breaks, causing a magnetic reconnection.

Magnetic reconnection on the sun often involves phenomena that span scales from a million meters to just a few meters. At the larger scales, the physics is relatively simple and straightforward. But at the smaller scales, the physics becomes more subtle and complex—and it is in this regime that magnetic reconnection takes place. Magnetic reconnection is also a key issue in developing thermonuclear fusion as a future energy source using plasmas in the laboratory. One of the key advances in this study, the researchers say, is being able to relate phenomena at large scales, such as the kink instability, to those at small scales, such as the Rayleigh-Taylor instability.

The researchers note that, although kink and Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities may not drive magnetic reconnection in all cases, this mechanism is a plausible explanation for at least some scenarios in nature and the lab.

The title of Moser and Bellan’s Nature paper is “Magnetic reconnection from a multiscale instability cascade.” This research was funded by the U.S. Department of Energy, the National Science Foundation, and the Air Force Office of Scientific Research.

Image: A. L. Moser and P. M. Bellan, Caltech

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New Method Uses Centri vending inventory management  fugal Force to Decelerate Particles, Creates New Research Opportunities

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Deceleration in the centrifuge: Molecules lose speed drastically when they are guided against the centrifugal force to the center of a rotating disk. Electrodes guide the particles to the center of the centrifuge. The rotating electrodes are likewise designed as disks to ensure mechanical stability. The edges of the disks act like electrostatic guiderails for the molecules. Seen here are the inwardly bent electrodes that are used to guide the particles to the rotation axis. The electrode disks aren’t symmetric with respect to the center of the disk, so the holes in them balance them out to prevent any imbalance during rotation. Credit: MPI of Quantum Optics

A new method of using centrifugal force to decelerate particles makes it possible to produce relatively large quantities of cold molecules in a continuous flow, which could create new opportunities for chemistry and quantum information processing.

Compared with our breath, passenger planes move at a pretty leisurely pace. On the average, nitrogen molecules, for example, travel at a speed of more than 1,700 kilometers per hour at room temperature, or almost one-and-a-half times the speed of sound. This means the particles are much too fast for many experiments, a Touchscreen & Vending PC  nd also some conceivable applications. However, physicists at the Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics in Garching have now found a rather simple way to slow down polar molecules to about 70 kilometers per hour. They let the molecules of various substances, such as fluoromethane, run up against the centrifugal force on a rotating disk, while being guided by electrodes. The speed of the decelerated molecules corresponds to a temperature of minus 272 degrees Celsius. The new method makes it possible to produce relatively large quantities of cold molecules  Overhead Line Monitoring  in a continuous flow, which could be useful, for instance, for targeted chemical reactions of individual particles, or the processing of quantum information.

Chemical reactions are pretty uncontrolled. The reaction partners encounter each other by chance and then collide quite violently, whereupon it is not certain they will do what chemists expect them to do. Bringing them close to each other systematically and at a leisurely pace could favor some transformations that otherwise rarely occur. For this to happen, chemists need slow, and therefore cold, molecules, and they need these in large quantities. Physicists as well rely on cold molecules for many experiments, as well as for new technological applications, such as quantum information processing. For many scientists, especially in low-temperature physics, it should thus be welcome news that researchers working with Sotir Chervenkov and Gerhard Rempe at the Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics have developed a versatile and efficient brake for polar molecules.

The Garching-based team’s decelerator slows down the particles – in their current experiments, molecules of fluoromethane, trifluoromethane and 3,3,3-trifluoropropine – from about 700 to 70 kilometers per hour. Since the speed of the particles can be expressed in temperature units, this corresponds to reducing the temperature from 100 K to 1 K, or from minus 173 to minus 272 degrees Celsius. “Nitrogen-cooled sources supply molecules at 100 Kelvin, and we also know some good methods for further cooling molecules at 1 Kelvin,” says Sotir Chervenkov. “But there are currently no efficient methods for the range in between, and particularly none that produce a continuous flow of cold molecules.”

The principle of the molecular brake: Four electrodes initially guide polar molecules from the entry of the centrifuge at the lower left along the edge of a rotating disk. They are then guided in a spiral to the center of the disk. Two static electrodes at the side of the disk are shown in yellow and green, and the electrodes mounted on the disk, i m2m connectivity  n violet and pink. Credit: Sotir Chervenkov/MPI of Quantum Optics

Four electrodes guide molecules to the center of the centrifuge

The Max Planck researchers rely here on an amply known force, but one that has never before been used to slow down molecules: centrifugal force. The molecular brake thus consists of a centrifuge that rotates at up to 43 revolutions per second: a 40-centimetre-in-diameter rotating disk on which the particles are guided from its periphery to its center. Four electrodes with alternating polarity spaced one millimeter apart and arranged at the apices of a square serve as guiderails imposing with their electric field a travel direction on the molecules.

Two static electrodes gird the disk brake. Through an opening in this double ring, the Max Planck physicists guide the particles into the decelerator. On the disk are likewise mounted, along almost the entire circumference, two electrodes, but not forming closed rings. Rather, the two electrodes bend in a spiral toward the center across about a quarter of the circular area.

To ensure that there are always four electrostatic guiderails keeping the molecules on track along their deceleration path, a further electrode pair accompanies the particles along the spiral coil. These electrodes are tapered and interface with the static electrode ring at a distance of just 0.2 millimeters, so that it looks as if they branched out of the ring. The molecules are thus moved smoothly onto the curved path, on which they fight against the centrifugal force and drastically lose speed until a further curve in the electrodes in the center of the disk guides them up and away from the decelerator.

Molecules would have to fly up 2,000 meters against the Earth’s gravitational field

“The deceleration is accomplished in two steps,” explains Martin Zeppenfeld, who originally devised the concept of the molecular brake. “Initially, the molecules slow down when they pass from the laboratory system to the rotating system.” This is comparable to a father running along next to his child on a rotating carousel. He moves with respect to the environment, but for the child, he’s not moving.

“Additionally, the molecules are exposed to the outwardly directed centrifugal force,” adds Martin Zeppenfeld. “On their way to the center, the particles must surmount a huge mountain, and are continuously decelerated while doing so, until they finally come almost to a standstill.” For comparison: for the particles to experience the same braking effect in the Earth’s gravitational field, they would have to fly 2,000 meters upward.

Some of the methods currently used to decelerate polar molecules use electrodes not only as guiderails, but also as the actual brake. However, with practicable field strengths, the braking effect remains low, requiring that the particles be sent repeatedly to this electrical potential mountain. This not only results in many particles being lost, but they also don’t leave the decelerator in a continuous flow, but rather in the form of particle pulses, or in other words, in batches.

Centrifuge deceleration is versatile and easy to use

“What is new about our centrifuge deceleration is its continuous operation, the large number of molecules in the resulting beams, its application versatility, and its relative ease of handling,” says Gerhard Rempe, Director at the Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics. In principle, atoms or neutrons can also be decelerated by a centrifugal force. However, these particles aren’t polar and therefore can’t be guided through the centrifuge using an electric field.

The researchers in Garching now want to further cool the centrifuge-decelerated molecules. They aim to do this using Sisyphus cooling, which they just recently developed, and which is suitable for molecules that are already very cold. Here, an electric field decelerates the optically excited molecules. Through a combination of both methods, the researchers obtain a sufficiently dense flow of extremely cold molecules, allowing them to steer them toward one another to create specific collisions and control their chemical reaction. But the extremely cold molecules could also be accumulated to form clouds that could serve as the register of a quantum computer that is particularly fast for certain arithmetic operations. Thus, the closed cold chain for particles opens up completely new perspectives for chemistry and physics.

Publication: S. Chervenkov, et al., “Continuous Centrifuge Decelerator for Polar Molecules,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 112, 013001 (2014); DOI:10.1103/PhysRevLett.112.013001

PDF Copy of the Study: Continuous Centrifuge Decelerator for Polar Molecules

Image: MPI of Quantum Optics; Sotir Chervenkov/MPI of Quantum Optics

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Ch remote communication  emical Traces From Intense Starbursts Shed Light on Cosmic History

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Fresh insight into intense star formation, or starburst, events such as the one shown in this artist’s impression are challenging scientists’ understanding of the Universe. ESO/M.Kornmesser

Fresh insight into how stars are formed is challenging scientists’ understanding of the Universe.

A study of intense starbursts – events in distant galaxies in which stars are generated hundreds or thousands of times faster than in our Milky Way – is changing researchers’ ideas Industrial IoT Solutions   about cosmic history. The findings will help scientists understand how galaxies in the early Universe evolve into those we see today.

Instead of observing the optical light from starbursts, which is obscured by enormous quantities of dust, scientists instead observed radio waves, measuring the relative abundances of different types of carbon monoxide gas.

They were able to differentiate between the gas expelled from massive stars, which shine very brilliantly for a short time, and that expelled from less massive stars, like o IoT Remote Monitoring  ur own Sun, which can shine steadily for billions of years.

Fresh insight into intense star formation events- – such as this gigantic star-forming region in the Large Magellanic Cloud galaxy — are challenging scientists’ understanding of the Universe. ESO

Applying this novel technique for the first time, astronomers found that stars born inside galaxies undergoing a powerful starburst tend to be massive. In this regard, these are very different from those born inside galaxies that build up their stars over billions of years.

Scientists verified their findings using powerful computer models based on the evolution of our Milky Way galaxy and by observing starburst galaxies in the early Universe, which formed within a few billion years of the Big Bang. Such young galaxies are unlikely to have undergone previous episodes of star formation, which might otherwise have confused the results.

Researchers collected their data using the powerful ALMA telescope in the high Atacama Desert in Chile.

The five-year study, published in Nature, was carried out by astronomers at the University of Edinburgh and the European Southern Observatory (ESO), working alongside experts in Italy and Greece. It was supported by the European Research Council.

The ALMA telescope is operated by a partnership of the ESO, the US National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Natural Sciences of Japan, in cooperation with the Republic of Chile.

Dr Zhi-Yu Zhang, of the University of Edinburgh’s School of Physics and Astronomy, who led the study, said: “Traditional telescopes are of limited use when studying dusty starburst galaxies. We reached our results using a powerful new radio telescope, hunting for traces of chemical elements from past events. For astronomers, these are like fossils. The results challenge classical ideas about the formation of stars in galaxies across cosmic time.”

Professor Rob Ivison, of the University of Edinburgh’s School of Physics and Astronomy Remote Maintenance   and ESO, said: “Our findings lead us to question our understanding of cosmic history. Astronomers building models of the Universe must now go back to the drawing board, with yet more sophistication required.”

Publication: Zhi-Yu Zhang, et al., “Stellar populations dominated by massive stars in dusty starburst galaxies across cosmic time,” Nature (2018)

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Pre-Reptile Bunostegos  secure web based scada   Akokanensisear – Earliest Known Creature to Walk Upright on All Fours

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Bunostegos akokaensis: About the same size as a cow, this pre-reptile also stood the same way — upright with its legs underneath. It may be the earliest known creature to do so, according to a new study. Drawings: Morgan Turner

According to a new study from Brown University, the pre-reptile Bunostegos akokanensis the oldest known creature to have walked upright on all fours, roaming the ancient supercontinent of Pangea about 260-million years ago.

A newly published analysis of the bones of Bunostegos akokanensis, a 260-million-year-old pre-reptile, finds that it likely stood upright on all fours like a cow or a hippo, making it the earliest known creature to do so.

To date all of the known pareiasaurs who roved the supercontinent of Pangea in the Permian era a quarter of a billion years ago were sprawlers whose limbs would jut out from the side of the body and then continue out or slant down from the elbow (like some modern lizards). Morgan Turner, lead author of the study in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontol Remote Diagnostics  ogy, expected Bunostegos would be a sprawler, too, but the bones of the animal’s forelimbs tell a different story.

“A lot of the animals that lived around the time had a similar upright or semi-upright hind limb posture, but what’s interesting and special about Bunostegos is the forelimb, in that its anatomy is sprawling — precluding and seemingly directed underneath its body — unlike anything else at the time,” said Turner who performed the analysis under the supervision of Christian Sidor while a student at the University of Washington. Now Turner is a graduate student at Brown University. “The elements and features within the forelimb bones won’t allow a sprawling posture. That is unique.”

The findings allowed Turner, Sidor, and her co-authors to characterize how Bunostegos might have looked, standing like a cow and about the same size.

“Imagine a cow-sized, plant-eating reptile with a knobby skull and bony armor down its back,” said co-author Linda Tsuji of the Royal Ontario Museum, who discovered the fossils in Niger with Sidor and a team of paleontologists in 2003 and 2006.

Four forelimb findings

Turner examined much of the skeletons of several individuals. The findings that matter most, however, are all in the forelimbs. In particular, four observations make the case, she said, that Bunostegos stood differently than all the rest, with the legs entirely beneath t reliable  he body.

The shoulder joint (1), humerus (2), knee-like elbow hinge (3), and a longer ulna (4) together make the case that Bunostegos stood with its legs under its body.

The shoulder joint — the glenoid fossa — is facing down such that the humerus (the bone running from shoulder to elbow) would be vertically oriented underneath. It would restrict the humerus from sticking out to the side.

Meanwhile Bunostegos’ humerus is not twisted like those of sprawlers. In a sprawler, the twist is what could allow the humerus to jut out to the side at the shoulder and then orient the forearm downward from the elbow. But the humerus of Bunostegos has no twist, suggesting that the foot could actually reach the ground only if the elbow and shoulders were aligned under the body, Turner said.

The elbow joint is also telling. Unlike in sprawling pareiasaurs, which had considerable mobility at the elbow, the movement of Bunostegos’s elbow is more limited. The way the radius and ulna (forearm bones) join with the humerus forms a hinge-like joint, and wouldn’t allow for the forearm to swing out to the sides. Instead, it would only swing in a back and forth direction like a human kverizon 4g LTE routernee.

Finally, the ulna is longer than the humerus in Bunostegos, which is a common trait among non-sprawlers. “Many other sprawling four-legged animals have the reverse ratio,” Turner said.

Going back 260 million years

The idea that Bunostegos would be an outlier in terms of its posture matches well with the idea that it was somewhat of an outlier in its choice of habitat.

“Bunostegos was an isolated pareiasaur,” Turner said.

Way back when, Niger was an arid place (like some of it is today) where plants and water sources might well have been few and far between. Scientists have associated walking upright on all fours with a more energy-efficient posture than sprawling. For the long journeys between meals, Turner said, the upright posture might have been necessary for survival.

The significance of such an early example of the upright posture is that Bunostegos dates very far back on the evolutionary tree, pushing back the clock on when this posture shows up in evolution.

But Turner said she wouldn’t be surprised if other animals of the time are eventually also found to have similarities to this posture, which evolved independently in reptiles and mammals several times over the eras.

“Posture, from sprawling to upright, is not black or white, but instead is a gradient of forms,” Turner said. “There are many complexities about the evolution of posture and locomotion we are working to better understand every day. The anatomy of Bunostegos is unexpected, illuminating, and tells us we still have much to learn.”

At Brown, Turner is working in the lab of Stephen Gatesy, where she is studying a continuum of postures and locomotion in ancient creatures. In addition to Turner, Tsuji and Sidor, Oumarou Ide of the University of Niamey in Niger is an author of the study.

The National Science Foundation supported the research.

Publication: Morgan L. Turner,et al., “The vertebrate fauna of the upper Permian of Niger—IX. The appendicular skeleton of Bunostegos akokanensis (Parareptilia: Pareiasauria),” Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 2015; DOI:10.1080/02724634.2014.994746

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New Calculations Challenge Assumptio Industrial 3G Router  ns about Rigid Lithosphere

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A map produced by scientists at the University of Nevada, Reno, and Rice University shows predicted velocities for sectors of the Pacific tectonic plate relative to points near the Pacific-Antarctic ridge, which lies in the South Pacific ocean. The researchers show the Pacific plate is contracting as younger sections of the lithosphere cool. Credit: Corné Kreemer and Richard Gordon

A newly published study from geophysicists Rice University and the University of Nevada challenge assumptions about a rigid lithosphere, revealing that the Pacific plate is shrinking as it cools.

Houston – The tectonic plate that dominates the Pacific “Ring of Fire” is not as rigid as many scientists assume, according to researchers at Rice University and the University of Nevada.

Rice geophysicist Richard Gordon and his colleague, Corné Kreemer, an associate professor at the University of Nevada, Reno, ha Industrial IoT Gateway  ve determined that cooling of the lithosphere — the outermost layer of Earth — makes some sections of the Pacific plate contract horizontally at faster rates than others and cause the plate to deform.

Gordon said the effect detailed this month in Geology is most pronounced in the youngest parts of the lithosphere — about 2 million years old or less — that make up some the Pacific Ocean’s floor. They predict the rate of contraction to be 10 times faster than older parts of the plate that were created about 20 million years ago and 80 times faster than very old parts of the plate that were created about 160 million years ago.

The tectonic plates that cover Earth’s surface, including both land and seafloor, are in constant motion; they imperceptibly surf the viscous mantle below. Over time, the plates scrape against and collide into each other, forming mountains, trenches and other geological features.

On the local scale, these movements cover only inches per year and are hard to see. The same goes for deformations of the type described in the new paper, but when summed over an area the size of the Pacific plate, they become statistically significant, Gordon said.

The new calculations showed the Pacific plate is pulling away from the North American plate a little more — approximately 2 millimeters a year — than the rigid-plate theory would account for, he said. Overall, the plate is moving northwest about 50 millimeters a year.

“The central assumption in plate tectonics is that the plates are rigid, but the studies that my colleagues and I have been doing for the past few decades show that this central assumption is merely an approximation — that is, the plates are not rigid,” Gordon said. “Our latest contribution is to specify or predict the nature and rate of deformation over the entire Pacific plate.”

The researchers already suspected cooling had a role from their observation that the 25 large and small plates that make up Earth’s shell do not fit together as well as the “rigid model” assumption would have it. They also knew that lithosphere as young as 2 million years was more malleable than hardened lithosphere as old as 170 million years.

“We first showed five years ago that the rate of horizontal contraction is inversely proportional to the age of the seafloor,” he said. “So it’s in the youngest lithosphere (toward the east side of the Pacific plate) where you get the biggest effects.”

The researchers saw hints of deformation in a metric called plate circuit closure, which describes the relative motions where at least three plates meet. If the plates were rigid, their angular velocities at the triple junction would have a sum of zero. But where the Pacific, Nazca and Cocos plates meet west of the Galápagos Islands, the nonclosure velocity is 14 millimeters a year, enough to suggest that all three plates are deforming.

“When we did our first global model in 1990, we said to ourselves that maybe when we get new data, this issue will go away,Power Fault Detection” Gordon said. “But when we updated our model a few years ago, all the places that didn’t have plate circuit closure 20 years ago still didn’t have it.”

There had to be a reason, and it began to become clear when Gordon and his colleagues looked beneath the seafloor. “It’s long been understood that the ocean floor increases in depth with age due to cooling and thermal contraction. But if something cools, it doesn’t just cool in one direction. It’s going to be at least approximately isotropic. It should shrink the same in all directions, not just vertically,” he said.

A previous study by Gordon and former Rice graduate student Ravi Kumar calculated the effect of thermal contraction on vertical columns of oceanic lithosphere and determined its impact on the horizontal plane, but viewing the plate as a whole demanded a different approach. “We thought about the vertically integrated properties of the lithosphere, but once we did that, we realized Earth’s surface is still a two-dimensional problem,” he said.

For the new study, Gordon and Kreemer started by determining how much the contractions would, on average, strain the horizontal surface. They divided the Pacific plate into a grid and calculated the strain on each of the nearly 198,000 squares based on their age, as determined by the seafloor age model published by the National Geophysical Data Center.

“That we could calculate on a laptop,” Gordon said. &ldquo goose-messaging-  ;If we tried to do it in three dimensions, it would take a high-powered computer cluster.”

The surface calculations were enough to show likely strain fields across the Pacific plate that, when summed, accounted for the deformation. As further proof, the distribution of recent earthquakes in the Pacific plate, which also relieve the strain, showed a greater number occurring in the plate’s younger lithosphere. “In the Earth, those strains are either accommodated by elastic deformation or by little earthquakes that adjust it,” he said.

“The central assumption of plate tectonics assumes the plates are rigid, and this is what we make predictions from,” said Gordon, who was recently honored by the American Geophysical Union for writing two papers about plate movements that are among the top 40 papers ever to appear in one of the organization’s top journals. “Up until now, it’s worked really well.”

“The big picture is that we now have, subject to experimental and observational tests, the first realistic, quantitative estimate of how the biggest oceanic plate departs from that rigid-plate assumption.”

The National Science Foundation supported the research. Gordon is the Keck Professor of Geophysics and chairman of the Earth Science Department at Rice.

Publication: Corné Kreemer and Richard G. Gordon, “Pacific plate deformation from horizontal thermal contraction,” Geology, 2014; doi: 10.1130/G35874.1

Image: Corné Kreemer and Richard Gordon

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Indoor vending inventory management   Concentrations of CO2 Can Impair Decision-Making Performance

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Berkeley Lab researchers found that even moderately elevated levels of indoor carbon dioxide resulted in lower scores on six of nine scales of human decision-making performance.

A recently published study from scientists at the Berkeley Lab, in collaboration with researchers at SUNY Upstate Medical  industrial IoT router  University, found that moderately high indoor concentrations of CO2 can significantly impair people’s decision-making performance.

Overturning decades of conventional wisdom, researchers at the Department of Energy’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) have found that moderately high indoor concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) can significantly impair people’s decision-making performance. The results were unexpected and may have particular implications for schools and other spaces with high occupant density.

“In our field we have always had a dogma that CO2 itself, at the levels we find in buildings, is just not important and doesn’t have any direct impacts on people,” said Berkeley Lab scientist William Fisk, a co-author of the study, which was published in Environmental Health Perspectives online last month. “So these results, which were quite unambiguous, were surprising.” The study was conducted with researchers from State University of New York (SUNY) Upstate Medical University.

On nine scales of decision-making performance, test subjects showed significant reductions on six of the scales at CO2 levels of 1,000 parts per million (ppm) and large reductions on seven of the scales at 2,500 ppm. The most dramatic declines in performance, in which subjects were rated as “dysfunctional,” were for taking initiative and thinking strategically. “Previous studies have looked at 10,000 ppm, 20,000 ppm; that’s the level at which scientists thought effects started,” said Berkeley Lab scientist Mark Mendell, also a co-author of the study. “That’s why these findings are so startling.”

While the results need to be replicated in a larger study, they point to possible economic consequences of pursuing energy efficient buildings without regard to occupants. “As there’s a drive for increasing energy efficiency, there’s a push for making buildings tighter and less expensive to run,” said Mendell. “There’s some risk that, in that process, adverse effects on occupants will be ignored. One way to make sure occupants get the attention they deserve is to point out adverse economic impacts of poor indoor air quality. If people can’t think or perform as well, that could obviously have adverse economic impacts.”

The primary source of indoor CO2 is humans. While typical outdoor concentrations are around 380 ppm, indoor concentrations can go up to several thousand ppm. Higher indoor CO2 concentrations relative to outdoors are due to low rates of ventilation, which are often driven by the need to reduce energy consumption. In the real world, CO2 concentrations in office buildings normally don’t exceed 1,000 ppm, except in meeting rooms, when groups of people gather for extended periods of time.

In classrooms, concentrations frequently exceed 1,000 ppm and occasionally exceed 3,000 ppm. CO2 at these levels has been assumed to indicate poor ventilation, with increased exposure to other indoor pollutants of potential concern, but the CO2 itself at these levels has not been a source of concern. Federal guidelines set a maximum occupational exposure limit at 5,000 ppm as a time-weighted average for an eight-hour workday.

Fisk decided to test the conventional wisdom on indoor CO2 after coming across two small Hungarian studies reporting that exposures between 2,000 and 5,000 ppm may have adverse impacts on some human activities.

Strategic thinking and taking initiative showed the most dramatic declines in performance at 2,500 ppm carbon dioxide concentrations.

Fisk, Mendell, and their colleagues, including Usha Satish at SUNY Upstate Medical University, assessed CO2 exposure at three concentrations: 600, 1,000 and 2,500 ppm. They recruited 24 participants, mostly college students, who were studied in groups of four in a small office-like chamber for 2.5 hours for each of the three conditions. Ultrapure CO2 was injected into the air supply and mixing was ensured, while all other factors, such as temperatu IIoT  re, humidity, and ventilation rate, were kept constant. The sessions for each person took place on a single day, with one-hour breaks between sessions.

Although the sample size was small, the results were unmistakable. “The stronger the effect you have, the fewer subjects you need to see it,” Fisk said. “Our effect was so big, even with a small number of people, it was a very clear effect.”

Another novel aspect of this study was the test used to assess decision-making performance, the Strategic Management Simulation (SMS) test, developed by SUNY. In most studies of how indoor air quality affects people, test subjects are given simple tasks to perform, such as adding a column of numbers or proofreading text. “It’s hard to know how those indicators translate in the real world,” said Fisk. “The SMS measures a higher level of cognitive performance, so I wanted to get that into our field of research.”

The SMS has been used most commonly to assess effects on cognitive function, such as by drugs, pharmaceuticals or brain injury, and as a training tool for executives. The test gives scenarios—for example, you’re the manager of an organization when a crisis hits, what do you do?—and scores participants in nine areas. “It looks at a number of dimensions, such as how proactive you are, how focused you are, or how you search for and use information,” said Fisk. “The test has been validated through other means, and they’ve shown that for executives it is predi LTE router ctive of future income and job level.”

Data from elementary school classrooms has found CO2 concentrations frequently near or above the levels in the Berkeley Lab study. Although their study tested only decision making and not learning, Fisk and Mendell say it is possible that students could be disadvantaged in poorly ventilated classrooms, or in rooms in which a large number of people are gathered to take a test. “We cannot rule out impacts on learning,” their report says.

The next step for the Berkeley Lab researchers is to reproduce and expand upon their findings. “Our first goal is to replicate this study because it’s so important and would have such large implications,” said Fisk. “We need a larger sample and additional tests of human work performance. We also want to include an expert who can assess what’s going on physiologically.”

Until then, they say it’s too early to make any recommendations for office workers or building managers. “Assuming it’s replicated, it has implications for the standards we set for minimum ventilation rates for buildings,” Fisk said. “People who are employers who want to get the most of their workforce would want to pay attention to this.”

Funding for this study was provided by SUNY and the state of New York.

Images: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

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