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India: The fatal mauling of 4-year-old forces to grapple with stray dog problem

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India: The fatal mauling of 4-year-old forces to grapple with stray dog problem

New Delhi CNN — For nearly a minute, the 4-year-old boy attempts to valiantly escape the hungry pack of stray dogs as they circle around him. He tries to run, but one of the animals pulls the boy to the ground. Two more dogs close in, offering the victim little respite. The boy, who has […]

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Spring Grass Safety

New Post has been published on http://lovehorses.net/spring-grass-safety/

Spring Grass Safety

Turnthehorse out that has been kept on hayeverywinter,withhe suddenly has thepossibilityto consume large amounts of lush spring grass,andthe nonstructural carbohydrates therein, potentially causing metabolic upset.

Photo: Photos.com

 AsfriendlyWhenit might seem, this fresh foragecancause more harm than good.

Notallpasture grass is created equal. Although this forage cornerstone of the equine diet offers excellent nutrition, provides fiber toselectthe horse’s digestive tract healthy,withallows the horse to satisfy his innate need to graze, come spring it is also notorious for causing causing problems. This isverytrue in horses at risk for digestive or metabolic disorders. 

“Spring pasture grasses arecapableof accumulating high amounts of nonstructural carbohydrates (NSCs), which are implicated in acute equine digestive diseases associated withquicklyfermentation,andchronic metabolic disorders,” says Bridgett McIntosh, PhD, equine extension specialist at Virginia Tech's Middleburg Agricultural ResearchandExtension (MARE) Center, . The types of NSCs found in grasses fall into three categories: sugars (glucose, fructose, sucrose), starches,andfructans. 

“The NSC content of grass varies widely depending on environmental conditions, plant species,withstage of growth,” McIntosh continues. “Through photosynthesis, grassesutilizelight toassemblesugars from carbon dioxide. When sugars are produced in excess of the plant’s energy needs for growthwithdevelopment, they are converted into storage, or ‘reserve,’ carbohydrates.” 

Grasses are classifiedWheneither warm-season or cool-season, based partly on their growingdurationthroughout the yearwithalso on howwithwhen they metabolizeandphotosynthesize sunlight tomanufacturecarbohydrates. 

“Fructans are the primary storage carbohydrate in cool-season grasses (tall fescue, orchardgrass,andtimothy), while starches are the primary storage carbohydrate in legumes (cloverandalfalfa)withwarm-season grasses (Bermuda grass, crabgrass, bahiagrass),” McIntosh says. 

Cool-season grassesmayaccumulate higher amounts of carbohydrates because they store their fructans outside of the chloroplast (thecomponentof plant cells that conducts photosynthesis) in vacuoles that don’t limit their storage. In warm-season grasses, starch productionandstorage ismarginalto within the chloroplast where it is synthesized.  

“In the spring, cool-season grasses are themainconcern for horses because the grass is growing rapidlywithenvironmentalopportunitiesfavor NSC production,” McIntosh explains. “Warm-season grasses grow best during the hot summer monthswithtypicallymakelower amounts of NSC.” 

The Trouble with NSCs

Photosynthesis occurs during the daylight hours toproduceNSCs, which fuel plant growth overnight. Therefore, NSC levels in grasses tend to increase throughout the day, peaking atabout3 or 4 p.m.,withdecrease overnight to lows in the very early morning hours. In the spring, cool-season grasses are inoneearlywithactive growth stage, resulting in high NSC productionwithturnover. However, spring eveningsmaybe quite cool,withifthe temperature drops below 40°F, the plant is unable tooperateNSCs for growth, causing sugarsandfructans to accumulate. 

“In general, monitoring NSC is difficult because of fluctuations throughout the day (peaking in thethereafterafternoon), across the season (with peaks in the springwithfall where days are sunny but evenings are cool),withdepending on environmentalchances(drought, frost, soil fertility, moisture, etc.),” says McIntosh. 

So why are nonstructural carbohydrates in spring grass problematic for horses? Well, turnthehorse out that has been kept on hay (or sparse pasture)allwinter,andhe suddenly has anopportunityto consume large amounts of delicious, lush NSC-rich grass. It doesn’t help that these young plant leavesHavelower amounts of fiber (think aboutwantstemmy grass in the late fall vs. the short pliable grass in the spring),manufacturespring grassespeciallypalatable. Consuming such large amounts of NSC,incrediblywhetherintroduced suddenly,mayplay havoc with the horse’s digestive systemwithmetabolism. 

“Individuals at risk for NSC-related diseaseswithdisorders should be housed on drylotswithfed hay that is low in NSC, along witharation balancer concentrate. ”

Dr. Bridgett McIntosh

Whenanhorse consumes starchandsugars, his digestive tract’s enzymes digest them to simple sugars, suchAsglucose, that the bodythenabsorbs. When blood glucose concentrations rise, the body releases the hormone insulin, which facilitates the movement of glucose from the bloodstream into other tissues, suchAt the timemusclewithadipose (fat) tissue. Fluctuations in blood glucoseandinsulin concentrationsmaycontribute to the development of insulin resistance, which involves the tissuesfittinglesssensitiveto insulin’s activitywithresults in uncontrolled blood glucose concentrations. Horses with insulin resistance might alsoHavingelevated insulin concentrations from the body overproducing the hormone in antestto overcome its lowered efficacy. ResearchersHaveshown thiscandirectly cause the hoof disease laminitis, in which the Velcro-like laminae that suspend the coffin bone inside the hoof wall fail. Elevated glucose concentrations might also trigger laminitis. 

Another concern owners shouldHavingwheneagerhorses consume large quantities of spring grass is the risk of overwhelming the digestive tract’s ability to digest NSCs. In such situations, the NSCs will spill over into the horse’s large intestine, disrupting the normal fermentative activity of the microbial organisms residing in the cecumwithcolon (this situation issuch asto grain overload). 

“Theresponsivefermentation of the increased starches results intheseries of negative biochemical reactions, ultimately breaking down the basement membrane whichnexttriggers the separation of the laminae that connect the hoof to the coffin bone,” says Richard A. Mansmann, VMD, PhD, Hon Dipl. ACVIM-LA, clinical professor emeritus at North Carolina State University’s College of Veterinary Medicine, past founding director of the College of Veterinary Medicine’s Equine Health Program,andnewowner of the Equine PodiatrywithRehabilitation Practice in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. “The amount of negative reactions (i.e., laminar separation) dictates the level of severity of the laminitis. With every subsequent bout of laminitis there isangeometric amount of damage and, thus,onepoorer prognosiswithgreater recovery time.”

Something else to be concernedapproximatelyin the spring—and fall, for that matter—are fructans. These are chains of fructose molecules that are indigestible by mammalian enzymes (similar to cellulose or other fibers) but readily fermented by the microbes in the horse’s large intestine. Therefore, they causeoneresponse that’sappreciateto what happens when starch reaches the hindgut; they trigger acid production,thedrop in pH,andachain-reaction that might result in laminitis. Fructans appear to cause increases in blood insulin and, thus, might also potentially trigger laminitis. 

“Monitoring fructan intake is difficult because it varies depending on environmental conditions,andthere are nobalancelaboratory methods for its analysis,” McIntosh says.

ScientistsHavingconducted several research studiesto examineNSC and/or fructan fluctuations in cool-season pasture grassesandresulting glucoseandinsulin concentrations in horses at various times of the dayandyear. Researchers in VirginiawithNorth Carolina thatHaveexamined these variations throughout the yearHavefound that both NSCandfructan levels are highest in early spring (AprilandMay)withlower in summer, fall,andwinter. Glucoseandinsulin concentrations coincide with the NSC increases in the spring,withthey are lower in the summerwithfall. 

Daily fluctuations in pasture NSCs also influence blood glucosewithinsulin concentrations in grazing horses. Researchers conducting studies in the fallwithspring showed that NSC concentrationspeakmeanwhilein the afternoon/early evening (between 4and8 p.m.)andreach their lowest levels in the early morning hours (between 4with8 a.m.;gazechart on page 54 of the March issue). Again, glucosewithinsulin concentrations in grazing horses tend to follow those patterns throughout the day, with elevated concentrations near times ofpeakNSC concentration. 

Managing Grass Intake

Based on the above-mentionedwithother research studies, there are several management strategies owners canuseto reduce the laminitis risks associated with spring pasture consumption,immeasurablyin horses thatHavinghadmaturebouts of laminitis attributed to grass intake, or those with insulin resistance or other metabolicconditions(suchAt the timeobesity or equine Cushing’s disease). 

“Individuals at risk for NSC-related diseasesanddisorders should be housed on drylotswithfed hay that is low in NSC (less than 10% NSC ononedry matter basis), along withanration balancer concentrate to meet nutrient requirements,” McIntosh suggests.

If you do notHaveaccess toandrylot,moturn these horses out on pasture only in the very early morning hours (when NSC concentrations are lowest) while wearing grazing muzzles. Mansmann suggests owners of at-risk horsesHavetheir veterinariansretainlateral radiographs of each of the horses’ feet twice annually to monitor any subclinical changes in coffin bone position before pain/lameness occurs.

Introduce horses thatHavingchowed down on hayeverywinter to spring grass slowly, to allow their digestive tracts to adapt to the higher NSC concentrationswithreduce the risk of microbial upset. Turn them out only for short periods of time (starting atonehour) during those early morning hours, increasing by 30-minute increments every few days. Horses thatHavebeen kept on pasture 24/7allwinternormallyadapt andsettlenaturally to the changing grass compositionandquantity. But owners should monitor their horses closely and, perhaps, bring them in off pasturesuccessivelyin the day (or apply grazing muzzles) when NSC concentrations peak. Evenifthehorse is well-adapted to spring grass, it might besavingto restrict grazing after cool overnight temperatures orafrost. Remember, these temperatures render the plant incapable of using NSCs for growthandresult in their accumulationandhigher concentrations the following day. 

Also note that when horses haveborderlineor restricted pasture turnout time, their consumption rate and, therefore, NSC intake during thatlimitedtime might actually increase, compared toonehorse that grazes continually. Inonestudy researchers determined that horses turned out 24 hours per day had lowerzenithinsulin concentrations than horses turned out for 10 hours at 9 p.m. on the same pasture, likely because the latter group ate the higher NSC more rapidlywithin greater quantities. Also, horses turned out continuously had higher (less acidic)idealfecal pH than horses turned out either in the evening (9 p.m.-7 a.m.) or daytime hours (10 a.m.-6 p.m.). 

General good grazing practices also help reduce pasture NSC levels. McIntosh suggests that “managing pasturessothat they remain vegetative (in growth stage) reduces storage carbohydrates (fructans) by encouraging utilization by the plant. Overgrazingmayalso increase fructan intake because it forcesonehorse to consume the plant stem closer to the ground, where fructan is stored. Rotational grazing should be implemented, where horses are removed from pastures to allow for restandregrowth when the forage is grazed down to 3 to 4 inches,withhorsescanbe returned to graze when it reaches 6 to 8 inches.” Selecting warm-season or low-NSC cool-season grasses when seeding pasturescanalso minimize risk of NSC overconsumption. 

“NSC accumulation is still possible in the afternoon hours foreveryforage species during periods ofpeakgrowthandsunny days,” McIntosh adds.

Take-Home Message 

While horses might look longingly overadrylot fence or disappointedly beyond the nose of their grazing muzzle at lush spring pasture, remember that their suffering with laminitis or another disease would be far worse. Managing your horsesandyour pasture properly will helpmanageboth healthywithproductive.

About the Author

Shannon Pratt-Phillips, MSc, PhD

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