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sixpossumsinatrenchcoat · 2 years ago

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Regrowth

(I wrote ch 1 as a oneshot, but life comes at you fast.)

Basil sleeps on his side with his knees hugged to his chest, like a seed that’s only just begun to sprout.

It’s warm. He’s warm and there’s an arm draped heavily over him. When he starts to stir, it tightens around his belly.

“Mh,” he mumbles. “S’ny?”

The arm slides up his chest, pulls him in closer.

“You’re lucky I’m not the jealous type,” a voice rumbles in his ear. Not Sunny’s. Aubrey’s. Aubrey. He’s in bed with—

Basil is suddenly, violently awake.

“Ohhh,” he whispers. “Oh, wow.”

There’s a rough little snicker, a puff of warmth against his neck. “I haven’t even done anything.”

“M-Maybe you could, though?”

“Heh heh. Yeah, I think that could be arranged.”

So... The good news is, Aubrey likes him back. Even though that’s insane, and illogical, and completely impossible… Against all odds, it also appears to be true.

—Or is that the bad news? Basil isn’t sure. Because an unrequited crush is, it’s—inconvenient, obviously. Personally. And of course it’s more than a little painful. But at least it’s self-contained. The only one who gets hurt is you. You can’t blow up a relationship that doesn’t exist.

Requited feelings, though. Dating, though. That’s—wow. That is a lot more pressure. There are a million trillion ways it can go wrong, even if you’re a normal person who doesn’t go around systematically setting fire to everything you love.

So… Once more from the top! The good news is, Aubrey likes him back. The bad news is, Aubrey likes him back. And the really bad news is: there is no way that Basil isn’t going to fuck this up.

###

Aubrey’s cute in the morning. Obviously. Aubrey’s always cute. She’s cute when she kicks down the door to his apartment on a sunny Sunday afternoon, and she’s cute when she’s picking a bar fight with some loser who won’t stop hitting on the nice girl she met in the bathroom. Aubrey is cute with a bow in her hair and a spark in her eye, and she’s cute with a bat in her hand and blood in her teeth.

(Basil squeezes his eyes shut, a little overwhelmed. She’s just. She’s so unfairly cute.)

But she’s especially cute in the morning. Her eyes are puffy and her voice is scratchy and she’s unusually soft, not yet armored in her usual threat-display of bravado and brute force. By light of day, Aubrey is fiercely self-reliant. But in the gray haze just after waking, she's almost needy. When Basil moves to sit up, she grumbles and pulls him closer.

“Nnn…no.”

He giggles. “No?”

Aubrey’s grip tightens. “...F’ve more minutes.”

“Ehehe…�� He wouldn’t mind if she asked for five more days. “Okayyy.”

Waking up with Aubrey is nothing like waking up with Sunny (which, for all its benefits, is not unlike cuddling a bag of hammers). Aubrey is soft all over. The small of her back, the nape of her neck. The wild tangle of her hair. Even the short fuzz of hair on her legs is flour-fine, like goose down. She smells like salt and honeydew, musky and sweet.

Basil doesn’t realize that he fell back asleep until Aubrey’s alarm goes off. Violently. With all the sonic force of a pipe bomb.

Basil jerks awake like his life depends on it. Aubrey doesn't even flinch.

“Aubrey?” he whispers. Then he realizes that whispering is probably not all that helpful, in the circumstances. He tries a gentle shake instead. “Auuu~breeyy. Do you want me to turn off your alarm? Or do you have to get up?”

“..F’ve more minutes…”

“I think it’s been a little more than that.”

She cracks one eyelid and squints up at him. “Ohhh… Cool hair. Cute.”

His hand flits to the end of his hair. He’d completely forgotten about that, given everything that happened after. Wow, he was totally right. Makeovers really are a great date idea. Sunny is going to eat his words.

Aubrey blinks a few times, bleary. Then all at once, she stiffens. “Wait. Is that my alarm?”

“D-Definitely.” Basil prefers to wake up gently. Soothing vocals, minor chords. Cat Power, Bon Iver. Widowspeak. Joni Mitchell, if he’s feeling really lively.

“Fuck.”

She rolls toward him and then swings a leg over him, trapping him against the sheets. She’s so so close. Her hair falls in sheets around him, blocking out everything else. A total solar eclipse.

“A-Aubrey?”

She presses in closer and then, just as his eyes fall shut, kisses him on the forehead.

“Oh,” he mumbles, strangely disappointed.

“Heh heh. Sorry. Just wanted to see that one more time. But my mouth tastes like a dumpster.” She rolls off of him and roots around in her hamper for a sports bra; gives it a quick sniff and grimaces, but pulls it on anyway. “I’d like to make you breakfast, but I kinda gotta run. Forgot I agreed to cover someone’s shift in—” She glances at her phone. “—yikes. Like… twenty-something minutes. You can stay as long as you want, though! I won’t be back till late, but, you know. Mi casa es su casa. Or if you’re cool to leap into action, I could walk you halfway?”

“I’m coming!” he says hastily. He’s sure that Aubrey’s distressingly hip warehouse-mates are very nice people, but that doesn’t make them any less terrifying.

###

Their departure gets briefly delayed when they climb out of the basement and find out that it’s pouring. Basil looks despairingly at his pants, which are real linen and also really very pink.

Aubrey follows his gaze and groans. “Guhh, okay, let me get you something else.”

“I don’t want to make you late…”

“I’m already doing it!!” she shouts, from halfway down the stairs.

Half a minute later she’s bounding up with a long gray skirt in one hand and a pair of sweatpants in the other. “Sorry, jeans totally suck in the rain, but I didn’t know if—”

Basil’s already stepping into the skirt and sliding out of his pants, which he rolls up neatly and slips into his knapsack. “I’ve never seen you wear this! It’s cute.”

“You’re cute.” Aubrey yanks the door open and nods at him to lead the way, slipping him an umbrella on his way past. Basil looks at it and frowns. It doesn’t look like she has more than one.

“You’re going to get—”

“Fuckin’ soaked, yeah,” she says cheerfully. “Aw, c’mon, don’t look like that. I’m a bike jockey, remember? Staying dry was never in the cards.”

###

She walks her bike beside him for the first half a mile, undaunted by the deluge. Basil is very slightly daunted, but it’s easy to feel brave with Aubrey leading the charge.

The rain makes her cheeks flush. It beads in her eyelashes, makes her eyes sparkle. And it makes the world feel appealingly small. The patter of falling water washes away the clamor of the city, and blurs the stares of passersby to a vague faceless haze. It feels a little like they’re the only two people in the whole harbor. It’s not a bad feeling.

When their paths diverge, Aubrey gives him a guilty smile.

“I really am sorry to run out on you,” she says, swinging a leg over her bike. “I’ll make it up to you. So for now just—I guess—try not to freak out too much? Uh… This wasn’t a one-off, it’s not all in your head, I haven’t taken a blow to the head in weeks… Am I missing anything?”

She’s not off-base, but Basil feels a little wounded anyway. “I’m not made of glass.”

“Thank god for that,” she tells him, and winks. “I’d hate to break you. Sunny’s home?"

“H-He should be.” Shouldn’t he? Sunny doesn’t have any classes today, but that doesn’t necessarily mean that he’s home. Oh, god. It hadn’t even occurred to Basil that Sunny might not be home. Who’s going to stop him from being insane if Sunny isn’t home?

Aubrey looks at her phone and grimaces. “Sorry, I can’t get away with being any later than this. But I’ll see you?”

“Don’t tell anyone,” Basil hears himself say. “Y-Yet. Sunny, and the others... I don’t think I’m ready to… I just think it still feels. Private.”

“Easy,” she promises, pedaling away. “I’ll text you!”

Alright. Okay. That makes him feel a little calmer. If no one knows what happened, last night can remain… a sort of waking dream. A kind of quantum state, where it only happened if either Basil or Aubrey are thinking about it.

(...Basil is definitely thinking about it.)

The warmth swelling from his chest feels almost too large to contain. For a second he can’t stop himself from grinning, a big dopey smile hidden by the wind and rain and Aubrey’s umbrella. Aubrey likes him. Aubrey likes him.

It’s almost inconceivable. If they hadn’t spent the last four years painstakingly piecing together the shards of their broken trust, he’d assume it was a prank. But Aubrey wouldn’t do that. Sometimes she doesn’t think about what she’s doing until after she’s done it, but she’s never cruel. Which means that she maybe actually likes him. (For now.)

It’s good. It’s good, it’s impossible, it’s insane, it couldn’t possibly have happened. It couldn’t possibly happen again. Why would Aubrey want to date Basil? Basil wouldn’t even date Basil. Dating Basil sounds like some kind of grim Sisyphean torment, divine punishment for hubris or blasphemy or committing the wrong kinds of war crimes. A fate much, much worse than death.

God, he’s pathetic. Aubrey’s been out of sight for two minutes and he already can’t believe that she’d ever look his way. And because no one else knows about it, it’s almost like it never even happened. Like the whole night was just some kind of waking dream.

Basil unlocks the front door with shaking hands and bursts into Sunny’s room.

“I slept with Aubrey,” he blurts out. Oh, god, what is he doing, that is the absolute worst place he could have picked to start. He just asked Aubrey to keep it a secret and now she’s going to know that he’s not just a tweaked-out little freak, he’s also a hypocrite. “N-No. Sorry. I didn’t—Let me start over. I might be— I think I’m dating Aubrey???? But I can’t understand why she would want to, if it’s a guilt thing or some kind of, I don’t know, penance, or something?”

Sunny looks dubious. “That doesn’t sound like Aubrey.”

“R-Right, but—” Hm. No, it really doesn’t. Aubrey mostly does what she wants. “Um. Um, but— Even if she did really l-like me, it’s… God, it’s almost worse. It just means that when I m-mess everything up, it’ll hurt her, too, and not just me. Everything is f-finally good again and now I’m about to Yoko Ono our whole world, our entire family, just because I have some stupid crush?”

“The Yoko Ono thing is mostly a misconception.”

“You know what I mean, Sunny!!!!!”

Sunny nods evenly. “But I’m not worried.”

“Why not????”

“Well. I guess I think… If killing Mari didn’t break us up. Probably dating won’t either.”

“...R-Right.” There is an undeniable logic to that, yes. “But—!! No, yeah, you’re p-probably right.”

Sunny gives him the look that roughly translates to, Obviously. “Did you have fun?”

“Huh?”

“Sleeping with Aubrey.”

“I didn’t mean to say it like that!!!” Basil wails. “...B-But. Um. Yeah. A lot. She’s… really cool, huh? She’s, like. Ehehe... She’s, wow, she is really sort of ridiculously cool.”

Sunny nods firmly. “Then I think it’s fine.”

“I agree with Sunny!” Kel chimes in, popping up from the mountain of blankets heaped behind Sunny. “Oh, woah! Cool hair, Basil!”

Basil literally falls over. “Kel??? S-So you—I guess you guys… worked things out?” Kel and Sunny have been doing the will-they-won't-they thing for ages. But it looks like they finally actually did.

“Oh. Yeah,” Sunny says calmly. “And Kel and I are in love.”

“Ehehe,” Kel chuckles, looking entirely too pleased with himself. “Totally.”

…Like it’s that easy.

For some people, maybe it is. Kel seems like the type to love recklessly. Obviously Sunny is a more complicated case, but. It’s like the years he spent alone instilled him with a certain carefree nihilism. Like all the fear was burned out of him, and now there’s nothing left in the world that can scare him.

Not like Basil. For Basil, fear and love have always been two sides of the same Mobius strip. He doesn’t even know what it would mean to love without fear.

He can feel it even now, jolts of lightning fizzing in his blood. It’s with him always, always readying to run.

Basil’s therapist says that his anxiety is a survival response. It’s just his brain doing its best to protect him against predators and bookkeeping errors and grief and embarrassment and heartbreak. She says that he should try to sympathize with it, if he can. Some of her clients find that it helps to think of it as—a sort of pet. A very poorly-trained, poorly-socialized, violently reactive pet. Like a high-maintenance working breed whose owners really only wanted a puppy, so now it stands at the foot of the stairs all night and screams.

He squeezes his eyes shut. He shouldn’t have told Sunny. Not like he should never have told Sunny, but he—he should have asked first, at least. He should have texted Aubrey to make sure it was okay. He's familiar with the old, 'ask for forgiveness, not permission’ gambit, but it's always struck him as dangerously optimistic, and just all-around ill-advised. Because some things can never be forgiven. Some mistakes are too big to forget.

When he opens his eyes, Kel is watching him worriedly. “You okay, dude? Anything I can do?”

“I have to text Aubrey,” Basil says, overloud and abrupt. That might be the biggest thing he learned from the black hole of his past. The longer you hold onto a secret, the worse it festers. Rotting away at your insides till there’s nothing else inside you. So when you screw up, the safest course of action is to come clean, immediately, and skip to the part where everyone’s already mad at you. Because you’re going to get there anyway. All you get to decide is how long to torture yourself first.

Hi Aubrey. I just wanted to apologize. I know I told you to keep it a secret but I panicked and accidentally told Sunny, but I didn’t see that Kel was here too, so I guess it’s not a secret anymore. I know I’m the one who asked, and I understand that it was really hypocritical of me. If you want to talk about it I’m around all day but if you don’t I don’t blame you. It’s been less than a day and the FIRST thing I did was break a promise and that’s obviously not a *great* sign so if it changes how you feel, I definitely get it. And I’m sorry that this message is so long, I already made you late and I really don’t mean to waste your—

It’s suspiciously quiet. When Basil glances up, he finds Sunny tapping away at his phone.

“What are you doing??? Y-Y-You’re not texting Aubrey, are you?”

Sunny gives him a scathing look. “Of course not.”

Basil breathes a sigh of relief. Right. Right, of course not. Even Sunny knows better than to do something like that.

“I’m texting Hero.”

Basil chokes on his breath. “Um??? About— About you and—”

“No.”

“About me and Aubrey???”

Sunny nods.

“Why???????”

“I’m not good at this stuff,” Sunny says, shrugging. “Neither is Kel. No offense.”

(“No, yeah, I am super not good at this stuff!”)

Basil looks from one to the other. “But—what even is ‘this stuff,’ though?? I’m not sure there’s anything to talk about???”

Sunny raises an eyebrow. “So you’re not freaking out?”

“I’m—” Well. Well… Well of course he’s freaking out. But it’s not like that’s particularly unusual. It definitely doesn’t merit an emergency summons for their most chronically overworked friend.

Sunny just shrugs. “I told him no one’s dying.”

###

Hero bursts in 45 minutes later, looking windswept and a little gray around the eyes. Somehow, the rain just made his hair look even more artfully tousled, even though it makes Basil’s hang in lank chunks and then frizz up like a dandelion gone to seed.

“Is everyone okay??” Hero demands. “Sunny said there was a—“ He squints at his phone. “‘Non-medical emergency?’ What’s going on?”

“Basil is dating Aubrey,” Sunny says calmly, from the couch.

“Oh, uh—congratulations? Or—” Mid-word, he notices his brother, who's wrapped around Sunny like a huge spindly overcoat. Hero's eyes bulge. “Sunny??? Are you— After we, uh, talked last night, did you guys…”

Sunny’s eye glitters. “…Onii-san.”

Improbably, Hero turns bright red.

“I hope that one day, you can think of me as a part of your family,” Sunny tells him solemnly.

Hero massages his temples, at least in part as an excuse to hide his face. “Sunny. You are part of my family.”

“Wow. I never thought it would happen so fast.”

“We must be really good at this!!” Kel agrees.

#omori photobomb #omori aubrey #omori basil #omori suntan #omori sunny #omori hero #omori timeskip #postgame #omori fluff #fair warning #the suntan is offscreen till ch 2

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halocantik · 3 years ago

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After: American Journal of the College of Nutrition, 2008, 27: 677-689

Honey for Nutrition and Health: a Review

Stefan Bogdanov, PhD, Tomislav Jurendic, Robert Sieber, PhD, Peter Gallmann, PhD1

Swiss Bee Research Centre, Agroscope Liebefeld-Posieux Research Station ALP, Berne, Switzerland

Key words: honey, nutrition, composition, glycemic index

Due to the variation of botanical origin honey differs in appearance, sensory perception and composition. The main nutritional and health relevant components are carbohydrates, mainly fructose and glucose but also about 25 different oligosaccharides. Although honey is a high carbohydrate food, its glycemic index varies within a wide range from 32 to 85, depending on the botanical source. It contains small amounts of proteins, enzymes, amino acids, minerals, trace elements, vitamins, aroma compounds and polyphenols. The review covers the composition, the nutritional contribution of its components, its physiological and nutritional effects. It shows that honey has a variety of positive nutritional and health effects, if consumed at higher doses of 50 to 80 g per intake.

1 Adress reprint requests to: Peter Gallmann, PhD, Swiss Bee Research Centre, Agroscope Liebefeld-Posieux Research Station ALP, CH-3003 Bern, Switzerland

Abbreviations: CHO = carbohydrate, GI = glycemic index, GL = glycemic load, ORAC = oxygen radical absorbance capacity; PGE = prostaglandin E; PGF = prostaglandin F, RDI

= recommended daily intake

Key teaching points:

· About 95% of the honey dry matter is composed of carbohydrates, mainly fructose and glucose. 5-10 % of the total carbohydrates are oligosaccharides, in total about 25 different di- and trisaccharides.

· The Glycemic Index of honey varies from 32 to 85, depending on the botanical source which is lower than sucrose (60 to 110). Fructose-rich honeys such as acacia honey have a low GI.

· Besides, honey contains small amounts of proteins, enzymes, amino acids, minerals, trace elements, vitamins, aroma compounds and polyphenols.

· Honey has been shown to possess antimicrobial, antiviral, antiparasitory, anti- inflammatory, antioxidant, antimutagenic and antitumor effects.

· Due to its high carbohydrate content and functional properties honey is an excellent source of energy for athletes.

· Most of the health promoting properties of honey are only achieved by application of rather high doses of honey such as 50 to 80 g per intake.

INTRODUCTION

As the only available natural sweetener honey was an important food for Homo sapiens from his very beginnings. Indeed, the relation between bees and man started as early as Stone Age [1]. In order to reach the sweet honey, man was ready to risk his life (Figure 1). The first written reference to honey, a Sumerian tablet writing, dating back to 2100-2000 BC, mentions honey’s use as a drug and an ointment [2]. In most ancient cultures honey has been used for both nutritional and medical purposes [2-5]. According to the bible, King Solomon has said: “Eat honey my son, because it is good” (Old Testament, proverb 24:13). The belief that honey is a nutrient, a drug and an ointment has been carried into our days. For a long time in human history it was an important carbohydrate source and the only largely available sweetener until industrial sugar production began to replace it after 1800 [2]. In the long human tradition honey has been used not only as a nutrient but also as a medicine [3]. An alternative medicine branch, called apitherapy, has developed in recent years, offering treatments based on honey and the other bee products against many diseases. The knowledge on this subject is compiled in various books [e.g.

6,7] or on relevant web pages such as www.apitherapy.com, www.apitherapy.org. The major use of honey in healing today is its application in the treatment of wounds, burns and infections which is not a subject of this review since it is reviewed elsewhere [8].

At present the annual world honey production is about 1.2 million tons, which is less than 1% of the total sugar production. The consumption of honey differs strongly from country to country. The major honey exporting countries China and Argentina have small annual consumption rates of 0.1 to 0.2 kg per capita. Honey consumption is higher in developed countries, where the home production does not always cover the market demand. In the European Union, which is both a major honey importer and producer, the annual consumption per capita varies from medium (0.3-0.4 kg) in Italy, France, Great Britain, Denmark and Portugal to high (1-1.8 kg) in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Portugal, Hungary and Greece, while in countries such as USA, Canada and Australia the average per capita consumption is 0.6 to 0.8 kg/year [see http://www.apiservices.com/].

Different surveys on nutritional and health aspects of honey have been compiled [8- 13]. However, as they are not complete and comprehensive, we undertook the task to review all the available relevant sources on this topic.

COMPOSITION

Table 1 The overall composition of honey is shown in Table 1. The carbohydrates are the main constituents, comprising about 95% of the honey dry weight. Beyond carbohydrates, honey contains numerous compounds such as organic acids, proteins, amino acids, minerals, polyphenols, vitamins and aroma compounds.

Summarising the data shown in Table 1 it can be concluded that the contribution of honey to the recommended daily intake is small. However, its importance with respect to nutrition lies in the manifold physiological effects [16]. It should be noted that the composition of honey depends greatly on the botanical origin [17], a fact that has been seldom considered in the nutritional and physiological studies.

Table 2

Carbohydrates

The main sugars are the monosaccharides fructose and glucose. Additionally, about 25 different oligosacharides have been detected [18,19]. The principal oligosaccharides in blossom honey are the disaccharides sucrose, maltose, trehalose and turanose, as well as some nutritionally relevant ones such as panose, 1-kestose, 6-kestose and palatinose. Compared to blossom honey honeydew honey contains higher amounts of the oligosaccharides melezitose and raffinose. In the process of digestion after honey intake the principal carbohydrates fructose and glucose are quickly transported into the blood and can be utilized for energy requirements by the human body. A daily dose of 20 g honey will cover about 3% of the required daily energy (Table 2).

Proteins, enzymes and amino acids

Honey contains roughly 0.5% proteins, mainly enzymes and free amino acids. The contribution of that fraction to human protein intake is marginal (Table 2).

The three main honey enzymes are diastase (amylase), decomposing starch or glycogen into smaller sugar units, invertase (sucrase, α-glucosidase), decomposing

sucrose into fructose and glucose, as well as glucose oxidase, producing hydrogen peroxide and gluconic acid from glucose.

Table 3

Vitamins, minerals and trace compounds

The amount of vitamins and minerals is small and the contribution of honey to the recommended daily intake (RDI) of the different trace substances is marginal (Table 2). It is known that different unifloral honeys contain varying amounts of minerals and trace elements [26]. From the nutritional point of view chromium, manganese and selenium are important, especially for 1 to 15 years old children. The elements sulphur, boron, cobalt, fluoride, iodide, molybdenum and silicon can be important in human nutrition too, although there are no RDI values proposed for these elements (Table 3).

Honey contains 0.3-25 mg/kg choline and 0.06 to 5 mg/kg acetylcholine [12]. Choline is essential for cardiovascular and brain function as well as for cellular membrane composition and repair, while acetylcholine acts as a neurotransmitter.

Aroma compounds, taste-building compounds and polyphenols

There is a wide variety of honeys with different tastes and colours, depending on their botanical origin [29]. The sugars are the main taste-building compounds.

Generally, honey with a high fructose content (e.g. acacia) are sweeter compared to those with high glucose concentration (e.g. rape). The honey aroma depends also on the quantity and type of acids and amino acids present. In the past decades extensive research on aroma compounds has been carried out and more than 500 different volatile compounds were identified in different types of honey. Indeed, most aroma building compounds vary in the different types of honey depending on its botanical origin [30]. Honey flavour is an important quality for its application in food industry and also a selection criterion for the consumer’s choice.

Polyphenols are another important group of compounds with respect to the appearance and the functional properties of honey. 56 to 500 mg/kg total polyphenols were found in different honey types [31,32]. Polyphenols in honey are mainly flavonoids (e.g. quercetin, luteolin, kaempferol, apigenin, chrysin, galangin), phenolic acids and phenolic acid derivatives [33]. These are compounds known to have antioxidant properties. The main polyphenols are the flavonoids, their content can vary between 60 and 460 μg/100 g of honey and was higher in samples produced during a dry season with high temperatures [34].

Contaminants and toxic compounds

The same as any other natural food, honey can be contaminated by the environment, e.g. by heavy metals, pesticides, antibiotics etc. [35]. Generally, the contamination levels found in Europe do not present a health hazard. The main problem in recent years was the contamination by antibiotics, used against the bee brood diseases, but at present this problem seems to be under control. In the European Union antibiotics are not allowed for that purpose, and thus honey containing antibiotics is also not permitted to be traded on the market.

A few plants used by bees are known to produce nectar containing toxic substances. Diterpenoids and pyrrazolidine alkaloids are two main toxin groups relevant in nectar. Some plants of the Ericaceae family belonging to the sub-family Rhododendron, e.g. Rhododendron ponticum contain toxic polyhydroxylated cyclic hydrocarbons or diterpenoids [36]. The substances of the other toxin group, the pyrrazolidine alkaloids, found in different honey types and the potential intoxication by these substances is reviewed [37]. Cases of honey poisoning have been reported rarely in the literature and have concerned individuals from the following regions: Caucasus, Turkey, New Zealand, Australia, Japan, Nepal, South Africa, and also some countries in North and South America. Observed symptoms of such honey poisoning are vomiting, headache, stomach ache, unconsciousness, delirium, nausea and sight weakness. In general the poisonous plants are known to the local beekeepers and honey, which can possibly contain poisonous substances, is not marketed. To minimise risks of honey born poisoning in countries where plants with poisonous nectar are growing tourists are advised to buy honey in shops and not on the road and from individual beekeepers.

Table 4

Glycemic index and fructose

The impact of carbohydrates on human health is discussed controversially, especially the understanding of how the carbohydrates of a given food affect the blood glucose level. Today, the dietary significance of carbohydrates is often indicated in terms of the glycemic index (GI). Carbohydrates with a low GI induce a small increase of glucose in blood, while those with a high GI induce a high blood glucose level. The only comprehensive data on honey GI are the one presented in Table 4, based mainly on data of different Australian honeys [38,39]. There is a

significant negative correlation between fructose content and GI, probably due to the different fructose/glucose ratios of the honey types tested. It is known that unifloral honeys have varying fructose content and fructose/glucose ratios [17]. Some honeys, e.g. acacia and yellow box, with relatively high concentration of fructose, have a lower GI than other honey types (Table 4). There was no significant correlation between GI and the other honey sugars. The GI values of 4 honeys found in one study varied between 69 and 74 [40], while in another one the value of a honey unidentified botanical origin was found to be 35 [41]. As the GI concept claims to predict the role of carbohydrates in the development of obesity [42], low GI honeys might be a valuable alternative to high GI sweeteners. In order to take into consideration the quantity of ingested food, a new term, the glycemic load, was introduced. It is calculated as follows: the GI value is multiplied by the carbohydrate content in a given portion and divided by 100. Values lower than 10 are considered low, between 10 and 20 are intermediate and above 20 belong to the category high. For an assumed honey portion of 25 g the glycemic load of most honey types is low and some types are in the intermediate range (Table 4).

The GI concept was developed to provide a numeric classification of carbohydrate foods, assuming that such data are useful in situations where the glucose tolerance is impaired. Therefore, food with a low GI should provide benefits with respect to diabetes and to the reduction of coronary heart disease [43]. The consumption of honey types with a low GI, e.g. acacia honey might have beneficial physiological effects and could be used by diabetes patients. An intake of 50 g honey of unspecified type by healthy people and diabetes patients led to smaller increases of blood insulin and glucose than the consumption of the same amounts of glucose or of a sugar mixture resembling to honey [44,45]. It was shown that consumption of honey has a favourable effect on diabetes patients, causing a significant decrease of plasma glucose [46-48]. Honey was well tolerated by patients with diabetes of unspecified type [49] and by diabetes type-2 patients [50-52]. According to recent studies, long term consumption of food with a high GI is a significant risk factor for type-2 diabetes patients [53]. However, the GI concept for the general population is still an object of discussions [54].

Fructose is the main sugar in most honey types (Table 1). A surplus consumption of fructose in today’s American diet, mainly in the form of high-fructose corn syrup, is suspected to be one of the main causes for overweight problems [55]. By reviewing

clinical studies these authors found that fructose ingestion causes a rise of de-novo lipogenesis, which has an unfavourable effect on energy regulation and on body weight. In rat feeding experiments the hypertriglyceridemic effect observed after intake of fructose does not take place after feeding of honey [56]. Compared to rats fed with fructose, honey-fed rats had higher plasma a-tocopherol levels, higher a- tocopherol/triacylglycerol ratios, lower plasma NOx concentrations and a lower susceptibility of the heart to lipid peroxidation. These data suggest a potential nutritional benefit of substituting fructose by honey in the ingested diets.

Ingestion of both honey (2 g/kg body weight) and fructose prevented the ethanol- induced transformation of erythrocytes in mice. In humans faster recovery from ethanol intoxication after honey administration has been reported while a higher ethanol elimination rate has also been confirmed [58,59].

Table 5

Table 6

DIFFERENT PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Antimicrobial, antiviral and antiparasitic activity

Honey inhibits the growth of micro-organisms and fungi. The antibacterial effect of honey, mostly against gram-positive bacteria, is well documented [60-63]. Both bacteriostatic and bactericidal effects have been reported for many strains, many of them pathogenic (Table 5). Further, it was reported that honey has also been shown to inhibit Rubella virus in vitro [64], three species of the Leishmania parasite [65] and Echinococcus [66].

The antimicrobial effect of honey is due to different substances and depends on the botanical origin of honey [60-63]. The low water activity of honey inhibits bacterial growth. Honey glucose oxidase produces the antibacterial agent hydrogen peroxide [67], but the peroxide production capacity depends also on honey catalase activity [68]. There are also other non-peroxide antibacterial substances with different chemical origin, e.g. aromatic acids [69], unknown compounds with different chemical properties [63] and phenolics and flavonoids [70,71]. The low honey pH can also be responsible for the antibacterial activity [72].

Contrary to the non-peroxide activity, the peroxide one can be destroyed by heat, light and storage [63] (Table 6). These different factors had a bigger effect on the antibacterial activity of blossom honey than on honeydew honey. Thus, for optimum antibacterial activity, honey should be stored in a cool, dark place and be consumed when fresh.

Table 7

Antioxidant effects

The term “oxidative stress” describes the lack of equilibrium between the production of free radicals and the antioxidant protective activity in a given organism. Protection against oxidation is thought to prevent some chronic diseases [73]. The oxidative modification of the lipoproteins is considered to be an important factor for the pathogenesis of arteriosclerosis [74]. Honey has been found to contain significant antioxidant activity including glucose oxidase, catalase, ascorbic acid, flavonoids, phenolic acids, carotenoid derivatives, organic acids, Maillard reaction products, amino acids and proteins [31,75-84]. The antioxidative activity of honey polyphenols can be measured in vitro by comparing the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) with the total phenolics concentration (Table 7). There is a significant correlation between the antioxidant activity, the phenolic content of honey and the inhibition of the in vitro lipoprotein oxidation of human serum [85]. Furthermore, in a lipid peroxidation model system buckwheat honey showed a similar antioxidant activity as 1 mM α-tocopherol [83]. The influence of honey ingestion on the antioxidative capacity of plasma was tested in two studies [86,87]. In the first one, the trial persons were given maize syrup or buckwheat honeys with a different antioxidant capacity in a dose of 1.5 g/kg body weight. In comparison to the sugar control, honey caused an increase of both the antioxidant and the reducing serum capacity. In the second study humans received a diet supplemented with a daily honey serving of 1.2 g/kg body weight. Honey increased the body antioxidant agents: blood vitamin C concentration by 47%, β-carotene by 3%, uric acid by 12%, and glutathione reductase by 7% [87]. It should be borne in mind that the antioxidant activity depends on the botanical origin of honey and varies to a great extent in honeys from different botanical sources [31,77,78,88-90].

The impact of heat and storage time on the antioxidant capacity of clover and buckwheat honey was analysed recently [91]. While processing of clover honey did not significantly influence its antioxidant capacity, storage during 6 months reduced it by about 30%. After a given storage period the antioxidant capacity of processed and raw honeys was similar. In another study both antioxidant activity and brown pigment formation increased upon heat treatment and storage [92].

Antimutagenic and antitumor activity

Mutagenic substances act directly or indirectly by promoting mutations of the genetic structure. During the roasting and frying of food heterocyclic amines are formed, e.g. Trp-p-1 (3-Amino-1,4-dimethyl-5H-pyridol [4,3-b] indole). The antimutagenic activity of honeys from seven different floral sources (acacia, buckwheat, fireweed, soybean, tupelo and Christmas berry) against Trp-p-1 was tested by the Ames assay and compared to a sugar analogue as well as to individually tested simple sugars [93]. All honeys exhibited a significant inhibition of Trp-p-1 mutagenicity. Glucose and fructose were found to have a similar antimutagenic activity as honey. Nigerose, another sugar, present in honey [18,19] has an immunoprotective activity [94]. The anti-metastatic effect of honey and its possible mode of anti-tumor action was studied by the application of honey in spontaneous mammary carcinoma in methylcholanthrene-induced fibrosarcoma of CBA mice and in anaplastic colon adenocarcinoma of Y59 rats [95]. A statistically significant anti-metastatic effect was achieved by oral application of honey. These findings indicate that honey activates the immune system and honey ingestion may be advantageous with respect to cancer and metastasis prevention. In addition, it is postulated that honey given orally before tumour cell inoculation may have a decreased effect on tumour spreading. In another study of the same group the effect of honey on tumour growth, metastasising activity and induction of apoptosis and necrosis in murine tumour models (mammary and colon carcinoma) was investigated [96]. A pronounced antimetastatic effect was observed when honey was applied before tumour-cell inoculation (per oral 2 g kg-1 for mice or 1 g kg-1 for rats, once a day for 10 consecutive days).

In another study the anti-tumour effect of honey against bladder cancer was examined in vitro and in vivo in mice [97]. According to these results honey is an effective agent for inhibiting the growth of different bladder cancer cell lines (T24, RT4, 253J and MBT-2) in vitro. It is also effective when administered intralesionally or orally in the MBT-2 bladder cancer implantation mice models.

Anti-inflammatory effects

Anti-inflammatory effects of honey in humans were studied by Al Waili and Boni [98] after ingestion of 70 g honey. The mean plasma concentration of thromboxane B(2) was reduced by 7%, 34%, and 35%, that of PGE(2) by 14%, 10%, and 19% at 1, 2,

and 3 hours, respectively, after honey ingestion. The level of PGF(2a) was decreased by 31% at 2 hours and by 14% at 3 hours after honey ingestion. At day 15, plasma concentrations of thromboxane B(2), PGE(2) and PGF(2a) decreased by 48%, 63% and 50%, respectively. The ingestion of honey decreased inflammation in an experimental model of inflammatory bowel disease in rats [99]. Honey administration is as effective as prednisolone treatment in an inflammatory model of colitis. The postulated mechanism of action is by preventing the formation of free radicals released from the inflamed tissues. The reduction of inflammation could be due to the antibacterial effect of honey or to a direct antiinflammatory effect. The latter hypothesis was supported in animal studies, where antiinflammatory effects of honey were observed in wounds with no bacterial infection [100].

Various physiological effects

The effect of honey on the antibody production against thymus-dependent antigen in sheep red blood cells and thymus-independent antigen (Escherichia coli) in mice was studied [101]. Oral honey intake stimulates antibody production during primary and secondary immune responses against thymus-dependent and thymus- independent antigens.

In animal experiments honey showed an immunosuppressive activity [102]. This might explain why it has been hypothesised, that ingestion of honey can relieve pollen hypersensitivity.

In a study humans received a diet supplemented with a daily honey consumption of

1.2 g/kg body weight [87]. The effects observed in blood serum were an increase of monocytes (50 %), iron (20%), copper (33%), a slight increase of lymphocyte and eosinophil percentages, zinc, magnesium, hemoglobin and packed cell volume and a reduction of: ferritin (11%), immunoglobulin E (34%), aspartate transaminase (22%), alanine transaminase (18%), lactic acid dehydrogenase (41%), creatine kinase (33%) and fasting sugar (5%).

NUTRITION AND HEALTH EFFECTS

Oral health

There is much debate whether honey is harmful to teeth. Some reports show a cariogenic effect of honey [103-106] or a much less cariogenic effect than sucrose

[107]. Due to its antibacterial activity honey ingestion inhibits the growth of bacteria, causing caries [108,109] and might induce a carioprotective effect [110,111]. It was shown that Manuka honey, a very potent antimicrobial honey, has a positive effect against dental plaque development and gingivitis [112] and can be used instead of refined sugar in the manufacture of candy [109].

According to electron microscope studies the ingestion of honey causes no erosion of tooth enamel as observed after drinking fruit juice [113]. Ten minutes after consumption of fruit juice tooth erosion was observed, while 30 minutes after honey ingestion the erosion was only very weak. This effect can be explained only partially by the calcium, phosphorous and fluoride levels of honey and other colloidal honey components might also play a role.

Summarising the different findings, it can be concluded that honey is probably not as cariogenic as other sugars and in some cases it can be carioprotective. But to be on the safe side, it is advised to clean the teeth after consumption of honey.

Gastroenterology

According to the Muslim holy book “The Holy Hadith”, dating back to the 8th century AD prophet Mohamed recommended honey against diarrhoea [114]. Also, the Roman physician Celsus (ca. 25 AD) used honey as a cure for diarrhoea [115]. The application of honey for prevention and treatments of gastro-intestinal disorders such as peptic ulcers, gastritis, gastroenteritis has been reported in various books and publications from Eastern Europe [6,7,116-120] and from Arab countries [121].

Honey is a potent inhibitor of the causing agent of peptic ulcers and gastritis, Helicobacter pylori [122-124]. In rats honey acted against gastric ulcers experimentally induced by indomethacin and alcohol [125-128]. Honey is not involved in prostaglandin production, but it has a stimulatory effect on the sensory nerves in the stomach that respond to capsaicin [125,129]. A second mechanism of action has been proposed, postulating that this effect is due to the antioxidant properties of honey. Honey intake in rats prevented indomethacin-induced gastric lesions in rats by reducing the ulcer index, microvascular permeability, and myeloperoxidase activity of the stomach [130]. In addition, honey was found to maintain the level of non-protein sulfhydryl compounds (e.g. glutathione) in gastric tissue subjected to factors inducing ulceration [125,129,131,132]. Ingestion of dandelion honey reduced gastric juice acidity by 56% [133]. The gastric emptying of

saccharides after ingestion of honey was slower than that after ingestion of a mixture of glucose and fructose [134].

Other important effects of honey on human digestion have been linked to oligosaccharides. These honey constituents have prebiotic effects, similar to that of fructo-oligosaccharides [135,136]. The oligosaccharide panose was the most active oligosaccharide. The oligosaccharides cause an increase of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli and exert the prebiotic effect in a synergistic mode of action [137].

According to an invitro study on five bifidobacteria strains honey has a growth promoting effect similar to that of fructose and glucose oligosaccharides [138]. Unifloral honeys of sour-wood, alfalfa and sage origin stimulated the growth of five human intestinal bifidobacteria [139]. In another study honey increased both in vivo (small and large intestines of rats) and in vitro the building of Lactobacillus acidophilus and Lactobacillus plantarum, while sucrose had no effect [140].

In clinical studies with infants and children honey shortens the duration of bacterial diarrhoea and did not prolong the duration of non-bacterial diarrhoea [141].

In certain cases, consumption of relatively large amounts of honey (50 to 100 g) can lead to a mild laxative effect in individuals with insufficient absorption of honey fructose [142,143]. Fructose alone is less readily absorbed in the intestinal tract than fructose together with glucose [144]. The mild laxative properties of honey are used for the treatment of constipation in Eastern Europe [6].

Supplementation of honey in concentrations of 2, 4, 6 and 8 g/100 g protein fed to rats, improved protein and lipid digestibility [145].

Cardiovascular health

The effects of ingestion of 75 g of natural honey compared to the same amount of artificial honey (fructose plus glucose) or glucose on plasma glucose, plasma insulin, cholesterol, triglycerides (TG), blood lipids, C-reactive proteins and homocysteine, most of them being risk factors for cardiovascular diseases, were studied in humans [47]. Elevation of insulin and C-reactive protein was significantly higher after glucose intake than after honey consumption. Glucose reduced cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C). Artificial honey slightly decreased cholesterol and LDL-C and elevated TG. Honey reduced cholesterol, LDL-C, and TG and slightly elevated high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C). In patients with hypertriglyceridemia, artificial honey increased TG, while honey decreased TG. In

patients with hyperlipidemia, artificial honey increased LDL-C, while honey decreased LDL-C. In diabetic patients, honey compared with dextrose caused a significantly lower rise of plasma glucose [47].

Honey can contain nitric oxide (NO) metabolites which are known indicators for cardiovascular disease risk. Increased levels of nitric oxides in honey might have a protecting function in cardiovascular diseases. Total nitrite concentration in different biological fluids from humans, including saliva, plasma, and urine was measured after ingestion of 80 g of honey [146,147]. Salivary, plasma and urinary NO metabolite concentrations showed a tendency to increase. Different honey types contained various concentrations of NO metabolites, darker or fresh honeys containing more NO metabolites than light or stored honey. After heating, NO metabolites decreased in all honey types.

Compared to fructose-fed rats, honey-fed rats had a higher plasma a-tocopherol level, and a higher a-tocopherol/triacylglycerol ratio, as well as lower plasma nitrate levels and lower susceptibility of the heart to lipid peroxidation [56].

Infants

The application of honey in infant nutrition used to be a common recommendation during the last centuries and there are some interesting observations. Infants on a diet with honey had better blood formation and a higher weight gain than when a diet without honey was applied [148]. Honey was better tolerated by babies than sucrose

[149] and compared to a water based placebo significantly reduced the crying phases of infants [150]. Infants had a higher weight increase when fed by honey than by sucrose, and showed less throw up than the sucrose controls [151]. When infants were fed on honey rather than on sucrose an increase of haemoglobin content, a better skin colour and no digestion problems were encountered [152,153]. Infants on honey diet had a better weight increase and were less susceptible to diseases than infants fed normally or when given blood building agents [148].

The positive effects of honey in infant diet are attributed to effects on the digestion process. One possible cause is the well established effect of oligosaccharides on B. bifidus [154], see also section Gastroenterology. When fed on a mixture of honey and milk infants showed a regularly steady weight gain and had an acidophilic micro- organism flora rich in B. bifidus [155]. Another experiment with honey and milk showed that infants were suffering less frequently from diarrhoea, and their blood

contained more haemoglobin compared to those on a diet based on sucrose sweetened milk [152]. Honey fed infants had an improved calcium uptake, and lighter and thinner faeces [156].

However, there is a health concern for infants regarding the presence of Clostridium (Cl.) botulinum in honey. Since the presence of this bacterium in natural foods is ubiquitous and honey is a non sterilized packaged food from natural origin the risk of a low contamination level cannot be excluded. Spores of this bacterium can survive in honey, but they cannot build toxin. Thus, in the stomach of infants younger than one year the bacteria spores from honey can survive and theoretically build the toxin, while children older than 12 months can ingest honey without any risk. In some cases, infant botulism has been attributed to ingestion of honey [157-160]. In Germany one case of infant botulism per year is reported [160]. As a result of the reported infant botulism cases some honey packers (e.g. the British Honey Importers and Packers Association) place a warning on the honey label that “honey should not be given to infants under 12 months of age”. Recently, a scientific committee of the EU examined the hazard of Cl. botulinum in honey [161]. It has concluded that microbiological examinations of honey are necessary for controlling the spore concentration in honey, as the incidence of Cl. botulinum is relatively low and sporadic and as such tests will not prevent infant botulism. In the EU countries the health authorities have not issued a regulation for placing a warning label on honey jars.

Athletic performance

The physiological action of gel and powdered forms of honey as a carbohydrate source for athlete performance was studied recently under controlled conditions by Kreider and coworkers [162-165]. Honey increased significantly the heart frequency and the blood glucose level during the performance [162]. It did not promote physical or psychological signs of hypoglycaemia in fasted athletes [163], or during resistance training [164]. In another trial the effect of low and high GI carbohydrate gels and honey were tested on a 64 km cycling performance [162,165]. Both high (glucose) and low GI (honey) gels increased cycling performance and the effect of honey was slightly better than the one of glucose. According to the above studies honey is well tolerated and can be an effective carbohydrate source for athletic performance.

Different health enhancing effects

A positive effect of honey on hepatitis A patients was found after ingestion of clover and rape honey, causing a decrease of the alanine aminotranferase activity (by 9 to 13 times) and a decrease of bilirubin production by 2.1 to 2.6 times [133].

Honey has a supportive effect on patients who have undergone a cancer radiation therapy by reducing the incidence of radiation mucositis. Patients with head and neck cancer treated with radiation therapy were given honey. There was a significant reduction in the symptomatic grade 3/4 mucositis among honey-treated patients compared to the controls; i.e. 20% versus 75%. The compliance of the honey-treated group of patients was better than the controls. 55% of the patients treated with honey showed no change or a positive gain in body weight compared to the controls, the majority of which lost weight [166]. Honey was administered to chemotherapy patients with neutropenia and was found to reduce the need for colony-stimulating factors [167]. Febrile neutropenia is a serious side effect of chemotherapy.

Allergy

Honey allergy seems relatively uncommon; allergies reported can involve reactions varying from cough to anaphylaxis [145]. In this study it was reported that patients allergic to pollen are rarely allergic to honey, although there is one reported case of combined honey pollen allergy [168]. The incidence of honey allergy, reported in a group of 173 food allergy patients was 2.3% [cited in 169]. In this study the honey allergy is explained by the presence of components of bee origin.

CONCLUSION

Due to variation of botanical origin honey differs in appearance, sensory perception and composition. It contains mainly carbohydrates. The glycemic index of honey varies from 32 to 87, depending on botanical origin and on fructose content. The main nutrition- and health relevant components are the carbohydrates, which make it an excellent energy source especially for children and sportsmen. Besides its main components, the carbohydrates fructose and glucose, honey contains also a great number of other constituents in small and trace amounts, producing numerous nutritional and biological effects: antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiviral, antiparasitic, antiinflammatory, antimutagenic, anticancer and immunosuppressive activities.

Different nutritional studies have confirmed various effects after honey ingestion, e.g.

enhanced gastroenterological and cardiovascular health. Besides, honey showed physiological effects on blood health indicators as well as effects on hepatitis A and radiation mucositis patients. However, it should be pointed out that most of these studies were based on relatively high honey intakes of 50 to 80 g. Honey compositions, and also its different biological effects, depend to a great extent on the botanical origin of honey. This fact was often not considered in the reviewed studies.

1 Figure 1: Prehistoric man gathering honey

2 A rock painting, made around 6000 BC. La Arana shekter, Bicorp, Eastern Spain.

6 Table 1: Honey composition (data in g/100 g) [14,15]

Blossom honey

Honeydew honey

average

min. - max.

average

min. - max.

Water

17.2

15-20

16.3

15-20

Monosaccharides

fructose

38.2

30-45

31.8

28-40

glucose

31.3

24-40

26.1

19-32

Disaccharides

sucrose

0.7

0.1-4.8

0.5

0.1-4.7

others

5.0

2-8

4.0

1-6

Trisaccharides

melezitose

<0.1

4.0

0.3-22.0

erlose

0.8

0.5-6

1.0

0.1-6

others

0.5

0.5-1

3.0

0.1-6

Undetermined oligosaccharides

3.1

10.1

Total sugars

79.7

80.5

Minerals

0.2

0.1-0.5

0.9

0.6-2.0

Amino acids, proteins

0.3

0.2-0.4

0.6

0.4-0.7

Acids

0.5

0.2-0.8

1.1

0.8-1.5

pH-value

3.9

3.5-4.5

5.2

4.5-6.5

1 Table 2: Honey nutrients (values compiled after different authors [14,20-27] and

2 recommended daily intake [28])

Ingredient

Amount in 100 g

Recommended Daily Intake1

1-4

years old

4-15

years old

After 15 years old

Energy

kcal

Carbohydrates

kcal

300

1000-1100

1400-2700

2400-3100

Proteins

0.5

13-14

17-46

44-59

Fats

Minerals

Sodium (Na)

1.6-17

300

410-550

550

Calcium (Ca)

3-31

600

700-1200

1000-1200

Potassium (K)

40-3500

1000

1400-1900

2000

Magnesium (Mg)

0.7-13

120-310

300-400

Phosphorus (P)

2-15

500

600-1250

700-1250

Zinc (Zn)

0.05-2

5-9.5

7-10

Copper (Cu)

0.02-0.6

0.5-1

Iron (Fe)

0.03-4

8-15

10-15

Manganese (Mn)

0.02-2

1-1.5

1.5-5

2-5

Chromium (Cr)

0.01-0.3

0.02-0.06

0.02-0.1

0.03-1.5

Selenium (Se)

0.002-0.01

0.001-0.004

0.001-0.006

0.003-0.007

Vitamins

Phyllochinon (K)

ca. 0.025

20-50

60-70

Thiamin (B1)

0.00-0.01

0.6

0.8-1.4

1-1.3

Riboflavin (B2)

0.01-0.02

0.7

0.9-1.6

1.2-1.5

Pyridoxin (B6)

0.01-0.32

0.4

0.5-1.4

1.2-1.6

Niacin2

0.10-0.20

10-18

13-17

Panthothenic acid

0.02-0.11

4-6

Ascorbic acid (C)

2.2-2.5

70-100

100

4 *-only major components considered

5 1 after the German Nutrition Society [28]

6 2 Niacin equivalents: 1 mg nicotinamide = 1 mg niacin = 60 mg tryptophan (= niacin-precursor)

2 Table 3: Other trace elements in honey [14,20-27]

Element

mg/100 g

Element

mg/100 g

Aluminium (Al)

0.01-2.4

Lead (Pb)*

0.001-0.03

Arsenic (As)

0.014-0.026

Lithium (Li)

0.225-1.56

Barium (Ba)

0.01-0.08

Molybdenum (Mo)

0-0.004

Boron (B)

0.05-0.3

Nickel (Ni)

0-0.051

Bromine (Br)

0.4-1.3

Rubidium (Rb)

0.040-3.5

Cadmium (Cd)*

0-0.001

Silicon (Si)

0.05-24

Chlorine (Cl)

0.4-56

Strontium (Sr)

0.04-0.35

Cobalt (Co)

0.1-0.35

Sulfur (S)

0.7-26

Floride (F)

0.4-1.34

Vanadium (V)

0-0.013

Iodide (I)

10-100

Zirconium

0.05-0.08

4 *- elements regarded as toxic, can be partially of man-made origin

8 Table 4: Glycemic index (GI) and glycemic load (GL) for a serving (25 g) of honey 9 [38,39]

honey

origin

Fructose

g/100 g

g/serving

GL (per

serving)

Acacia (black locust)*

Romania

Yellow box

Australia

35±4

Stringy bark

Australia

44±4

Red gum

Australia

46±3

Iron bark

Australia

48±3

Yapunya

Australia

52±5

Pure Australia

Australia

58±6

Commercial blend

Australia

62±3

Salvation June

Australia

64±5

Commercial blend

Australia

72±6

Honey of unspecified origin

Canada

87±8

average

55±5

Sucrose (mean of 10 studies)

68±5

Glucose

100

12 AC = available carbohydrate

1 Table 5: List of bacteria that were found to be sensitive to honey [60,61]

Pathogen

Infection caused

Bacillus anthracis

anthrax

Corynebacterium diphtheriae

diphtheria

Escherichia coli

diarrhoea, septicaemia, urinary infections, wound infections

Haemophilus influenzae

ear infections, meningitus, respiratory infections, sinusitis

Klebsiella pneumoniae

pneumonia

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

tuberculosis

Proteus sp.

septicaemia, urinary infections

Pseudomonas aeruginosa

urinary infections, wound infections

Salmonella sp.

diarrhoea

Salmonella cholerae-suis

septicaemia

Salmonella typhi

typhoid

Salmonella typhimurium

wound infections

Serrata marcescens

septicaemia, wound infections

Shigella sp.

dysentery

Staphylococcus aureus

abscesses., boils, carbuncles, impetigo, wound infections

Streptococcus faecalis

urinary infections

Streptococcus mutans

dental carries

Streptococcus pneumoniae

ear infections, meningitis, pneumonia, sinusitis

Streptococcus pyogenes

ear infections, impetigo, puerperal fever, rheumatic fever, scarlet fever, sore throat, wound infections

Vibrio choleriae

cholera

Actinomyces pyogenes, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Nocardia asteroids, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agal., dysgal., uber

mastitis

Epidermophyton floccosum, Microsporum canis, M.. gypseum, Trichophyton rubrum, T. tonsurans, T. mentagrophytes var. ?

tinea

diff. Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio, Helicobacter pylori

peptic ulcer

1 Table 6: Effect of heat, light and storage time on the antibacterial activity of honey.

2 The antibacterial activity is expressed in % of the untreated controls [63] 3

Non-peroxide activity

Peroxide activity

Storage: 15 months rt

light

dark

light

dark

Blossom honey

Honeydew honey

Heat: 15 min 70oC

Blossom honey

Honeydew honey

5 rt = room temperature 15-20oC 6

9 Table 7. Antioxidative activity (ORAC) and total phenol content of different unifloral

10 honeys [32]

Honey type

ORAC

μmol TE/g

total phenolics GAE mg/kg

Buckwheat Illinois

16.95 ± 0.76

796 ±3 2

Buckwheat

9.81 ± 0.34

Buckwheat New York

9.75 ± 0.48

456 �� 55

Buckwheat

9.34 ± 0.57

Buckwheat

9.17 ± 0.63

Buckwheat

7.47 ± 0.27

Soy (2000)

9.49 ± 0.29

Soy (1996)

8.34 ± 0.51

269 ± 22

Hawaiian Christmas berry

8.87 ± 0.33

250 ± 56

Clover (January 2000)

6.53 ± 0.70

Clover (July 2000)

6.05 ± 1.00

128 ± 11

Tupelo

6.48 ± 0.37

183 ± 9

Fireweed

3.09 ± 0.27

62 ± 6

Acacia

3.00 ± 0.16

46 ± 2

12 ORAC = Oxygen radical absorbance capacity,

13 TE = Trolox equivalent, GAE = gallic acid equivalent, nd = not determined

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4 Relation to pollen and honey bee allergy. Allergy 47:41-49, 1992. 5

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