#enzyme pathways

[er-cryptid]

NAD-Linked Glycerol Dehydrogenase

-- part of oxidoreductase family

-- catalyst is NAD+

-- oxidizes glycerol

-- forms glycerone

[greencarnation]

unfortunately i've gotten to the point where deadlines are simply suggestions. due wednesday? ah what's the harm in doing it thursday. or next week. or never. i don't like being at this point. please help

[somecunttookmyurl]

i'm medicated now and caffeine still does literally nothing because of my aforementioned-several-times-in-the-notes liver enzyme issue that metabolises it too fast

this is not an adhd post. yes adhd contributed to the lack of mental effect from caffeine and in hindsight it is hysterical nobody noticed i have understimulation syndrome, but that isn't solely - or even mostly - why

caffeine has no physical or mental effect on me, even with massive doses of amphetamine, because it LITERALLY noclips through my liver like a bethesda game. like physically.

a fun and fucked up fact about me is that when i was in sixth form (16-18), approximately 10 years prior to being diagnosed ADHD, i drank SO MUCH store brand energy drink that 2 things happened

1) It became such an obvious and well known Thing about me that my tutors started putting "too much red bull can kill you" news articles on the walls. These were not present in rooms I didn't have classes in. It was not a college-wide initiative. That was for me, specifically. Nobody said it but we all knew.

2) Several friends suggested, in all seriousness, I contact the Guinness Book of Records to set a record for "most caffeine consumed with no physical effect" after I had 3x 1 litre bottles in about an hour and my heart rate was still exactly the same and nothing about my demeanour had changed at all. Meanwhile Ryan had 1 bottle and was physically vibrating. Because he's normal.

(I didn't do it because it would require having a medical professional present the whole time to verify and like absolutely nobody with a medical degree is going to do that in good conscience)

[whats-in-a-sentence]

ROS detoxification enzymes and antioxidants function in cells as a network supported by various antioxidant recycling systems that replenish the level of reduced antioxidants (Figure 24.20).

"Plant Physiology and Development" int'l 6e - Taiz, L., Zeiger, E., Møller, I.M., Murphy, A.

[tenth-sentence]

The major metabolic pathway in the starchy endosperm is, as the name implies, starch biosynthesis: the precursor molecule, ADP-glucose, is synthesized in the cytosol and then imported into the amyloplast, where it is enzymatically polymerized into amylose and amylopectin.

"Plant Physiology and Development" int'l 6e - Taiz, L., Zeiger, E., Møller, I.M., Murphy, A.

[nightbunnysong]

Strategies for enhancing collagen synthesis

A biochemical perspective

Collagen, the most abundant protein in the human body, is essential for maintaining the structural integrity of skin, bones, cartilage, and connective tissues. Its production naturally declines with age, leading to wrinkles, joint pain, and other signs of aging. This article explores specific, scientifically-backed methods to boost collagen production, with a particular focus on the biochemical processes involved.

1. Bone broth

A DIRECT SOURCE OF COLLAGEN PRECURSORS

Bone broth is a direct dietary source of collagen. This nutrient-dense liquid, derived from simmering animal bones and connective tissues, is rich in collagen, gelatin, amino acids (such as glycine, proline, and hydroxyproline), and minerals. When ingested, collagen from bone broth is broken down into its constituent amino acids, which serve as building blocks for collagen synthesis in the body.

Biochemical mechanism

The collagen in bone broth is primarily composed of type I, II, and III collagen. Upon ingestion, it undergoes enzymatic hydrolysis in the stomach and intestines, producing peptides that are absorbed into the bloodstream. These peptides, especially glycine and proline, are crucial for collagen synthesis. Glycine provides the basic structural unit, while proline and hydroxyproline confer stability to the collagen triple helix by facilitating hydrogen bonding.

Scientific support

Research suggests that consuming bone broth can increase the levels of collagen-derived peptides in the bloodstream, which may be utilized by fibroblasts in the skin and other tissues to enhance collagen synthesis. A study published in Nutrients found that participants who consumed collagen peptides from bone broth showed improvements in skin elasticity and hydration, indicative of enhanced collagen production.

2. Vitamin C

THE COFACTOR FOR COLLAGEN SYNTHESIS

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) plays a critical role in collagen synthesis as a cofactor for the enzymes prolyl hydroxylase and lysyl hydroxylase. These enzymes are responsible for stabilizing the collagen molecule by hydroxylating proline and lysine residues, which are essential for the formation of stable collagen fibrils.

Biochemical mechanism

Vitamin C donates electrons to the iron-containing active sites of prolyl and lysyl hydroxylase enzymes, converting Fe3+ back to Fe2+ and thereby maintaining enzyme activity. This hydroxylation process enhances the thermal stability of the collagen triple helix and is essential for the secretion of mature collagen from fibroblasts.

Scientific support

Studies have demonstrated that vitamin C supplementation can significantly increase collagen production. For example, a study published in The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition showed that daily supplementation with vitamin C led to higher levels of procollagen mRNA in the skin, indicative of upregulated collagen synthesis.

3. Jumping rope

STIMULATING COLLAGEN VIA MECHANICAL STRESS

Exercise, particularly high-impact activities like jumping rope, has been shown to stimulate collagen synthesis in connective tissues. The mechanical loading experienced during jumping rope promotes the production of type I collagen in tendons and type II collagen in cartilage.

Biochemical mechanism

The mechanical stress from jumping rope induces microtrauma in collagen fibers, which stimulates fibroblasts and chondrocytes to upregulate collagen synthesis. This process is mediated by the mechanotransduction pathway, where mechanical forces are converted into biochemical signals, leading to the activation of signaling molecules such as integrins and focal adhesion kinase (FAK). These signals enhance the transcription of collagen genes (COL1A1, COL2A1) and increase the production of growth factors like TGF-β (transforming growth factor-beta), which further stimulates collagen synthesis.

Scientific support

Research in sports medicine indicates that regular mechanical loading, such as through jumping rope, leads to adaptive remodeling of collagenous tissues. A study published in The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research found that athletes who engaged in high-impact exercise had significantly higher collagen content in their tendons compared to those who did not.

4. Nettle (Urtica dioica)

AN HERB RICH IN ESSENTIAL COLLAGEN-BUILDING MINERALS

Nettle is an herb rich in silicon, sulfur, and other minerals essential for collagen synthesis. This plant is traditionally used in infusions and teas to improve the health of skin, nails, and hair, indirectly contributing to collagen production.

Biochemical mechanism

The silicon present in nettle plays a key role in cross-linking collagen, enhancing the strength and stability of collagen fibers. Sulfur is involved in protein synthesis, including key enzymes in collagen production. Nettle is also rich in antioxidants that protect collagen from oxidative damage.

Scientific support

Studies suggest that supplementation with nettle can improve collagen quality. A study published in The Journal of Herbal Medicine found that using nettle-based supplements led to increased collagen synthesis and improved skin elasticity.

5. Green tea

A POWERFUL ANTIOXIDANT FOR COLLAGEN PROTECTION

Green tea is rich in catechins, particularly epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), which has potent antioxidant properties. These compounds not only protect existing collagen from oxidative damage but may also stimulate the production of new collagen.

Biochemical mechanism

EGCG in green tea inhibits the activity of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) that degrade collagen in the skin. Additionally, EGCG has been shown to upregulate the expression of collagen genes and enhance the proliferation of fibroblasts.

Scientific support

A study published in The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry demonstrated that green tea catechins can prevent collagen degradation and stimulate new collagen production in the skin, particularly in response to UV exposure. This makes green tea an excellent natural choice for promoting collagen health.

[callmedaleelah]

— Pinnacle [ tsukishima kei university au series ]

— and i don’t know how it gets better than this ; let’s take a look on how a month of a relationship would be like

author’s notes : no mention of (y/n), written in second person pov, semi alternative universe, timeskip!tsukishima, college life, not proofread, english is not my first language

[ masterlist ] | [ ask daleelah go to box box 🐭 ]

Do you want to have lunch in the cafeteria?

As you were packing up your notes and preparing to head back to the dorm after a long day of classes, your phone buzzed softly in your pocket.

The text was from Tsukishima, and your heart did a little flip as you read it. It had only been two minutes since your class ended, and he was already asking to meet up. A small smile tugged at your lips as you began typing back.

My mom just sent me lunch 🥹

Heading to dorm now

you quickly replied, trying hard to suppress the giddiness that threatened to spill over. It had been a month since you started dating, and even though the relationship still felt new and exciting, there was a comforting familiarity in the way Tsukishima showed his affection—always understated, never excessive, but undeniably present.

The phone buzzed again.

Stop walking. I’m behind you.

You froze mid-step, instinctively turning around to see him standing there, his tall frame leaning casually against a nearby lamppost. His expression was as unreadable as always, but the faint smirk on his lips gave him away. Your cheeks warmed with the blush that spread across your face, and your smile bloomed wider.

Tsukishima walked toward you, closing the distance with a calm, measured pace. When he reached you, his hand gently ruffled your hair, tousling it just enough to make it messy. But before you could protest, he smoothed it back down, his fingers moving with surprising gentleness. You felt a warmth bubble up inside you at the small act of care.

Without a word, he took your hand in his, his long fingers intertwining with yours as you both began walking toward your dorm. His grip was firm, steady, and familiar. It was these small gestures that always caught you off guard—how someone as stoic as him could show affection in such quiet, tender ways.

As you walked, he glanced down at you.

“So, how was class?” he asked, his tone casual but interested.

You shrugged lightly, trying to think of something coherent to say despite the fluttering in your chest. “It was okay, I guess. We had a lecture on enzyme kinetics today. It’s... complicated. We’re learning about how different substrates affect reaction rates and how to calculate Vmax and Km using Lineweaver-Burk plots. It’s kinda overwhelming.” You chuckled, trying to play it off, but the truth was, biochemistry wasn’t getting any easier. The second semester was filled with more challenging topics—metabolism, enzyme mechanisms, and signal transduction pathways. Sometimes it felt like your brain was spinning in circles trying to keep up.

Tsukishima’s thumb brushed over the back of your hand in a soothing motion. “Hmm, sounds like you’re managing,” he commented, his voice low and cool, but there was an underlying sense of approval in his words. “Just don’t overthink it.”

You nodded, appreciating his subtle encouragement, even if it was delivered in the most Tsukishima way possible.

When the two of you reached your dorm, you invited him inside. “You can sit down,” you said, motioning to the low table as you slipped off your shoes. “I’ll get us some tea.”

Tsukishima didn’t argue, simply settling himself comfortably at the table. He stretched out his long legs under the table, leaning back with that same calm, collected demeanor. You poured two glasses of iced barley tea, setting them down on the table along with the meal your mom had sent. Two plates of rice, grilled mackerel, miso soup, and some side dishes—enough for the both of you.

“I’m glad you came with me to the dorm,” you said, sitting across from him. “Finally, someone can help me eat all of this food. My mom keeps sending more than I can finish.”

Tsukishima let out a soft sigh, clearly unimpressed by your complaint, but he said nothing. Instead, he picked up his chopsticks and muttered a quiet, “Itadakimasu,” before digging in.

“Itadakimasu,” You started eating as well, savoring the familiar flavors of homemade food. But halfway through, you felt your hair falling into your face, getting in the way as you tried to eat. You pushed it back with your hand, annoyed, but it kept slipping forward again.

Tsukishima’s gaze shifted toward you, and without saying a word, Tsukishima stood up and walked over to your desk. You looked up, confused, but before you could ask what he was doing, he grabbed a hairpin from the top drawer. Moving with quiet precision, he came over and gently swept your hair back, securing it in place with the pin. His fingers brushed against your temple as he worked, and you felt your face heat up, your heart pounding in your chest.

“There,” he said simply, stepping back as if nothing had happened, as if tying your hair was just another mundane task. But the subtle softness in his actions didn’t go unnoticed by you.

You sat there, momentarily stunned by the unexpected act of care. Your face felt like it was on fire, but you managed a small, “Thank you,” before quickly looking down at your food, hoping he wouldn’t notice how flustered you were.

Of course, Tsukishima noticed. He always did. But instead of teasing you about it, he simply returned to his seat and resumed eating, as if tying your hair was no big deal. Still, the softness of the gesture lingered in the air between you, a quiet reminder of the tenderness he hid behind his stoic exterior.

A few moments passed in comfortable silence before Tsukishima spoke again, his tone as cool and casual as ever. “I’m going grocery shopping after this. Want to come?”

You almost choked on your rice at the sudden question, nodding a bit too enthusiastically in response. “Yeah, I’ll come,” you said, trying to sound calm, even though your heart was still fluttering from earlier. You avoided his gaze, focusing on your food instead, hoping he wouldn’t notice how nervous he still made you.

But of course, he noticed. You caught the faintest hint of a smirk on his face before he resumed eating, completely unfazed. And somehow, that only made your heart race even faster.

The clinking of silverware against the plates was the only sound between you and Tsukishima as you both finished dinner. It was a quiet moment, but not awkward—just the kind of comfortable silence that had begun to settle naturally between you two. You were about to gather the dishes when Tsukishima leaned back, glancing at you with a knowing look.

“You can go change. I’ll wash the dishes,” he said, his voice carrying that soft, direct tone that you’d come to recognize as one of his small acts of care.

You blinked, a little surprised, your hand freezing just as you were about to reach for the plates. Did he know that you had planned to rush to the sink—hoping to clean up quickly so you could change and head to the grocery store with him? The realization that he had noticed, or perhaps just anticipated your routine, made your heart warm slightly. But before you could protest or offer to help, Tsukishima stood up, gathering the dirty plates himself, his long fingers deftly handling the stack as he carried them to the sink.

For a moment, you just watched him—admiring the subtle way his back muscles shifted beneath his shirt, his movements smooth and efficient as he began rinsing the dishes. A soft sigh escaped you as you thought about how thoughtful he was. Being romantic and naturally kind were two different things, right? But with Tsukishima, the lines always seemed to blur. Maybe he wasn’t the overly affectionate type, but his quiet actions spoke volumes.

“You’re going to change, or just stand there staring?” His voice pulled you from your thoughts, and your face immediately warmed in embarrassment. Tsukishima wasn’t even looking at you, but he’d sensed it all.

With a quick jump, “I-I’m going!” you grabbed a fresh set of clothes from your drawer and hurried to the bathroom to change. You could hear the faint sound of water running and plates clinking as he washed the dishes, and you couldn’t help but feel a little guilty for letting him do it.

Once you’d collected your clothes, you changed in the bathroom, letting the coolness of your new outfit calm your sudden rush of emotions. The fact that he had noticed such small details about you, that he had even anticipated your next move, made your heart race in a way you weren’t used to.

When you stepped out of the bathroom, feeling refreshed in your clean clothes, Tsukishima was already waiting by the door. His tall figure leaned casually against the doorway, his eyes flicking to you briefly before he reached out his hand. You took it quickly, slipping on your sneakers with your free hand, the warmth of his palm making you feel slightly more at ease.

As you both stepped outside into the early evening air, the streets were quiet, bathed in the soft glow of the setting sun. Tsukishima unlocked his car with a beep, and as he always did, he opened the passenger door for you, gesturing for you to get in first. You couldn’t help but smile as you slid into the seat, appreciating the small gesture.

He walked around to the driver’s side and got in, starting the car with a low rumble. As he pulled out onto the street, the golden sunlight filtering through the trees created an almost dreamlike atmosphere inside the car. You snuck a glance at him—his profile lit by the warm light, the subtle focus in his eyes as he drove, his grip steady on the steering wheel. There was something comforting about being next to him like this, in the quiet space that only the two of you occupied.

“Didn’t think you were the type to leave dirty dishes behind,” he said, a faint smirk tugging at his lips as he looked at you sideways.

You laughed softly, squeezing his hand lightly in return. “I didn’t plan on it! You just swooped in so quickly.”

He hummed in acknowledgment, his eyes focused ahead. “Thought I’d spare you from rushing around.”

You smiled at his words, appreciating how well he knew you. He always seemed to understand the little things you didn’t even realize about yourself.

There was a beat of silence before he spoke again, this time in a quieter tone. “You want to get ice cream after I’m done with groceries?” he asked, glancing at you briefly before parking the car.

The mention of ice cream caught you off guard, and before you could even think about it, your face lit up with a grin. “Yes, please,” you answered eagerly, though you tried to keep your tone polite, not wanting to seem too excited. But Tsukishima noticed anyway, the faintest hint of a smile pulling at the corners of his lips.

“Thought you’d like that,” he muttered, a bit of teasing in his voice as he unbuckled his seatbelt and got out of the car. You couldn’t help but feel a bit giddy as you followed him into the store, his hand slipping into yours once more as if it was second nature.

The cool air of the grocery store greeted you as the automatic doors slid open. Tsukishima walked beside you, casually pushing the cart with one hand, while his other hand remained intertwined with yours. It was a small gesture, but it made your heart flutter. You glanced around the store, noting how brightly lit it was, rows of fresh produce on one side, aisles of packaged goods on the other. The slight hum of people moving about and the soft background music made the atmosphere feel almost peaceful.

Tsukishima paused for a moment, glancing at the list on his phone before steering the cart toward the vegetable section. His brows furrowed slightly in concentration, his long fingers tapping at the screen. You watched him for a moment, admiring how focused he seemed even with something as mundane as grocery shopping. It made you smile—how someone so seemingly distant and cool could still care about the little details.

“What?” Tsukishima asked, catching your gaze.

You quickly looked away, feeling your cheeks heat up. “Nothing, just… you look really serious about those vegetables,” you teased, trying to hide your fluster.

He raised an eyebrow, glancing down at the pile of vegetables in front of him. “Well, we need good ones. I’m not buying anything that’ll go bad in a day,” he replied, his tone neutral, though there was a hint of amusement in his eyes.

When he reached the hygiene aisle, he turned to you unexpectedly, “What hair product do you use?”

You blinked, surprised by the question. “Uh, I just buy whatever shampoo catches my eye each month. But my mom got me this hair mask and said I should use it every week.”

“What hair mask?” he asked, curiosity clear in his tone.

You walked a few steps to the shelf where the product was and pointed to a tub. “This one. It smells like cocoa,” you explained, trying not to sound too self-conscious.

Tsukishima took the container, examining it for a moment. “Why’s it so expensive for a hair product?” he mumbled under his breath. You couldn’t help but laugh softly at his confusion.

Suddenly, he reached out and gently picked up a strand of your hair, bringing it closer to his nose. “I was curious because your hair always smells nice,” he said casually, placing the container back on the shelf and moving to the next item. You stood there momentarily, blushing at the compliment, even though he had said it so nonchalantly.

Trying to hide the warmth creeping up your face, you fell back into step behind him, the interaction replaying in your head. After he finished collecting everything on his list, you both made your way to the cashier. The line moved slowly, but Tsukishima handed you his card before you had a chance to say anything.

“Go ahead and get the ice cream. I’ll meet you there after I pay for this,” he said, nodding toward the ice cream shop across the street.

Your face lit up at the suggestion. “What flavor do you want?” you asked, barely able to contain your excitement.

“Surprise me,” he replied with a small smile, clearly amused by your enthusiasm.

You grinned widely and, holding onto his card, headed toward the ice cream shop, trying to decide on the perfect flavor combination that would do the “surprise” justice. Tsukishima, meanwhile, watched you leave with a soft chuckle, shaking his head at how effortlessly happy you seemed when it came to something as simple as ice cream.

You looked over the options, your eyes drawn to the more unique flavors. “One cup of vanilla yuzu and one cup of blueberry sea salt, please,” you told the employee with a polite smile.

There was something thrilling about trying new flavors—your mom had always been the type to stick to the basics, buying you plain vanilla or chocolate, often with the cautionary “what if you don’t like it and throw it away?” But today, you wanted something different, something adventurous.

As you received the cups, Tsukishima walked into the shop, immediately spotting you. You smiled instinctively when you saw him, feeling a rush of warmth at the sight of him. He pointed toward a small table near the window, a cozy spot bathed in the fading golden light of the evening. You followed him as he pulled out a chair for you to sit first—a small, but appreciated gesture that made your heart skip.

Once you were both settled, Tsukishima glanced at the ice cream cups you placed on the table. His eyes shifted to you with mild curiosity. “What’s this?”

You grinned, practically buzzing with excitement to see how he’d react to the flavors. “Just try it,” you urged him, sliding one of the cups toward him.

He picked up the small plastic spoon and dipped it into the vanilla yuzu first, bringing the bite to his lips. His expression remained neutral, but you noticed the way his eyes softened slightly as he savored the taste, the sweetness of vanilla melding with the citrusy sharpness of yuzu.

“It’s good,” he said simply, placing the spoon down.

Your smile widened. “Yeah? Try this one,” you added, offering him a spoonful of the blueberry sea salt.

As he leaned in and took the spoon from your hand, you suddenly remembered the time he had casually sipped from your cup of hot chocolate before you got in a relationship. The memory made your cheeks flush slightly, and you quickly turned your attention back to your own ice cream, feeling the heat rise to your face.

Tsukishima hummed quietly in approval as he tasted the blueberry, though he didn’t comment further. His calm demeanor never wavered, but you could tell he preferred the first flavor from the subtle way his attention shifted back to the vanilla yuzu cup.

For a while, the two of you ate in comfortable silence, the sounds of the shop around you blending into the background. The occasional clink of spoons against the cups, the soft hum of conversation from other customers—it all felt peaceful, like time had slowed down just for you two.

After a few more bites, Tsukishima broke the silence. “I’m gonna be busy for the next two days,” he said, his tone casual, but his gaze fixed on you. “You okay with that?”

You smiled, shrugging nonchalantly. “Of course. We used to see each other by coincidence, remember? I can manage two days without you,” you replied, your voice light and playful.

Tsukishima’s lips curled slightly in amusement, his eyes glinting with a teasing edge. “Yeah—thought I should give you the experience of missing your boyfriend’s presence now that you have one.”

The teasing tone made your heart skip a beat, and before you knew it, you were playfully nudging his side, laughing at his comment. Tsukishima smirked, though there was a warmth behind it—a quiet understanding that, despite his teasing, you’d miss him more than you were letting on.

sorry i didn’t upload it sooner, and i missed kei’s birthday—bit i promise to post about it tomorrow, so i hope you guys still wait for this story to finish 🥹🥹

it’s been so hectic guys—but i miss writing and see your comments—they always lighten up my mood 🫶🏻✨🤧

tagslist (free to mention) ; @theweirdfloatything @snowthatareblack @ilovemymomscooking @nayiiryun @knightofmidnight @kozumesphone @scxrcherr @thechaosoflonging @monya-febrjack

[archaic-stranger]

the biochemistry students

marveling at the complexity of life on the molecular level

the reassuring weight of your favorite pipette in your hand

talking excitedly about a new enzyme you're studying

the background hum of incubators and centrifuges

reciting metabolic pathways until you know them by heart

an organized lab notebook, a record of all your hard work

a new respect for the intricacy of your own body

a chart of biochemical pathways hanging on your wall

chemical structures scribbled down in pen

working steadily and methodically on an important experiment

a row of beakers hung up to dry

sketching peptide side chains in the margins of your notes

understanding how molecular errors can lead to large-scale illness

the satisfaction of a perfectly clean gel

the sound of clinking glassware

mixing up batches of LB or buffer, the components as familiar as your favorite home recipe

a row of neatly labeled eppendorf tubes

memorizing all 20 amino acids

faith in your own abilities

irregular lab hours, writing a paper while you wait for your cells to grow

[wetslug]

wait heres a goddamn twist; i apparently dont have the alcohol dehydrogenase aka alcohol flush gene

try to drink alcohol past age 23 without getting nauseous challenge level: IMPOSSIBLE

[mindblowingscience]

In a striking new study published in Science Advances, a team of synthetic biologists led by Karen Sarkisyan at the MRC Laboratory of Medical Sciences, have reported the discovery of multiple plant enzymes—hispidin synthases—that can perform the most complex reaction of the bioluminescence pathway. This discovery is a significant milestone toward figuring out whether plants can natively produce all the molecules required for light emission. It also means that the glow of bioluminescent plants can now be more closely aligned with their internal biology.

Continue Reading.

[covid-safer-hotties]

also preserved at the archive

By: Jessica Wildfire

You don't need me to tell you how bad it's getting.

I'll tell you anyway, though.

As we drown in endless waves of Covid that generate millions of infections and thousands of deaths per week, our leaders have effectively stripped away every tool we have. They prefer a society that sacrifices themselves for short-term economic and political gains and then becomes ripe clientele for the pharmaceutical industry. They collude with the media to push out a daily barrage of misinformation aimed exclusively at ensuring we continue to work, shop, and vacation, because that's what they care about. Meanwhile, they do absolutely nothing about pandemics on the way as dozens of diseases spread out of control, at levels 10 times worse than normal. As the World Health Organization sounds alarms, telling us "we have arrived in the post-antibiotic era," and that we faced a future pandemic up to 20 times worse than Covid, our leaders focus on vibes. That last part should get our attention. Yes, we are here. We have arrived in the time when superbugs aren't responding to antibiotics. If that weren't bad enough, they're preying on our weakened immune systems.

And bird flu has likely gone human to human.

But it's not hopeless.

Four years ago, we looked to plants to protect us from pathogens because vaccines and treatments weren't coming anytime soon. The minute those vaccines and antivirals came out, most people forgot all about plants. They reverted to their old assumptions that plants were for hippies.

Well, here we are again.

Our vaccines and treatments are failing, and when they work they're often in short supply, or we can't even get access to them. Moms and dads are rolling out the NyQuil in little cutesie Facebook posts, along with all the pills that treat the symptoms but leave the disease itself to roam free all over your body.

We can do better.

As we mask while demanding clean air and better medicine, it's time to revisit those plants and see what they can do.

Do they even work?

Yeah, they do.

A 2024 review of studies in Viruses identified 10 different plant compounds with broad antiviral properties and effectiveness specific to Covid (and in many cases several other viruses). As they write, "plat-derived molecules can tackle viruses by acting on different aspects of their infection process" and "inhibit coronavirus/host protein pathways" by blocking them. The authors initially identified 45 different compounds and then narrowed them to the 10 most effective.

Plants work because they contain terpenoids, flavonoids, phenols, and alkaloids that all demonstrate "high anti-viral potential against SARS-CoV-2 particles" as well as other viruses. They do this in a variety of ways that work across variants because they block virus entry while also tamping down replication and essentially "stopping its life cycle."

Sounds good to me...

Let's get into it.

First, ginkgo biloba contains two bioflavonoids called quercetin and rutin that can block Covid's 3CLPro BS PL-pro enzymes, as demonstrated in two different studies that looked at how they bind to parts of the spike protein. According to an article in Nature, 3CLPro plays a central role in virus replication, specifically for Covid. Ginkgo also contains kaempfero that inhibits Covid's envelope protein E, "consequently suppressing virus activity and proliferation." G. Biloba also brings an anti-inflammatory effect that can help with recovery as well.

Second, turmeric and curcumin "can either bind directly to the receptor binding domain of the viral S-proteins or secure ACE2 receptors of the hosted cell." Basically, they stop viral entry into your cells. As the authors write, a curcumin derivative called bi-demethoxycurcumin "displayed the best binding affinity" to spike proteins.

It also works on the original SARS virus.

Third, a common spice called artemesia annua demonstrated antiviral activity in clinical trials. The group who took an artemisia compound called artemisinin-piperaquine "took significantly less time to reach undetectable levels of SARS-CoV-2 than the controls." In fact, artemisinins "are known for their extended-spectrum antiviral activity." An artemisia derivative called artesunate has shown effectiveness against both DNA and RNA viruses including hepatitis and HIV.

Artemesia compounds work similar to ginkgo by latching on to five different parts of the spike protein "which might explain its remarkable binding affinity." In addition to flavonoids like quercetin, researchers have identified di-caffeoylquinic acid as doing a lot of the heavy lifting here. Like curcumin, these flavonoids also bind to ACE2 receptors on your cells and protect them. Medical researchers are working on refining these compounds into artenimol, a single high-potency compound for giving to patients.

Fourth, nigella sativa (black cumin seeds) have shown antiviral activity by disrupting viral RNA transcription. Carvacrol and nigellidine extracted from these seeds "can block ACE2 receptors, thus inhibiting the SARS-CoV-2 entry into the host cells."

Fifth, ginger (6-gingerol, 8-gingerol, 10-gingerol) can inhibit parts of the Covid spike protein. Specifically, it's the bioactive compounds geraniol, shogaol, zingiberene, and zingiberenol that do the blocking.

Sixth, garlic (allium sativum) shows antiviral activity. It contains compounds called allicin, ajoene, and garlicin that work against several viruses in the same ways as the other compounds, by targeting spike proteins, disrupting transcription, and protecting your cells' entry channels.

Next:

Cinnamon at 50 ug/ml operates the same way as the other compounds, by blocking host cell entry and viral replication. Rosemary (rosmarinus officinale) shows effectiveness in blocking viral activity, even in a study that compared it to the antivirals remdesivir and favipiravir.

Want an unusual suspect?

It's dandelion.

Dandelion extract has shown to be "effective against influenza virus infection" and in higher concentrations "showed efficacy against spike proteins... and its different mutants" in human lung and kidney cells, while also helping to prevent the cytokine storm that's often so deadly in the acute stage. Here in particular, studies have shown that dandelion extract works regardless of the variant.

Finally, oregano (origanum vulgare) extract demonstrates antiviral activity against many DNA and RNA viruses, including Covid and HIV. As the authors write, extracts "showed remarkable efficacy against equine influenza virus, canine coronavirus, RS, and H1N1. In fact, it can inhibit up to 74 percent of viral activity at certain sites.

Again, carvacrol does the heavy lifting.

I've looked at other supplements and extracts with antiviral properties. They include grapeseed extract, grapefruit seed extract, olive leaf extract, echinacea, St. John's-Wort, and elderberry.

A 2024 study found that oleuropein, found in olive leaf extract, demonstrates high antibacterial activity at 130 mg/ml and high antifungal activity at 65 mg/ml. Another 2022 study found that oleuropein showed significant effectiveness against Covid in hospitalized patients when they were given 250-500 mg every 12 hours for five days. (No real difference between 250 and 500 mg.) The study also reviews previous research that oleuropein has shown effectiveness against other viruses, including HIV and influenza. It works the same way as other flavonoids, lectins, secoiridoids, and polyphenols, by blocking ACE2 receptors.

A 2022 study reviews available research on elderberry (sambucus nigra), confirming antiviral activity against HIV, flu, and coronaviruses. As the researchers write, adults in clinical trials "showed a significant reduction in symptoms, averaging 50 percent." Elderberry has also shown the ability to stimulate the production of immune cells. A 2019 study confirms that elderberry works against flu via "multiple modes of therapeutic action," including the inhibition of replication and host cell entry. An extensive 2021 study looking at prior research found that high-quality elderberry extracts enriched with anthocyanin work especially well.

A 2022 study in Nature found that a mixture of St. John's Wort (hypericum perforatum) and Echinacea showed significant antiviral activity against Covid. Specifically capsules with .9 mg of St. John's "can significantly reduce SARS-CoV-2 viral load," peaking at 36 hours after the start of treatment.

St. John's Wort works just fine on its own. The authors stress the importance of maintaining its concentration if you add other compounds like echinacea.

That said, a 2022 study in Frontiers in Pharmacology found that echinacea at 4,000 mg for 10 days led to a substantial reduction in viral load and fewer hospitalizations when used to treat Covid patients.

Here's a chart docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1cTJ3lXHPUW7AyrZPXQb63IjmhVbahRm_7Y5IMxKcqO8/edit?usp=sharing&ref=okdoomer.io

You can also look up most of these supplements and extracts on Mount Sinai's health library. They'll give you a good breakdown. It's a good idea to talk with a doctor if you're skeptical or not sure about interactions with other drugs, or look at the studies on your own. The studies linked in the sheet provide the most detailed dose information I can find, usually presented in a table. Duration runs around two weeks for an acute illness and 3-4 months for chronic infections like HIV.

Do I think it's sustainable to take high amounts of supplements all year long to ward off all kinds of airborne diseases, for the rest of our lives? Not really. That's why we absolutely need clean indoor air, masks, better vaccines, and better treatments. Until then, at least we have this information.

List of studies raindrop.io/JW_Lists/alternative-treatments-47681852

So there you have it.

If you've been wondering whether this stuff really works, the answer appears to be a loud yes. We need more research on dose amounts, but the studies all point in the direction of taking as much as you can while staying within the safe limits, for the duration of any time you feel at risk of getting sick.

Most of these extracts work against multiple viruses. They also help regulate your immune system and push it toward a less inflammatory response.

That's good to know.

My family has been using some of these supplements for several years, and it might explain why we've managed to steer clear of Long Covid. We still wear N95 masks everywhere. We advocate for clean air and better vaccines, along with better treatments. In the meantime, it looks like we can up our supplement game and that it's actually going to bring some benefit.

This isn't magic.

These plant compounds work the same way as many of the antivirals on the market. Medical researchers have been researching the antiviral properties of plants for decades, and cultures have used them for thousands of years. Given our current outlook, they're worth taking seriously.

Use what you can.

[er-cryptid]

Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductase

Patreon

[science-lover33]

🔬🌀Demystifying the Krebs Cycle: A Deep Dive into Cellular Respiration! 🌀🔬

Prepare for a thrilling journey into the heart of cellular metabolism! 🌟✨ Today, we unravel the intricacies of the Krebs Cycle, also known as the Citric Acid Cycle or Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle, a cornerstone of energy production in our cells. 💡🤯

The Krebs Cycle: Named after its discoverer, Sir Hans Krebs, this metabolic pathway occurs within the mitochondria and is a central hub in cellular respiration.

🔍Step 1: Acetyl-CoA Entry

Acetyl-CoA, derived from the breakdown of glucose or fatty acids, enters the cycle.

It combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate, a six-carbon compound.

🔍Step 2: Isocitrate Formation

A rearrangement converts citrate into isocitrate.

The enzyme aconitase facilitates this transformation.

🔍Step 3: Alpha-Ketoglutarate Production

Isocitrate undergoes oxidative decarboxylation, shedding a CO2 molecule and yielding alpha-ketoglutarate.

NAD+ is reduced to NADH in this step.

🔍Step 4: Succinyl-CoA Synthesis

Alpha-ketoglutarate loses CO2 and acquires a CoA group to form succinyl-CoA.

Another NAD+ is reduced to NADH.

This step is catalyzed by alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase.

🔍Step 5: Succinate Formation

Succinyl-CoA releases CoA, becoming succinate.

A molecule of GTP (guanosine triphosphate) is generated as a high-energy phosphate bond.

Succinate dehydrogenase is pivotal, transferring electrons to the electron transport chain (ETC).

🔍Step 6: Fumarate Generation

Succinate is oxidized to fumarate with the help of the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase.

FADH2 (flavin adenine dinucleotide) is formed and transfers electrons to the ETC.

🔍Step 7: Malate Formation

Fumarate undergoes hydration to form malate, catalyzed by fumarase.

🔍Step 8: Regeneration of Oxaloacetate

Malate is oxidized back to oxaloacetate.

NAD+ is reduced to NADH.

Oxaloacetate is ready to initiate another round of the Krebs Cycle.

The Krebs Cycle - an intricate dance of chemical transformations fueling the cellular machinery of life. 🕺💃 Dive deeper into cellular respiration, where molecules tango to generate ATP, our cellular energy currency!

📚References for In-Depth Exploration📚

Berg, J. M., Tymoczko, J. L., & Stryer, L. (2002). Biochemistry (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. Chapter 17.

Voet, D., Voet, J. G., & Pratt, C. W. (2008). Fundamentals of Biochemistry (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. Chapter 17.

Lehninger, A. L., Nelson, D. L., & Cox, M. M. (2008). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. Chapter 17.

[hiiragi7]

Wondering why PCOS is not considered medically to be under the CAH umbrella (since CAH is a group of conditions involving hyperandrogenism), does anyone happen to know the reason?

Is it the vagueness regarding the cause of PCOS, is it the amount of misunderstanding and misinformation surrounding PCOS, is it intersexism and misogyny? Or even a combination of these?

Looking at the literature, PCOS is indistinguishable from CAH without extensive bloodwork, and often CAH is misdiagnosed as PCOS due to less widespread knowledge of not only CAH's existence (despite it being extremely common) but also due to doctors rarely ever testing for anything that is not 21-OHD, if they decide to run tests at all. (Many PCOS patients are diagnosed without any tests or with only an ultrasound to check for ovarian cysts, which is not actually useful as any kind of evidence towards a PCOS diagnosis at all)

In fact, 3bHSD CAH at one point was even considered to be a type of PCOS rather than CAH. If the two are so similar, and CAH is already an umbrella term, why the distinction between PCOS and CAH at all?

If it's due to treatment implications, that doesn't seem to work because treatment implications are different even within different variations within the CAH umbrella and even further within the same CAH variation. My treatment needs and goals are different from someone with another CAH enzyme deficiency, because the location of the deficiency on the steroid pathway changes a lot about what your symptoms are and how to manage it. Someone with 3bHSD CAH may build up pregnenolone, while someone with 21-OHD CAH may build up progesterone, for example, and these can cause very different outcomes for physical health and needs. There's also vastly different implications between classic, non-classic, and salt-wasters.

Us all being lumped under CAH has never stopped us from accessing the different treatment we need for whichever variation we have. Being grouped under an umbrella label does not mean we are all suddenly the exact same and have the same needs. This is true across all umbrella diagnoses and across spectrum disorders, and CAH is not any different.

A person with XY chromosomes and 3bHSD CAH may have ambiguous genitalia while a person with XX chromosomes and 3bHSD CAH may have completely "typical-appearing" or only slightly virilized genitals, some people with CAH may be infertile while others have no issues with fertility, some have ovarian cysts and some do not, some will go through "typical" puberty and others will have ambiguous or "opposite-sex" puberty, so on.

What vast amount of differences are there between PCOS and CAH that are not present between 21-OHD and 3bHSD, 11-beta, and StAR? PCOS and NCAH can even be more alike to each other than CAH variations can be to other CAH variations.

When we have studies which struggle to differentiate PCOS from CAH even on a biochemical level, why are we so confident in saying that PCOS is not yet another CAH presentation, or that it does not belong underneath that umbrella?

TERFs don't touch this post, I don't want to hear your shit today.

[justkidneying]

Albinism

Albinism is a disease that causes a defect in the normal synthesis or transport of melanin. There are a couple different types, but the main distinction is the difference between oculocutaneous albinism (OCA) and ocular albinism.

Oculocutaneous Albinism

OCA is caused by an autosomal recessive mutation. There are seven different mutations that can cause albinism, though OCA1 to 4 are the common ones (with OCA2 being the most common). All of these different mutations affect the melanin pathway (the chemical reaction steps to turn phenylalanine into melanin).

OCA1 is caused by a mutation in the tyrosinase gene, which causes a lack of an enzyme in the melanin production pathway. There are actually two types of OCA1, with one having no tyrosinase, and the other having reduced tyrosinase. OCA1 is the most extreme form of albinism, which gives a person very pale skin, white hair, and light eyes.

The OCA2 gene (located on chromosome 15) encodes for the P protein, which is a transporter of a melanin precursor. This gene also has a large role in the color of iris a person will have. Those with OCA2 will have light skin, lighter brown or blond hair, and light colored eyes.

So basically, someone with a defect in either one of the transporters or enzymes of the pathway will not be able to have their melanocytes produce normal melanin. This leads to pale skin, white hair, and light-colored eyes (but it is a spectrum depending on the exact type).

Ocular Albinism

Ocular albinism is an X-linked mutation (a portion of the X chromosome is mutated). This means it affects males more than females. It causes loss of pigmentation in the iris. OA1 is the most common, and is associated with uncontrolled eye movements. OA2 is associated with color and night blindness. There is also a third type that is associated with deafness, but sometimes that also happens with OA1.

A fun fact: there is a type of albinism that only affects non-human animals called leucism. This leads to a partial loss of pigmentation that affects the hair, scales, feathers, and skin of the animal, but not the eyes. You can see this in white lions that have normally-colored eyes and noses.

Albinism and Eyesight

Now onto the role melanin plays in eye function. Albino people have poor eyesight as a result of their melanin deficiencies. But why? We're going to have to go into some eye stuff to answer this question.

So your retina has two parts: temporal and nasal (two halves, one closer to your temple and one closer to your nose). The input from each half is processed with the opposite half from the other eye. I have another post that explains this better. So, the optic nerves meet at the optic chiasm, with some fibers staying on the same side, and other fibers crossing over. Mammals with forward-facing eyes have larger temporal retina than mammals with lateral-facing eyes (like a guinea pig). About half of the optic fibers also remain uncrossed at the chiasm because of this.

Most people with albinism have almost all of their fibers cross at the chiasm, which is essentially a misrouting of very important sensory information. The eye structure is also changed with albinism, as most albino people have poorly formed fovea (the depression in the center of the retina where vision is the sharpest). They also have more blood supply than normal to the foveal area (it is supposed to be avascular). The retinal macula is usually poorly developed and there is a reduction in cone density (what allows you to see color).

Stereovision is also impaired, which is the ability to discern three-dimensional information about objects using the difference between the inputs from each eye. Those with albinism are also more likely to have nystagmus (involuntary eye movement) and strabismus (crossed eyes).

Albinism and Hearing

Now, onto the ear. The eye and ear are very intimately connected. The ear lets the eye know where to look for threats. This means that the visual and auditory spaces within the brain interact. Fun fact: when blind people are asked to localize sounds, the visual cortex is more engaged than the auditory cortex. Albino animals have fewer binaural cells, and more difficulty visually locating the source of sounds. A lot of the stuff related to this goes beyond the scope of what I want to explain here, but just understand that melanin is important for the development of both the auditory and visual systems of the brain.

Albinism and Immune Function

Finally, I want to discuss the immune system. Melanocytes are important cells for immune function, and release a lot of immune-promoting factors. For some reason, a lot of people think of those with albinism as having weak immune systems or being sickly. If you'll notice what I said earlier about the cause of albinism, it is a lack of transporters or enzymes in the melanin pathway. Not the lack of melanocytes. People with albinism still have these cells, it is only their ability to produce melanin that is impaired.

However, there are immune conditions that affect melanocytes, such as Chediak-Higashi syndrome. This is an autosomal recessive disorder that affects lysosomal trafficking proteins, and causes lysosomal function to be impaired. People with this disease will have frequent infections, platelet function impairment, as well as albinism. This means that albinism does not cause immune deficiency, but is a symptom of conditions that also affect the immune system.

[humancelltournament]

Propaganda!

Ubiquitin is a small (8.6 kDa) regulatory protein found in most tissues of eukaryotic organisms, i.e., it is found ubiquitously. The addition of ubiquitin to a substrate protein is called ubiquitylation (or ubiquitination or ubiquitinylation). Ubiquitylation affects proteins in many ways: it can mark them for degradation via the proteasome, alter their cellular location, affect their activity, and promote or prevent protein interactions.[4][5][6] Ubiquitylation involves three main steps: activation, conjugation, and ligation, performed by ubiquitin-activating enzymes (E1s), ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes (E2s), and ubiquitin ligases (E3s), respectively.

Dopamine (DA, a contraction of 3,4-dihydroxyphenethylamine) is a neuromodulatory molecule that plays several important roles in cells. It is an organic chemical of the catecholamine and phenethylamine families. Dopamine constitutes about 80% of the catecholamine content in the brain. It is an amine synthesized by removing a carboxyl group from a molecule of its precursor chemical, L-DOPA, which is synthesized in the brain and kidneys. In the brain, dopamine functions as a neurotransmitter—a chemical released by neurons (nerve cells) to send signals to other nerve cells. Neurotransmitters are synthesized in specific regions of the brain, but affect many regions systemically. The brain includes several distinct dopamine pathways, one of which plays a major role in the motivational component of reward-motivated behavior.