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oprerroma · 4 years

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from @terms_of_engagement on Instagram

Transcribed Image Descriptions below the cut

[Image ID: The first panel shows a round icon of the Romani flag which has a red wagon type wheel in the centre, blue in the top half to represent sky and green on the bottom for the land. This icon is on a black banner with the words 'terms of engagement' in white and three little dots beside it for the menu button. 'Terms of engagement' is written as terms (underscore) of (underscore) engagement. The main panel is a cream background with dark blue writing. The title is in a circle and this is surrounded by sketches of sunflowers as well as various wildflowers, some in bloom and some in bud. The name of the blog 'Terms of Engagement' is repeated again as regular text. The title of the panel reads 'Correlations between Witchcraft and Romani Traditions', then in smaller text 'How the spiritual practices of Romani peoples are intertwined with shamanism, stereotypes, mysticism and magic.' End ID]

[Image ID: The second panel is more so in colour. It has a dark blue background and is square. The part with wrting on is styled to look like square graph paper with lots of tiny boxes in blue and made to look as though it were torn out of a notebook with a piece of tape attaching it to the blue backing. Underneath, so to speak, the tape, is a cutting of a wildflower with a green stem and buds and lilac petals. The text, again in dark blue black, reads 'Disclaimer (this is in capitals to emphasis it is a title and important). The following is a brief overview of what is a very long history of not only shamanism and witchcraft but also of the influences it has had on Romani peoples and vice versa. We would like to emphasize that witchcraft and the beliefs of the Romani peoples are not mutually exclusive. Romani communities are diverse in their spiritual beliefs and traditional practices. Historically and today, organized religion exists alongside and in cooperation with the shamanistic spiritual and healing practices of Romani communities. This is neither a commentary on any religion or spirituality, nor is it an expose on what have been and should remain closed practices within the Romani community. This is intended to breakdown the misconceptions that have led to the persecution of Romani peoples for their spiritual beliefs and to encourage those non-Romani who are interested in learning more, how to proceed with caution and respect. The information from this piece has been compiled from both non-Romani and Romani resources, with the emphasis on the insights of practitioners in the Romani community. End ID]

[Image ID: All the following panels are cream with blue black writing and illustration. The third panel is titled 'Historical foundations of witchcraft in Europe'. The illustration is an image of the High Priestess card from the Rider Waite tarot deck. The text reads 'Folk magic has been practiced around the world by many different groups for the majority of human history. From continent to continent, ancient civilizations have employed herbal remedies, divination, cartomancy, astrology and other spiritualistic services as paths to healing. The conquering and expansion of territories and trade routes, triggered a migration of healing peoples from Asia into Europe. Among them were the Romani drabarni/chov'hani. Healers were revered within communities as those who practiced "the people's religion ", providing townsfolk with crucial services to meet their physical, mental and spiritual needs. It wasn't until the 15th Century when the concept of "witchcraft" emerged and transformed the very fabric of society. During this period, there was a socio-political shift from the Christian state viewing folk magic as mere superstition to redefining it as witchcraft. At this time, witchcraft was seen as a "mode" of religion rather than a worldview, placing it in direct opposition to the Christian Reformation and Counter-Reformation. The movement sought to suppress spiritualities and folk magic which threatened power of the state who sought to weaponize spirituality as a means to control, exploit and supervise citizens. The state indoctrinated manifestos like the Malleus Maleficarum, which specifically identified women as "witches" and practitioners of devil worshipping, causing the inquisitions to commence. Efforts to suppress folk magic grew violently quick and quickly violent.' End ID]

[Image ID: The fourth panel shows an image of a Romani woman with dark hair. She is cradling a crystal ball, has bangles on each wrist and is wearing hoop earrings and a headscarf tied in the stereotyped way of a fortune teller, but from its pattern it appears to be a traditional Romani headscarf. Her eyes are closed and she shows an expression of calm focus. Her nails are long and well manicured and her fingers appear to be adorned with many rings. The title reads 'Modern implications of myths and stereotypes'. The text reads, 'The history, practices and influence of Romani healers on European society have long been neglected within the historiography of witchcraft. This has allowed mysticism to guide the public's harmful perception of Romani peoples and their beliefs, placing them in the same category of mythical creatures as fairies, unicorns and mermaids. Those accounts that do exist have been made by outsiders like Charles Godfrey Leland who, like many others in the 19th Century, created a disparaging depiction of the once celebrated Romani healer as synonymous with the archetypal g slur witch. As was done in the past, Romani women were specifically targeted by these efforts, cast as either the poor, haggard and disgruntled witch who curses innocent bystanders or the mysteriously exotic and promiscuous fortune-teller who swindles innocent patrons. Each of these depictions of Romani witches draw on centuries-old stereotypes of criminality, dishonesty, hyper-sexuality and mysticism. In truth, many Romani either assimilated to or adopted the beliefs and practices of dominant religions to avoid persecution. Today, the physical and cultural violation of Romani peoples continues by both the state and its citizens as a result of the perceived and real practices of Romani peoples. Many healers and their communities remain ostracized, struggling to teach the next generation a millenia's worth of traditional practices that are quickly being forgotten to an unwritten history.' End ID]

[Image ID: The fifth panel shows an illustration of flowers on the left hand side, seemingly poppies. The title reads 'Traditional beliefs in the Romani community.' The main text reads 'While biological and linguistic evidence places the Romani people in India near the 11th Century, traditional Romani beliefs mirror ancient Hindu and Buddhist shamanism. At the center of these beliefs is dualism, two opposite and complementary forces that-through ceremony, offerings, practice and prayer, must be maintained. This is reflected in Romani values of purity and impurity (marime), the presence of good and evil spirits, as well as the separation of the inner and outer worlds. Romani traditions emphasize keeping a close connection with creation and paying tribute to the Earth and all its creatures. Other traditions which mirror shamanistic practices in India include the belief in reincarnation and most importantly, the worshipping of a female deity, Sara-la-Kali. In opposition to hierarchy, misogyny, environmental derogation and the centralization of power, Romani beliefs were viewed as an obstruction to the Western colonial project. As there was no one book, place, ceremony, prayer or ritual that is commonly used by Romani peoples to article these traditional beliefs, it was easier for the Christian state to systemically fracture and then violate Romani traditions by correlating it to witchcraft.' End ID]

[Image ID: The sixth panel shows an illustration of a cup and saucer of seemingly porcelain, containing tea or coffee steaming genty. Beside it is a bottle with a vintage illustration of a beehive with the label 'honey'. The title reads 'Modern practices in the Romani community'. The main text reads 'For centuries, Romani matriarchs had passed down traditional practices such as tasseograpy (reading tea leaves), cartomancy (tarot), and chiromancy (palm reading) whose origins are in Asian shamanist traditions. With their migration to Europe in the 14th Century, these practices followed and were shared with royalty and townsfolk alike. Romani peoples began employing these practices as their occupations. Travelling from one countryside to the next, Romani healers not only financially prospered but also were able to build trust and influence local views. Not only did this threaten the Christian state's attempts to financially exploit and impose on community politics but it also allocated too much power to women who were viewed as intellectually and spiritually inferior.To regain power, the state targetted female practitioners, discrediting them by claiming that their witchcraft conjured evil spirits to make townsfolk depedent on hiring them. Since, the practices of Romani peoples have been steeped in wide-spread suspicion, invalidating its practitioners, and undermining women's rights to practice and be paid for their traditional occupations. To this day, tarot, palm reading and other forms of divination are used to both inform personal and community decision-making as well as a form of employment. The state continues to highly regulate witchcraft and the practicing of Romani traditions by forcing healers to register with the government as a business, which many Romani are unable to do and by heavily taxing them on their income.' End ID]

[Image ID: The seventh panel shows illustrations of bunches of herbs in the top section of the frame, tied with string as though hanging from a wooden roof beam to dry. The main title reads 'Healing in the past and present'. The main text reads 'Practitioners used their natural and learned talents for healing to cure sicknesses, assist in births, and promote wellness. Using locally grown plants and animal by-products, healers were able to help prolong the lives of primarily poor townsfolk and other travellers who otherwise did not have the time or resources to see a medical practitioner. The onset of the Great Plague or Black Death was used as an opportunity for the Christian state to further justify the persecution of Romani healers. Having been accused of using spirits to both cure and cause illness, they were gradually ostracized from the communities they once lived and held influence in. What were once considered spells, incantations and elixirs used by Romani healers are now regarded as ointments, herbal teas and medicinal recipes, grounded in a basic understanding of herbology. Through close observation of and respect for the human body, plants and animals, the Romani healers were able to create powerful medicines that are still used to this day, curing everything from a sore throat, to energy imbalances, menstrual cramps and the presence of evil spirits.' End ID]

[Image ID: The eighth panel shows a bunch of thin stemmed wild flowers on the right hand side. The main title reads 'Spiritual appropriation outside of the Romani community'. The main text reads 'Though various shamanistic practices have been intertwined for centuries, there has been an ever increasing rise in the adoption of neo-shamanistic beliefs and practices. While practicing a spirituality that resonates with you is not in itself oppressive, the ways in which they are adopted can be. As seen within other communities that have been exotified for their spiritual beliefs, the Romani peoples have also experienced the harmful appropriation of their tradtional practices. As previously mentioned, Tasseography (reading tea leaves), cartomancy (tarot), and chiromancy (palm reading) are intrinsically linked to the Romani culture and yet, they have been haphazardly adopted without recognition of their importance to the community. Most often, those who have appropriated the practice employ the same deprecating imagery and derogatory narratives that were used and continue to be used to persecute Romani peoples. Perpetuating these false perceptions of what it means to be a practitioner delegitimizes those within the community who have deep spiritual connections and divine gifts. What is most harmful however, is the commodification of these practices. The commodification of these practices by those outside the community not only draws economic opportunity away from a community which disproportionately experiences intergenerational poverty, but it also leads to the exploitation of resources and the unethical acquisition of traditional tools used by Romani communities to practice.' End ID]

[Image ID: The ninth panel shows an illustrated palmistry hand with all the lines and divisions marked. There are also astrological symbols and writing appears to be in Latin, while the wrist of the hand bears a frilly cuff. The main title reads 'Things to consider when practicing'. The main text reads 'Questions to self reflect on: How has your faith contributed to the persecution of Romani peoples? How are you perpetuating stereotypes of Romani peoples through your practice? How do your spiritual practices promote the liberation of Romani peoples? Ethical practice includes: 1. Learn more about Romani history, culture and tradtions. 2. Not seeking out practitioners to educate you on closed practices. 3. Not entering into Romani communities with the intention of learning without their permission. 4. Asking when and where it is appropriate to practice these traditions with Romani people. 5. Not commodifying these practices for your own financial gain. 6. Redistributing the wealth if you have profited off these practices. 7. Standing in solidarity with Romani women who are fighting to practice their traditional occupations. 8. Paying for their labour if you request the services of Romani healers. 9. Using ethically sourced materials from Romani owned businesses. 10. Not exacerbating or endangering natural resources for your personal or commercial practice. 11. Taking caution when using traditional medicines and seeking medical attention when necessary. End ID]

[Image ID: The tenth and final panel shows a sketchy illustration of a table. On it is an open book with its pages fanned out in a semicircle. Beside that is a candle, in an old fashioned holder, dripping wax from the top and casting a circle of light onto the wall. Behind that is a stack of closed books. The main title reads 'Further exploration'. The main text reads 'Romani Practitioners Offering Services and Goods.' This is followed by a number of handles for Instagram. These are as follows: @mihaelamincaoffical @jezmina.vonthiele @schooloftraditionalmagic @thelivingaltar @opulentwitch @shuvanicandleco @snakeandwildroots @primordialsoups (underscore) @baby (underscore) reckless @katelanfoisy @fairybogma @spell aroma. The next piece of text reads 'Media resources' Followed by a list of books, as follows: A Practical Guide for Witches by Ylua Mara Radziszewski, Sara Kali: The Dark Madonna by Mihaela Dragan and Mihai Lukacs, The Appartition of Choxani by Luminita Mihai Cioaba's (this surname uses punctuation to express sounds not found in English I believe. The word with an x is pronounced 'Cho ha nee'). The Romani Goddess Sara Kali by Ronald Lee, Infoxicated Corner: Essay on Romani Poetics, History and Culture by Jessica Suzanne Reidy, We Borrow The Earth by Patrick Jasper Lee, Romani Remedies and Recipes by Gypsy Petulengro, Gypsy Folk Medicine by Wanja von Hausen. The final text reads 'If you are or know of other Romani practitioners or resources that can assist others in learning, please link them in the comment section below.' End ID]

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thenewsroom8 · 3 years

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India Women vs England Women: Will India make changes for the second ODI to stay alive in the series? | Cricket News

Having been completely outplayed by England in the opening ODI, India will look to bounce back with a far better performance in the second game at Taunton on Wednesday. Both batting and the bowling department will need to step up considerably in the day-night game. In the first game on Sunday, the batters literally crawled their way to 201-8 in 50 overs, consuming as many as 181 dot balls in the…

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harpianews · 2 years

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1st Women's ODI: Sundar Smriti clinches victory for India as Jhulan is behind schedule

1st Women’s ODI: Sundar Smriti clinches victory for India as Jhulan is behind schedule

Sundar Smriti Mandhana once again extended her reputation as one of India’s biggest match winners with a lucrative 91 as they thrashed England by seven wickets in the opening women’s ODI here on Sunday. Harmanpreet Kaur won a fine toss and veteran India pacer Jhulan Goswami identified accuracy with 42 dot balls in one of her last international games as England posted 227 for seven thanks to…

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abhay121996-blog · 3 years

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India Need To Groom Fast Bowlers, Says Mithali Raj Divya Sandesh

#Divyasandesh

India Need To Groom Fast Bowlers, Says Mithali Raj

Sent in to bat in the first ODI, India Women played 181 dot balls to post a modest 201 for eight, which England Women chased down with 91 balls to spare

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hummingzone · 3 years

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England Women vs India Women: Mithali Raj After Losing 1st ODI Says, Need To Work On Rotating Strike More Often | Cricket News

After suffering a defeat in the first ODI of the three-match series against England, India women skipper Mithali Raj said that her side needs to look into rotating the strike more often so that lesser dot balls are played. Half-centuries from Tammy Beaumont and Natalie Sciver helped England women’s team register an easy win over India in the first ODI on Sunday. England defeated India by eight…

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#cricket ndtv sports #england women #india women #mithali raj

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thenewsroom8 · 3 years

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Under pressure India Women aim to level series with fresh approach against England Women | Cricket News

TAUNTON: India will have to shed their outdated batting approach and play more freely to bounce back against formidable hosts England in the second women’s ODI on Wednesday. India consumed as many as 181 dot balls on way to posting a below par 201 which England chased down rather comfortably to take a 1-0 lead in the three-match series on Sunday. Ahead of the World Cup in New Zealand early next…

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harpianews · 2 years

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1054 dot balls in 7 games: How women cricketers need to change and hit the ground running

The BCCI might have been blamed in the past for the lack of focus on women’s cricket and they certainly need to walk the talk but the problem goes beyond them. India can blame the misfortune of a no-ball against South Africa for their ouster, but they also contributed to their own downfall. Archaic batting templates, worrying number of dot balls, frequent changes in the playing XI, lack of…

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#cricket #cricket news #Cricket world cup #current #harpianews #India cricket #India women&039;s cricket #latest #news #sports #sports news #world cup cricket

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autodidact-adventures · 7 years

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History of Tea (Part 6): Replacing China

Britain's population was growing very quickly, and their colonies in the Americas & Asia were as well. They needed more tea, and they didn't want China to be growing it.

Until the late 1700's, they were fine with buying tea from China. The East India Company had a monopoly on this trade, and they didn't really want to look at alternative sources. From 1711 – 1801, they'd collected £77 million in taxes.

But more and more, European traders & entrepreneurs were wanting to control the tea trade themselves, and the trade of other commodities such as coffee, cocoa, sugar, rubber and opium. Kew Gardens was established in Britain, and other lesser versions in other places. “Collectors” could send specimens to these gardens, “to which the British could lay claim as soon as they were in possession of the place where they grew.” [?] Sir Joseph Banks (1743-1820) was a naturalist and president of the Royal Society from 1778; he sent out plant hunters around the world to find such specimens. Many “explorers” were doing the same thing.

In 1778, the East India Company asked Banks' advice on tea. He replied that it grew best from 26-30° latitude, and that it might grow in Bihar, Rungpor and Coochbihar (all in India). Green tea was believed to be a different species, and he said that it would thrive in the mountains; and that “proper inducements” would make sure that the people of Bhutan would grow it. (Bhutan is another country in SE-Asia, north-east of India.)

He pointed out that Chinese people often came as sailors, and that “their neighbours at Honan [Chinese province of Henan] may be induced by the offer of liberal terns to follow their example” in bringing tea shrubs and tools to the Botanic Gardens in Calcutta (India); and they would teach the natives how to process them. He insisted that tea “was of the greatest national importance” to Britain.

Banks stated that China was more difficult to deal with than other eastern countries – it was powerful and self-confident, and small armies couldn't overpower it. It was “vain” and dared to think it could manage its own affairs! They had to pull down the “haughty pride of the Chinese”, although this would be difficult. And the only way that tea could be grown elsewhere was to take plants and put them in similar environments in the European colonies, or in climates in other places that were suitable, such as Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) and St. Helena.

The Netherlands was the first country to take Chinese tea bushes to other parts of the world – in 1728, they were taking them to the Cape of Good Hope (the tip of South Africa) and Ceylon (in Sri Lanka). However, they wouldn't seriously establish tea estates until 1828, and these would be in Java (Indonesia), much closer to China. These plantations thrived, as they had cheap labour. But tea-growing in Java wouldn't take off properly until Indian tea plants were introduced in 1878.

Taking plants & seeds from Canton was a dangerous thing to do – the Chinese government put a price on the head of any merchant they suspected was doing this, and tried to capture their ships.

Two British embassies were sent to China, and both were encouraged to see if it was possible to bring out tea plants. The first embassy was Lord Macartney in 1792 (with Banks accompanying him), and they brought back seeds & plants for the Calcutta botanical gardens. The second embassy was Lord Amherst in 1816, but the plants sent from that were lost during the voyage.

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution took place from about 1760 to 1820-40. Human labour was replaced with machines, which were faster, cheaper and more dependable.

At the same time, an agricultural revolution was going on, in much the same way. It began as a method that was focused on improved rotation, use of crops, and artificial fertilizers. Everything was designed to maximize efficiency. Jobs were carefully divided up into part. The maximum amount of machinery & non-human power was used to reduce costs.

This made British agriculture far more productive, in terms of crops per acre and crops produced per person. Britain was using large coal reserves to supplement animal, wind and water power. Many entrepreneurs began to think of how they could use all these new things in the production of tea. The way the Chinese did it was not nearly as efficient.

Tea Production in China

Tea bushes were planted in a rather haphazard way, and the implements used were simple, barely changing from the 800's to the 1800's. Family groups would often go out to pick the tea together. Constance Gordon Cumming wrote about it in the 1870's:

I am greatly struck by the number of girls whom we meet working as tea-coolies, and by the enormous burdens which they carry slung from a bamboo which rests on their shoulder. Each girl carries two bags thus slung, the weight of a bag being half a picul, which is upwards of 60 lb. Thus heavily burdened, a party of these bright, pleasant-looking young women march a dozen miles or more, chatting and singing as they go...The tea-plantations are scattered over the hills, forming little dotted patches of regularly planted bushes. Here the girls and women are busy selecting the young green leaves, which they pick and collect in large basket-work trays of split bamboo.

The naturalist Ernest Henry Wilson wrote about higher-altitude tea growing in the early 1900's: “The culture extends up to [1220m] altitude, the bushes being planted round the sides of the terraced fields on the mountain-sides. Very little attention is given them and they are usually allowed to grow smothered in coarse weeds to a height of from 3 to 6 feet.”

Processing the tea was a very long & arduous task. An early manuscript gives the method for commercial tea manufacture:

Spread the leaves about 12.5 – 15 cm thick on bamboo trays, in a place where the air can blow on them. Hire a ching fu (workman) to watch them. Leave them there from noon until 6pm, when they begin to give off a fragment smell.

Pour them into large bamboo trays. Toss the leaves with your hands about 300-400 times, in a process called to ching. This gives the leaves their red spots & edges.

Carry the leaves to the kuo and roast them.

Pour them onto flat trays. Roll them by hand in a circular direction about 300-400 times. The leaves should end up close and well-twisted. Poor rolling will leave them loose, open, straight and “ill-looking”.

Roast the leaves again & roll them; and then repeat those steps once more.

Take the leaves to the poey long (the fierce fire) and turn them without stopping until they are nearly 8/10 dried.

Spread the leaves on flat trays to dry until 5am, and then pick out the old yellow leaves and the stalks.

At 8am they are “poeyed” again over a slow fire. Turn them once at noon. Leave them to dry until 3pm, and then pack them into chests.

Near the end of the 1800's, Constance Gordon Cumming described the process, showing that it had changed little. It had probably been used for a thousand years.

The leaves are then spread on mats, and are left in the sun till they are partially dried. After this, they are placed in very large flat circular trays, and barefooted coolies proceed to use their feet as rollers, and twirl the leaves round and round, till each has acquired an individual curl...Then the whole process is repeated a second time. The leaves have another turn in the sun, another foot-curling, and a more elaborate hand-rubbing. Then once more they are exposed to the sun, till they are so dried that no trace of green remains. They are then packed in bags, and are sent off to the tea merchants to be fired under their own supervision in the great tea hongs, where the hitherto unadulterated tea leaf receives that coating of indigo and gypsum...Some of the tea farmers have charcoal stoves in their own houses, where firing is done on a small scale – but this is exceptional.

In the late 1800's, pressure from the Assamese industry's mechanization of this process led to attempts in some part of China to use machines instead of humans, but these attempts all failed, for various reasons.

The British agricultural revolution was a product of the application of capitalist methods, and the condensing of small farms into larger ones. The methods the Chinese used were deemed to be incredibly unproductive. The British wanted large-scale tea estates (or plantations) where things could be more productive, and this wasn't possible in China.

Transporting Tea in China

Britain used water and wheeled carts to save on transport costs. In China, getting the tea to the coast greatly raised the cost of tea. Samuel Ball wrote about this in the late 1840's:

The usual route by which the black teas are sent to Canton, is through the province of Kiang-sy. They are first transported down the river Min in Fokien to the small town of Tsong-gan-hien, whence they are carried, by porters, an eight days' journey, over mountain passes to Ho-keu, and the rivers of Kiang-sy, which conduct to Nan-chang-foo and Kan-chew-foo; and then, suffering many transhipments on their way, to the pass of Ta-moey-ling, in that part of the same chain of mountains which divides Kiang-sy from Quon-tong. At this pass the teas are again carried by porters – the journey occupies one day – when they are re-shipped in large vessels which convey them to Canton. The time occupied in the entire transport from the Bohea [tea] country to Canton is about six weeks or two months.

In some places the tea was poled down the river – but bringing the boats back up again required immense human labour. Isabella Bird wrote about it in the late 1800's:

...these men do the hardest and riskiest work I have seen done in any country...week after week, from early dawn to sunset...

Away they go, climbing over the huge angular boulders of the riverbanks, sliding on their backs down spurs of smooth rock, climbing cliff walls on each other's shoulders, or holding on with fingers and toes, sometimes on hands and knees, sometimes on shelving precipices where only their grass sandals save them from slipping into the foaming race below...these poor fellows who drag our commerce up the Yangtze amidst all these difficulties and perils, and many more, are attached to a heavy junk by a long and heavy rope, and are dragging her up against the force of a tremendous current, raging in billows, edies, and whirlpools; that they are subject to frequent jerks; that occasionally their burden comes to a dead stop and hangs in the torrent for several minutes; that the tow-rope often snaps, throwing them on their faces and bare bodies on jagged and rough rocks; that they are continually in and out of the water; that they are running many chances daily of having their lives violently ended; and that they are doing all this mainly on rice!

The terrain was too difficult for animals to be used. Over much of the route (when the tea wasn't being transported by boat), the porters carried huge loads on their backs. Ernest Henry Wilson (1867-1930) wrote about them, stating that they carried an average load of over 150kg each. On a section of the route that was under 225km, it took them 20 days.

With their huge loads they are forced to rest every hundred yards or so, and as it would be impossible for the carrier to raise his burden if it were once deposited on the ground he carries a short crutch, with which he supports it when resting, without releasing himself from the slings.

The porters were paid about one English shilling for these 20 days of work, and “out of this he has to keep himself and pay for his lodgings.” The porters were often emaciated from the gruelling work. They carried tea to and from the ports, and also up into Tibet, which was just as difficult.

There were many middlemen who organized the porters and allowed the transportation of tea through their areas, taking money for tolls, taxes and protection money. This also added to the overall cost of the tea.

Overall, though, tea was still relatively cheap to produce, in terms of labour and land. Peasant households and the middlemen needed the money from it as a supplementary source of income. But the British still weren't happy, as there was no centralized control over production; no way of improving or monitoring quality; and now way of applying science & knowledge to the production of tea, and the protection from various pests.

And the merchants at the ports made a great profit, which the British were not happy about. IN the mid-1800's, Samuel Ball wrote, “Thus one considerable item which entered into the cost of tea to the foreigner, was the Hong merchant's profit.”

Ball also gave the average costs of each stage of production in Chinese currency:

The British hoped to undercut these costs. And as other problems cropped up, it became more necessary to do this.

Opium

The British used several commodities to pay the Chinese for tea in the beginning, when only small amounts of tea were being imported. From 1750 to the start of the 1800's, they could use their hold over India to export cotton from Bengal to China, to pay for tea. But the Chinese improved their own cotton manufacturing, and eventually could produce it cheaper themselves, so this was no use anymore.

The main commodity was silver, which had always been commonly traded from the West to China. For the first 50yrs of the direct clipper trade (about 1720-70) it worked fine. But in 1776, the American Revolution cut off the major Mexican source of silver; and the cost of silver also rose through inflation. Britain was importing more & more tea, and they just didn't have enough silver to pay for it.

In 1758, Parliament gave the monopoly on opium production in India to the East India Company. China had banned opium imports, but Portugal was still illegally importing it. In 1773, Britain took control of this trade from Portugal. By 1776, they were exporting 60 tonnes, and double that by 1790.

Opium was mainly grown in Bengal, where nearly 500,000 people were employed in the huge industry. In 1830, Britain exported nearly 1,500 tonnes of opium to China, which was worth several billion dollars in today's money. In 1833, opium exports ot China were worth $11.5 million dollars (in the currency of the time), and imports of tea cost just over $9 million. Britain was making a profit overall.

The East India Company sold the opium to British merchants in India. These merchants exported it to China, and received silver coin as payment. The silver went back to London, and was then taken back to China to pay for tea.

The Company wasn't officially involved, but of course they knew what was going on. Chinese protests were ignored, or brushed aside with responses that it was nothing to do with the British Government or the East India Company. American merchants had basically the same system, but they used less pure opium from the Ottoman Empire.

Between 1780 and 1830, Britain increased their opium exports to China by 1000. The Chinese authorities tried desperately to deal with it, but constantly failed. They resorted to drastic measures, burning a year's supply of opium in a huge bonfire and arresting the British and Chinese involved.

Britain declared war, and the First Opium War (1839-42) began). Britisn warships destroyed the Chinese fortifications, and they won the war. They forced the Chinese government into major concessions, including huge reparation payments, and ceding Hong Kong to Britain. Amoy, Fuchow, Ningpo and Shanghai were turned into “open ports”, a further indemnity was paid, and the Chinese customs were forced to accept British supervision.

Growing Tea Elsewhere

But the main problem still wasn't solved. According to Edward Bramah, “In 1822, the Royal Society of Arts offered fifty guineas to whoever could grow and prepare the greatest quantity of China tea in the British West Indies, Cape of Good Hope, New South Wales or the East Indies. The prize remained unclaimed.”

And there was competition from the Dutch, who were succeeding in Java. In 1833, Parliament ended the East India Company's monopoly in China. The field was now open. Huge profits were possible, but it was still uncertain if it would work.

In 1828, the Governor-General of India, Lord Bentinck, set up a Committee to investigate the issue. The Committee consisted of businessmen and botanists, chosen by Bentinck. The most prominent member was Nathaniel Wallich, who was in charge of the Botanical Gardens in Calcutta. He showed the Committee a report sent to him by a Mr. Walker. It began with complaints about China.

...the jealous policy of the Chinese government in her intercourse with all nations; the apprehensions which she had always entertained of our formidable Empire in the East Indies; the ignorance, pride and prejudice of the Government;...the rapacity and corruption of her officers; and occasionally the misconduct of our own people.

These problems had hindered efforts to grow tea elsewhere other than China. But it was still possible, he stated.

Tea plants could be easily transported, unlike other things they'd tried (such as mangosteens). But China's resistance was the problem. Foreigners were only allowed in Canton. “It is an acknowledged fact that the Chinese empire is the most powerful on the face of the earth,” so it was able to enforce strict rules on the importing of foreign goods. But Europe's weapons were better, Walker continued, implying that they could deal with China in that way – this was only a few years before the First Opium War.

Walker gave figures that showed how tea was now everybody's drink, “the common people using it as a portion of food.” Each year, the government earned £4 million from tea. And tea was known to grow in other places – for example, reports from Buchanan Hamilton in Burma 50yrs earlier had spoken of a tribal people called the Singphos bringing tea down to the plains in baskets.

Tea grew best on hillsides on gravelly soil, like all camellias, and India had plenty of these, “of very little use to the East India Company.” They could bring Chinese people from Calcutta or the East Indies to oversee the growing & manufacturing. The East India Company was wanting to provide “some reasonable occupation” for the natives, and the Indians would be ideal labour, with their “sedentary and tranquil habits”, and their ability to live on 2-3p a day. And the Company's revenues would increase if they didn't have to buy tea from China (this was before their monopoly was ended).

Bentinck was convinced by this report, and Dr. Wallich drew up a report on the tea plant. He stated that it liked moist valleys and riverbanks, but also recommended growing it on the slopes of the Himalayan range, the Kumaon hills, Gurwhal, Dehra Dun and Kashmir. He suggested that the tea plants be put into a warm nursery for a while, and then transported to somewhere with frost and snow for at least six weeks.

The Tea Committee decided to send Mr. Gordon (one of their members) to Penang and Singapore, and China if possible, to get information, plants, and Chinese people. Gordon also took a questionnaire for the Dutch. How much did it rain in Java's tea districts? Were there fogs and/or snow? Were there trees for shelter; and what about manure & irrigation? How much were the labourers paid and fed? How were tea chests made.

The Dutch answered willingly, and Gordon sent a report back. The Dutch had over 3 million plants in Java. They found it difficult to get Chinese people to emigrated, because they were afraid of the sea, but they had “recourse to forced labour”, which would be no problem in India.

In the 1840's, Samuel Ball wrote about moving tea production to India, and how it would be beneficial for the Indian people:

The population of British India and its dependencies is computed at 114,430,000. Supposing these to become, like the Chinese, all consumers of tea, the impulse which this novel demand for labour would give to a country mainly dependent on its agricultural resources; the new, unprofitable and otherwise unoccupied mountain lands which would thereby be brought under cultivation; the industrial activity its manipulation and preparation would call forth; as well as the new and indirect demands on industry it would develop; and lastly, though least to be considered, but nevertheless of high importance, the new sources of revenue it would open to the government – are all considerations of such vast interest, that it ought not to be a matter of surprise, that the encouragement of the cultivation of tea on an extensive scale, is daily becoming more and more a subject of anxious solicitude on the part of the India government.

If tea drinking became widespread in India,

...when we consider the abstinence from animal food, which is imposed on the Hindoo by his religion, we cannot but think that the introduction and adoption of the Mongolian method of using tea in its broth-like form, mixed with butter and meal, would furnish not only a refreshing, but a somewhat substantial adjunct to his meagre dietary; while the leaf used as an infusion...would administer greatly to his comfort, healthy, and sobriety.

Robert Fortune (1812-80) was a Scottish botanist who would steal tea plants from China in 1848 for the East India Company. He wrote:

In these days, when tea has become almost a necessary of life in England and her wide-spreading colonies, its production upon a large and cheap scale is an object of no ordinary importance. But to the natives of India themselves the production of this article would be of the greatest value. The poor paharie, or hill-peasant, at present has scarcely the common necessaries of life, and certainly none of its luxuries. The common sorts of grains which his lands produce will scarcely pay the carriage to the nearest market-town, far less yield such a profit as will enable him to purchase even a few of the necessary and simple luxuries of life...If part of these lands produced tea, he would then have a healthy beverage to drink, besides a commodity that would be of great value in the market. Being of small bulk compared with its value, the expense of carriage would be trifling, and he would have the means of making himself and his family more comfortable, and more happy.

It had to be decided on where the tea would best grow, and how the tea-growing methods could be improved to make it profitable. The British were soon to discover their location.

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abhay121996-blog · 3 years

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India Need To Groom Fast Bowlers, Says Mithali Raj Divya Sandesh

#Divyasandesh

India Need To Groom Fast Bowlers, Says Mithali Raj

Sent in to bat in the first ODI, India Women played 181 dot balls to post a modest 201 for eight, which England Women chased down with 91 balls to spare

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pkstudiosindia · 4 years

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Pet Food India-Hudastore || Premium Products || VoMii PU Memory Foam Insoles Plantar Fasciitis Arch Support Insoles for Women Men and Kids, Comfortable Breathable… || 2020-10-18 16:00:03

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trendsdresscom · 5 years

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The Sash on Melania Trump’s White Jumpsuit Has a Special Meaning

Thanks to her former modeling career, Melania Trump can turn even the most casual outfit into a major fashion moment, and she has consistently wowed Us with her classic-with-a-twist style choices since moving to 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue (a.k.a. the White House).

See Ivanka Trump’s Washington, D.C., Style Evolution

It became clear from the onset that the Slovene-born beauty was taking wardrobe cues from previous trendsetting first ladies. For the inauguration in January 2017, she wore a pale blue Ralph Lauren cashmere coat dress with matching suede pumps and gloves that called to mind Jackie Kennedy’s chic style, and she’s continued to rock high-fashion designs ever since. Though, much like former first lady Michelle Obama before her, Melania’s outfits keep Us guessing.

Whether she was hosting her first state dinner for French President Emmanuel and First Lady Brigitte Macron in a sparkling Chanel Haute Couture gown (which originally appeared on the brand’s spring 2018 runway as a jumpsuit) or sporting a pastel Burberry coat to read to children at the annual White House Easter Egg Roll, the First Lady’s wardrobe creatively and tastefully embraces color, texture and design. Oh, and we will forever be amazed by her ability to have a rainbow-hued stiletto (Christian Louboutin is her fave) to match just about any outfit.

Keep scrolling to see her best looks!