#enzyme pathways

[er-cryptid]

NAD-Linked Glycerol Dehydrogenase

-- part of oxidoreductase family

-- catalyst is NAD+

-- oxidizes glycerol

-- forms glycerone

[r4mifications]

studying biology thinking about ctubbo

[greencarnation]

unfortunately i've gotten to the point where deadlines are simply suggestions. due wednesday? ah what's the harm in doing it thursday. or next week. or never. i don't like being at this point. please help

[whats-in-a-sentence]

ROS detoxification enzymes and antioxidants function in cells as a network supported by various antioxidant recycling systems that replenish the level of reduced antioxidants (Figure 24.20).

"Plant Physiology and Development" int'l 6e - Taiz, L., Zeiger, E., Møller, I.M., Murphy, A.

[tenth-sentence]

The major metabolic pathway in the starchy endosperm is, as the name implies, starch biosynthesis: the precursor molecule, ADP-glucose, is synthesized in the cytosol and then imported into the amyloplast, where it is enzymatically polymerized into amylose and amylopectin.

"Plant Physiology and Development" int'l 6e - Taiz, L., Zeiger, E., Møller, I.M., Murphy, A.

[nightbunnysong]

Strategies for enhancing collagen synthesis

A biochemical perspective

Collagen, the most abundant protein in the human body, is essential for maintaining the structural integrity of skin, bones, cartilage, and connective tissues. Its production naturally declines with age, leading to wrinkles, joint pain, and other signs of aging. This article explores specific, scientifically-backed methods to boost collagen production, with a particular focus on the biochemical processes involved.

1. Bone broth

A DIRECT SOURCE OF COLLAGEN PRECURSORS

Bone broth is a direct dietary source of collagen. This nutrient-dense liquid, derived from simmering animal bones and connective tissues, is rich in collagen, gelatin, amino acids (such as glycine, proline, and hydroxyproline), and minerals. When ingested, collagen from bone broth is broken down into its constituent amino acids, which serve as building blocks for collagen synthesis in the body.

Biochemical mechanism

The collagen in bone broth is primarily composed of type I, II, and III collagen. Upon ingestion, it undergoes enzymatic hydrolysis in the stomach and intestines, producing peptides that are absorbed into the bloodstream. These peptides, especially glycine and proline, are crucial for collagen synthesis. Glycine provides the basic structural unit, while proline and hydroxyproline confer stability to the collagen triple helix by facilitating hydrogen bonding.

Scientific support

Research suggests that consuming bone broth can increase the levels of collagen-derived peptides in the bloodstream, which may be utilized by fibroblasts in the skin and other tissues to enhance collagen synthesis. A study published in Nutrients found that participants who consumed collagen peptides from bone broth showed improvements in skin elasticity and hydration, indicative of enhanced collagen production.

2. Vitamin C

THE COFACTOR FOR COLLAGEN SYNTHESIS

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) plays a critical role in collagen synthesis as a cofactor for the enzymes prolyl hydroxylase and lysyl hydroxylase. These enzymes are responsible for stabilizing the collagen molecule by hydroxylating proline and lysine residues, which are essential for the formation of stable collagen fibrils.

Biochemical mechanism

Vitamin C donates electrons to the iron-containing active sites of prolyl and lysyl hydroxylase enzymes, converting Fe3+ back to Fe2+ and thereby maintaining enzyme activity. This hydroxylation process enhances the thermal stability of the collagen triple helix and is essential for the secretion of mature collagen from fibroblasts.

Scientific support

Studies have demonstrated that vitamin C supplementation can significantly increase collagen production. For example, a study published in The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition showed that daily supplementation with vitamin C led to higher levels of procollagen mRNA in the skin, indicative of upregulated collagen synthesis.

3. Jumping rope

STIMULATING COLLAGEN VIA MECHANICAL STRESS

Exercise, particularly high-impact activities like jumping rope, has been shown to stimulate collagen synthesis in connective tissues. The mechanical loading experienced during jumping rope promotes the production of type I collagen in tendons and type II collagen in cartilage.

Biochemical mechanism

The mechanical stress from jumping rope induces microtrauma in collagen fibers, which stimulates fibroblasts and chondrocytes to upregulate collagen synthesis. This process is mediated by the mechanotransduction pathway, where mechanical forces are converted into biochemical signals, leading to the activation of signaling molecules such as integrins and focal adhesion kinase (FAK). These signals enhance the transcription of collagen genes (COL1A1, COL2A1) and increase the production of growth factors like TGF-β (transforming growth factor-beta), which further stimulates collagen synthesis.

Scientific support

Research in sports medicine indicates that regular mechanical loading, such as through jumping rope, leads to adaptive remodeling of collagenous tissues. A study published in The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research found that athletes who engaged in high-impact exercise had significantly higher collagen content in their tendons compared to those who did not.

4. Nettle (Urtica dioica)

AN HERB RICH IN ESSENTIAL COLLAGEN-BUILDING MINERALS

Nettle is an herb rich in silicon, sulfur, and other minerals essential for collagen synthesis. This plant is traditionally used in infusions and teas to improve the health of skin, nails, and hair, indirectly contributing to collagen production.

Biochemical mechanism

The silicon present in nettle plays a key role in cross-linking collagen, enhancing the strength and stability of collagen fibers. Sulfur is involved in protein synthesis, including key enzymes in collagen production. Nettle is also rich in antioxidants that protect collagen from oxidative damage.

Scientific support

Studies suggest that supplementation with nettle can improve collagen quality. A study published in The Journal of Herbal Medicine found that using nettle-based supplements led to increased collagen synthesis and improved skin elasticity.

5. Green tea

A POWERFUL ANTIOXIDANT FOR COLLAGEN PROTECTION

Green tea is rich in catechins, particularly epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), which has potent antioxidant properties. These compounds not only protect existing collagen from oxidative damage but may also stimulate the production of new collagen.

Biochemical mechanism

EGCG in green tea inhibits the activity of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) that degrade collagen in the skin. Additionally, EGCG has been shown to upregulate the expression of collagen genes and enhance the proliferation of fibroblasts.

Scientific support

A study published in The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry demonstrated that green tea catechins can prevent collagen degradation and stimulate new collagen production in the skin, particularly in response to UV exposure. This makes green tea an excellent natural choice for promoting collagen health.

[mindblowingscience]

In a striking new study published in Science Advances, a team of synthetic biologists led by Karen Sarkisyan at the MRC Laboratory of Medical Sciences, have reported the discovery of multiple plant enzymes—hispidin synthases—that can perform the most complex reaction of the bioluminescence pathway. This discovery is a significant milestone toward figuring out whether plants can natively produce all the molecules required for light emission. It also means that the glow of bioluminescent plants can now be more closely aligned with their internal biology.

Continue Reading.

[archaic-stranger]

the biochemistry students

marveling at the complexity of life on the molecular level

the reassuring weight of your favorite pipette in your hand

talking excitedly about a new enzyme you're studying

the background hum of incubators and centrifuges

reciting metabolic pathways until you know them by heart

an organized lab notebook, a record of all your hard work

a new respect for the intricacy of your own body

a chart of biochemical pathways hanging on your wall

chemical structures scribbled down in pen

working steadily and methodically on an important experiment

a row of beakers hung up to dry

sketching peptide side chains in the margins of your notes

understanding how molecular errors can lead to large-scale illness

the satisfaction of a perfectly clean gel

the sound of clinking glassware

mixing up batches of LB or buffer, the components as familiar as your favorite home recipe

a row of neatly labeled eppendorf tubes

memorizing all 20 amino acids

faith in your own abilities

irregular lab hours, writing a paper while you wait for your cells to grow

[covid-safer-hotties]

also preserved at the archive

By: Jessica Wildfire

You don't need me to tell you how bad it's getting.

I'll tell you anyway, though.

As we drown in endless waves of Covid that generate millions of infections and thousands of deaths per week, our leaders have effectively stripped away every tool we have. They prefer a society that sacrifices themselves for short-term economic and political gains and then becomes ripe clientele for the pharmaceutical industry. They collude with the media to push out a daily barrage of misinformation aimed exclusively at ensuring we continue to work, shop, and vacation, because that's what they care about. Meanwhile, they do absolutely nothing about pandemics on the way as dozens of diseases spread out of control, at levels 10 times worse than normal. As the World Health Organization sounds alarms, telling us "we have arrived in the post-antibiotic era," and that we faced a future pandemic up to 20 times worse than Covid, our leaders focus on vibes. That last part should get our attention. Yes, we are here. We have arrived in the time when superbugs aren't responding to antibiotics. If that weren't bad enough, they're preying on our weakened immune systems.

And bird flu has likely gone human to human.

But it's not hopeless.

Four years ago, we looked to plants to protect us from pathogens because vaccines and treatments weren't coming anytime soon. The minute those vaccines and antivirals came out, most people forgot all about plants. They reverted to their old assumptions that plants were for hippies.

Well, here we are again.

Our vaccines and treatments are failing, and when they work they're often in short supply, or we can't even get access to them. Moms and dads are rolling out the NyQuil in little cutesie Facebook posts, along with all the pills that treat the symptoms but leave the disease itself to roam free all over your body.

We can do better.

As we mask while demanding clean air and better medicine, it's time to revisit those plants and see what they can do.

Do they even work?

Yeah, they do.

A 2024 review of studies in Viruses identified 10 different plant compounds with broad antiviral properties and effectiveness specific to Covid (and in many cases several other viruses). As they write, "plat-derived molecules can tackle viruses by acting on different aspects of their infection process" and "inhibit coronavirus/host protein pathways" by blocking them. The authors initially identified 45 different compounds and then narrowed them to the 10 most effective.

Plants work because they contain terpenoids, flavonoids, phenols, and alkaloids that all demonstrate "high anti-viral potential against SARS-CoV-2 particles" as well as other viruses. They do this in a variety of ways that work across variants because they block virus entry while also tamping down replication and essentially "stopping its life cycle."

Sounds good to me...

Let's get into it.

First, ginkgo biloba contains two bioflavonoids called quercetin and rutin that can block Covid's 3CLPro BS PL-pro enzymes, as demonstrated in two different studies that looked at how they bind to parts of the spike protein. According to an article in Nature, 3CLPro plays a central role in virus replication, specifically for Covid. Ginkgo also contains kaempfero that inhibits Covid's envelope protein E, "consequently suppressing virus activity and proliferation." G. Biloba also brings an anti-inflammatory effect that can help with recovery as well.

Second, turmeric and curcumin "can either bind directly to the receptor binding domain of the viral S-proteins or secure ACE2 receptors of the hosted cell." Basically, they stop viral entry into your cells. As the authors write, a curcumin derivative called bi-demethoxycurcumin "displayed the best binding affinity" to spike proteins.

It also works on the original SARS virus.

Third, a common spice called artemesia annua demonstrated antiviral activity in clinical trials. The group who took an artemisia compound called artemisinin-piperaquine "took significantly less time to reach undetectable levels of SARS-CoV-2 than the controls." In fact, artemisinins "are known for their extended-spectrum antiviral activity." An artemisia derivative called artesunate has shown effectiveness against both DNA and RNA viruses including hepatitis and HIV.

Artemesia compounds work similar to ginkgo by latching on to five different parts of the spike protein "which might explain its remarkable binding affinity." In addition to flavonoids like quercetin, researchers have identified di-caffeoylquinic acid as doing a lot of the heavy lifting here. Like curcumin, these flavonoids also bind to ACE2 receptors on your cells and protect them. Medical researchers are working on refining these compounds into artenimol, a single high-potency compound for giving to patients.

Fourth, nigella sativa (black cumin seeds) have shown antiviral activity by disrupting viral RNA transcription. Carvacrol and nigellidine extracted from these seeds "can block ACE2 receptors, thus inhibiting the SARS-CoV-2 entry into the host cells."

Fifth, ginger (6-gingerol, 8-gingerol, 10-gingerol) can inhibit parts of the Covid spike protein. Specifically, it's the bioactive compounds geraniol, shogaol, zingiberene, and zingiberenol that do the blocking.

Sixth, garlic (allium sativum) shows antiviral activity. It contains compounds called allicin, ajoene, and garlicin that work against several viruses in the same ways as the other compounds, by targeting spike proteins, disrupting transcription, and protecting your cells' entry channels.

Next:

Cinnamon at 50 ug/ml operates the same way as the other compounds, by blocking host cell entry and viral replication. Rosemary (rosmarinus officinale) shows effectiveness in blocking viral activity, even in a study that compared it to the antivirals remdesivir and favipiravir.

Want an unusual suspect?

It's dandelion.

Dandelion extract has shown to be "effective against influenza virus infection" and in higher concentrations "showed efficacy against spike proteins... and its different mutants" in human lung and kidney cells, while also helping to prevent the cytokine storm that's often so deadly in the acute stage. Here in particular, studies have shown that dandelion extract works regardless of the variant.

Finally, oregano (origanum vulgare) extract demonstrates antiviral activity against many DNA and RNA viruses, including Covid and HIV. As the authors write, extracts "showed remarkable efficacy against equine influenza virus, canine coronavirus, RS, and H1N1. In fact, it can inhibit up to 74 percent of viral activity at certain sites.

Again, carvacrol does the heavy lifting.

I've looked at other supplements and extracts with antiviral properties. They include grapeseed extract, grapefruit seed extract, olive leaf extract, echinacea, St. John's-Wort, and elderberry.

A 2024 study found that oleuropein, found in olive leaf extract, demonstrates high antibacterial activity at 130 mg/ml and high antifungal activity at 65 mg/ml. Another 2022 study found that oleuropein showed significant effectiveness against Covid in hospitalized patients when they were given 250-500 mg every 12 hours for five days. (No real difference between 250 and 500 mg.) The study also reviews previous research that oleuropein has shown effectiveness against other viruses, including HIV and influenza. It works the same way as other flavonoids, lectins, secoiridoids, and polyphenols, by blocking ACE2 receptors.

A 2022 study reviews available research on elderberry (sambucus nigra), confirming antiviral activity against HIV, flu, and coronaviruses. As the researchers write, adults in clinical trials "showed a significant reduction in symptoms, averaging 50 percent." Elderberry has also shown the ability to stimulate the production of immune cells. A 2019 study confirms that elderberry works against flu via "multiple modes of therapeutic action," including the inhibition of replication and host cell entry. An extensive 2021 study looking at prior research found that high-quality elderberry extracts enriched with anthocyanin work especially well.

A 2022 study in Nature found that a mixture of St. John's Wort (hypericum perforatum) and Echinacea showed significant antiviral activity against Covid. Specifically capsules with .9 mg of St. John's "can significantly reduce SARS-CoV-2 viral load," peaking at 36 hours after the start of treatment.

St. John's Wort works just fine on its own. The authors stress the importance of maintaining its concentration if you add other compounds like echinacea.

That said, a 2022 study in Frontiers in Pharmacology found that echinacea at 4,000 mg for 10 days led to a substantial reduction in viral load and fewer hospitalizations when used to treat Covid patients.

Here's a chart docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1cTJ3lXHPUW7AyrZPXQb63IjmhVbahRm_7Y5IMxKcqO8/edit?usp=sharing&ref=okdoomer.io

You can also look up most of these supplements and extracts on Mount Sinai's health library. They'll give you a good breakdown. It's a good idea to talk with a doctor if you're skeptical or not sure about interactions with other drugs, or look at the studies on your own. The studies linked in the sheet provide the most detailed dose information I can find, usually presented in a table. Duration runs around two weeks for an acute illness and 3-4 months for chronic infections like HIV.

Do I think it's sustainable to take high amounts of supplements all year long to ward off all kinds of airborne diseases, for the rest of our lives? Not really. That's why we absolutely need clean indoor air, masks, better vaccines, and better treatments. Until then, at least we have this information.

List of studies raindrop.io/JW_Lists/alternative-treatments-47681852

So there you have it.

If you've been wondering whether this stuff really works, the answer appears to be a loud yes. We need more research on dose amounts, but the studies all point in the direction of taking as much as you can while staying within the safe limits, for the duration of any time you feel at risk of getting sick.

Most of these extracts work against multiple viruses. They also help regulate your immune system and push it toward a less inflammatory response.

That's good to know.

My family has been using some of these supplements for several years, and it might explain why we've managed to steer clear of Long Covid. We still wear N95 masks everywhere. We advocate for clean air and better vaccines, along with better treatments. In the meantime, it looks like we can up our supplement game and that it's actually going to bring some benefit.

This isn't magic.

These plant compounds work the same way as many of the antivirals on the market. Medical researchers have been researching the antiviral properties of plants for decades, and cultures have used them for thousands of years. Given our current outlook, they're worth taking seriously.

Use what you can.

[science-lover33]

🔬🌀Demystifying the Krebs Cycle: A Deep Dive into Cellular Respiration! 🌀🔬

Prepare for a thrilling journey into the heart of cellular metabolism! 🌟✨ Today, we unravel the intricacies of the Krebs Cycle, also known as the Citric Acid Cycle or Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle, a cornerstone of energy production in our cells. 💡🤯

The Krebs Cycle: Named after its discoverer, Sir Hans Krebs, this metabolic pathway occurs within the mitochondria and is a central hub in cellular respiration.

🔍Step 1: Acetyl-CoA Entry

Acetyl-CoA, derived from the breakdown of glucose or fatty acids, enters the cycle.

It combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate, a six-carbon compound.

🔍Step 2: Isocitrate Formation

A rearrangement converts citrate into isocitrate.

The enzyme aconitase facilitates this transformation.

🔍Step 3: Alpha-Ketoglutarate Production

Isocitrate undergoes oxidative decarboxylation, shedding a CO2 molecule and yielding alpha-ketoglutarate.

NAD+ is reduced to NADH in this step.

🔍Step 4: Succinyl-CoA Synthesis

Alpha-ketoglutarate loses CO2 and acquires a CoA group to form succinyl-CoA.

Another NAD+ is reduced to NADH.

This step is catalyzed by alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase.

🔍Step 5: Succinate Formation

Succinyl-CoA releases CoA, becoming succinate.

A molecule of GTP (guanosine triphosphate) is generated as a high-energy phosphate bond.

Succinate dehydrogenase is pivotal, transferring electrons to the electron transport chain (ETC).

🔍Step 6: Fumarate Generation

Succinate is oxidized to fumarate with the help of the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase.

FADH2 (flavin adenine dinucleotide) is formed and transfers electrons to the ETC.

🔍Step 7: Malate Formation

Fumarate undergoes hydration to form malate, catalyzed by fumarase.

🔍Step 8: Regeneration of Oxaloacetate

Malate is oxidized back to oxaloacetate.

NAD+ is reduced to NADH.

Oxaloacetate is ready to initiate another round of the Krebs Cycle.

The Krebs Cycle - an intricate dance of chemical transformations fueling the cellular machinery of life. 🕺💃 Dive deeper into cellular respiration, where molecules tango to generate ATP, our cellular energy currency!

📚References for In-Depth Exploration📚

Berg, J. M., Tymoczko, J. L., & Stryer, L. (2002). Biochemistry (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. Chapter 17.

Voet, D., Voet, J. G., & Pratt, C. W. (2008). Fundamentals of Biochemistry (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. Chapter 17.

Lehninger, A. L., Nelson, D. L., & Cox, M. M. (2008). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. Chapter 17.

[hiiragi7]

Wondering why PCOS is not considered medically to be under the CAH umbrella (since CAH is a group of conditions involving hyperandrogenism), does anyone happen to know the reason?

Is it the vagueness regarding the cause of PCOS, is it the amount of misunderstanding and misinformation surrounding PCOS, is it intersexism and misogyny? Or even a combination of these?

Looking at the literature, PCOS is indistinguishable from CAH without extensive bloodwork, and often CAH is misdiagnosed as PCOS due to less widespread knowledge of not only CAH's existence (despite it being extremely common) but also due to doctors rarely ever testing for anything that is not 21-OHD, if they decide to run tests at all. (Many PCOS patients are diagnosed without any tests or with only an ultrasound to check for ovarian cysts, which is not actually useful as any kind of evidence towards a PCOS diagnosis at all)

In fact, 3bHSD CAH at one point was even considered to be a type of PCOS rather than CAH. If the two are so similar, and CAH is already an umbrella term, why the distinction between PCOS and CAH at all?

If it's due to treatment implications, that doesn't seem to work because treatment implications are different even within different variations within the CAH umbrella and even further within the same CAH variation. My treatment needs and goals are different from someone with another CAH enzyme deficiency, because the location of the deficiency on the steroid pathway changes a lot about what your symptoms are and how to manage it. Someone with 3bHSD CAH may build up pregnenolone, while someone with 21-OHD CAH may build up progesterone, for example, and these can cause very different outcomes for physical health and needs. There's also vastly different implications between classic, non-classic, and salt-wasters.

Us all being lumped under CAH has never stopped us from accessing the different treatment we need for whichever variation we have. Being grouped under an umbrella label does not mean we are all suddenly the exact same and have the same needs. This is true across all umbrella diagnoses and across spectrum disorders, and CAH is not any different.

A person with XY chromosomes and 3bHSD CAH may have ambiguous genitalia while a person with XX chromosomes and 3bHSD CAH may have completely "typical-appearing" or only slightly virilized genitals, some people with CAH may be infertile while others have no issues with fertility, some have ovarian cysts and some do not, some will go through "typical" puberty and others will have ambiguous or "opposite-sex" puberty, so on.

What vast amount of differences are there between PCOS and CAH that are not present between 21-OHD and 3bHSD, 11-beta, and StAR? PCOS and NCAH can even be more alike to each other than CAH variations can be to other CAH variations.

When we have studies which struggle to differentiate PCOS from CAH even on a biochemical level, why are we so confident in saying that PCOS is not yet another CAH presentation, or that it does not belong underneath that umbrella?

TERFs don't touch this post, I don't want to hear your shit today.

[er-cryptid]

Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductase

Patreon

[compneuropapers]

Interesting Papers for Week 8, 2024

Sensory prediction error drives subconscious motor learning outside of the laboratory. Albert, S. T., Blaum, E. C., & Blustein, D. H. (2023). Journal of Neurophysiology, 130(2), 427–435.

Working memory load impairs transfer learning in human adults. Balter, L. J. T., & Raymond, J. E. (2023). Psychological Research, 87(7), 2138–2145.

Objects sharpen visual scene representations: evidence from MEG decoding. Brandman, T., & Peelen, M. V. (2023). Cerebral Cortex, 33(16), 9524–9531.

Specific patterns of neural activity in the hippocampus after massed or distributed spatial training. Centofante, E., Fralleoni, L., Lupascu, C. A., Migliore, M., Rinaldi, A., & Mele, A. (2023). Scientific Reports, 13, 13357.

Hormonal coordination of motor output and internal prediction of sensory consequences in an electric fish. Fukutomi, M., & Carlson, B. A. (2023). Current Biology, 33(16), 3350-3359.e4.

Subcortico-amygdala pathway processes innate and learned threats. Khalil, V., Faress, I., Mermet-Joret, N., Kerwin, P., Yonehara, K., & Nabavi, S. (2023). eLife, 12, e85459.

Neural mechanisms underlying uninstructed orofacial movements during reward-based learning behaviors. Li, W.-R., Nakano, T., Mizutani, K., Matsubara, T., Kawatani, M., Mukai, Y., … Yamashita, T. (2023). Current Biology, 33(16), 3436-3451.e7.

Monkeys exhibit human-like gaze biases in economic decisions. Lupkin, S. M., & McGinty, V. B. (2023). eLife, 12, e78205.

Widespread coding of navigational variables in prefrontal cortex. Maisson, D. J.-N., Cervera, R. L., Voloh, B., Conover, I., Zambre, M., Zimmermann, J., & Hayden, B. Y. (2023). Current Biology, 33(16), 3478-3488.e3.

Synaptic variance and action potential firing of cerebellar output neurons during motor learning in larval zebrafish. Najac, M., McLean, D. L., & Raman, I. M. (2023). Current Biology, 33(16), 3299-3311.e3.

Novelty and uncertainty differentially drive exploration across development. Nussenbaum, K., Martin, R. E., Maulhardt, S., Yang, Y. (Jen), Bizzell-Hatcher, G., Bhatt, N. S., … Hartley, C. A. (2023). eLife, 12, e84260.

Ants combine object affordance with latent learning to make efficient foraging decisions. Poissonnier, L.-A., Hartmann, Y., & Czaczkes, T. J. (2023). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 120(35), e2302654120.

VIP interneurons in sensory cortex encode sensory and action signals but not direct reward signals. Ramamurthy, D. L., Chen, A., Zhou, J., Park, C., Huang, P. C., Bharghavan, P., … Feldman, D. E. (2023). Current Biology, 33(16), 3398-3408.e7.

A stochastic model of hippocampal synaptic plasticity with geometrical readout of enzyme dynamics. Rodrigues, Y. E., Tigaret, C. M., Marie, H., O’Donnell, C., & Veltz, R. (2023). eLife, 12, e80152.

Sequence anticipation and spike-timing-dependent plasticity emerge from a predictive learning rule. Saponati, M., & Vinck, M. (2023). Nature Communications, 14, 4985.

Statistical inference on representational geometries. Schütt, H. H., Kipnis, A. D., Diedrichsen, J., & Kriegeskorte, N. (2023). eLife, 12, e82566.

High-resolution volumetric imaging constrains compartmental models to explore synaptic integration and temporal processing by cochlear nucleus globular bushy cells. Spirou, G. A., Kersting, M., Carr, S., Razzaq, B., Yamamoto Alves Pinto, C., Dawson, M., … Manis, P. B. (2023). eLife, 12, e83393.

Using occipital ⍺-bursts to modulate behavior in real-time. Vigué-Guix, I., & Soto-Faraco, S. (2023). Cerebral Cortex, 33(16), 9465–9477.

Octave illusion: stimulation frequencies can modulate perception. Whittom, A., Couture, F., Chauvette, L., & Sharp, A. (2023). Psychological Research, 87(7), 2183–2191.

Completeness out of incompleteness: Inferences from regularities in imperfect information ensembles. Zhu, J., Xu, H., Shi, B., Lu, Y., Chen, H., Shen, M., & Zhou, J. (2023). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 49(9), 1203–1220.

[humancelltournament]

Propaganda!

The Golgi apparatus, also known as the Golgi complex, Golgi body, or simply the Golgi, is an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. Part of the endomembrane system in the cytoplasm, it packages proteins into membrane-bound vesicles inside the cell before the vesicles are sent to their destination. It resides at the intersection of the secretory, lysosomal, and endocytic pathways. It is of particular importance in processing proteins for secretion, containing a set of glycosylation enzymes that attach various sugar monomers to proteins as the proteins move through the apparatus.

Ion channels are pore-forming membrane proteins that allow ions to pass through the channel pore. Their functions include establishing a resting membrane potential, shaping action potentials and other electrical signals by gating the flow of ions across the cell membrane, controlling the flow of ions across secretory and epithelial cells, and regulating cell volume. Ion channels are present in the membranes of all cells.

[nightbunnysong]

The benefits of yarrow tea in preventing menstrual cramps

A biochemical perspective

Introduction

Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) has been used for centuries in traditional medicine for its wide range of therapeutic properties. One of the lesser-known benefits of yarrow is its effectiveness in preventing menstrual cramps (dysmenorrhea) when consumed as a tea starting 10 days before menstruation. The bioactive compounds in yarrow interact with various biochemical pathways to exert anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, and analgesic effects, which collectively contribute to its ability to reduce the severity of menstrual cramps.

Biochemical Composition of Yarrow

Yarrow is rich in several bioactive compounds, including flavonoids, alkaloids, sesquiterpene lactones, and essential oils such as chamazulene and cineole. These compounds are responsible for yarrow's pharmacological effects:

Flavonoids (apigenin, luteolin) possess anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, modulating the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines.

Alkaloids contribute to the plant's antispasmodic activity by interacting with smooth muscle receptors.

Sesquiterpene lactones (achilline) have anti-inflammatory properties by inhibiting nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), a key regulator of inflammation.

Essential oils have various effects, including mild analgesic and anti-inflammatory actions.

Mechanisms of action in preventing menstrual cramps

Anti-inflammatory Effects

Menstrual cramps are often the result of excessive production of prostaglandins, particularly prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α), in the uterine lining. PGF2α is a potent vasoconstrictor and stimulates uterine contractions, leading to the pain associated with dysmenorrhea.

Yarrow's flavonoids inhibit the synthesis of pro-inflammatory prostaglandins by downregulating cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), an enzyme responsible for the conversion of arachidonic acid to prostaglandins. By reducing prostaglandin levels, yarrow helps to decrease the intensity of uterine contractions, thereby mitigating menstrual pain.

Antispasmodic Activity

The alkaloids and essential oils in yarrow exhibit antispasmodic effects by directly relaxing the smooth muscles of the uterus. This is achieved through the inhibition of calcium influx into muscle cells, which is necessary for muscle contraction. The reduction in intracellular calcium levels leads to muscle relaxation, thereby preventing the painful spasms commonly associated with menstrual cramps.

Modulation of the Endocannabinoid System

Recent research has shown that yarrow may interact with the endocannabinoid system (ECS), which plays a role in pain modulation and inflammation. The ECS consists of endocannabinoids, receptors (CB1 and CB2), and enzymes involved in their synthesis and degradation. Some of the sesquiterpene lactones in yarrow have been found to enhance the activity of CB1 receptors, which are primarily located in the central nervous system and are involved in the perception of pain.

By modulating the ECS, yarrow can increase the body's natural ability to manage pain, thereby providing relief from menstrual cramps.

Recommended Usage and Timing

For optimal prevention of menstrual cramps, it is recommended to start drinking yarrow tea 10 days before the expected onset of menstruation. This timing allows the bioactive compounds in yarrow to accumulate in the body and begin exerting their anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic effects. A typical dosage would be 1 to 2 cups of yarrow tea per day, prepared by steeping 1 to 2 teaspoons of dried yarrow flowers in boiling water for 10 minutes.

Conclusion

Yarrow tea is an effective natural remedy for preventing menstrual cramps, owing to its complex biochemical interactions that reduce inflammation, inhibit uterine muscle contractions, and modulate pain pathways. By starting the tea regimen 10 days before menstruation, individuals can significantly reduce the severity and discomfort of menstrual cramps. As always, it is advisable to consult with a healthcare provider before beginning any new herbal treatment, particularly for individuals with pre-existing conditions or those taking medications.

[mindblowingscience]

The findings, published in Science, reveal what goes wrong when a group of molecules and enzymes trigger and regulate what’s known as the “cell cycle,” the repetitive process of making new cells out of the cells’ genetic material. The findings could be used to develop therapies that interrupt snags in the cell cycle, and have the potential to stop the growth of cancers, the researchers suggest. To replicate, cells follow an orderly routine that begins with making a copy of their entire genome, followed by separating the genome copies, and finally, dividing the replicated DNA evenly into two “daughter” cells.

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