#cassava farming policy

[farmerstrend]

Cassava Ugali and the Rise of Cassava Farming: A Comprehensive Exploration

Cassava ugali and stewed smoked fish is one of my all-time favorite meals. There is something deeply satisfying about the rich, earthy flavor of cassava paired with the smoky aroma of the fish stew. However, I’ve learned to eat it cautiously, knowing that cassava ugali, while delicious, can be heavy and pasty. Its dense nature makes it incredibly filling, a trait both a blessing and a challenge…

[plethoraworldatlas]

Having grown up on a farm in Uganda, I have seen the damage of the climate crisis firsthand. My family lived in a small village near the banks of Lake Victoria, the second largest freshwater lake in the world, and my childhood was spent climbing trees, planting seeds, and eating fruit straight from the trees. We grew bananas, guavas, beans, cassava, sugarcane, and coffee. It sounds idyllic but I remember the first time I realised climate change would affect us—it was a rainy season unlike any we had seen before. For days and nights heavy rain battered the fields and strong winds bent and broke the crops until they were unsavable. Not only did the rains affect us financially, but I missed months of my schooling because flooding blocked the roads and I couldn’t get to school.

Burning fossil fuels, which releases carbon pollution into the air and causes our world to overheat, is the number one cause of the climate chaos we’re facing. 2024 may be even hotter than 2023, resulting in even more catastrophic weather.

But there is still hope. Those with power must act now, and the insurance industry holds more power than most to slow the crisis and protect our future. Without insurance, fossil fuel projects can’t operate. If insurance companies updated their policies and refused to insure new fossil fuel projects, there would be no new oil pipelines, liquefied natural gas terminals, or dirty coal mines. If they focused instead on insuring clean, safe energy and a just transition, our communities and our world would be safer for current and future generations.

The insurance industry’s role is to protect and manage risk, but right now it is failing spectacularly at both. Instead of protecting communities, it’s adding fuel to the fire by continuing to insure new fossil fuel projects. The East African Crude Oil Pipeline (EACOP) is a prime example. This proposed pipeline would run 1,443 kilometers between Hoima in Uganda and Tanga in Tanzania, but the project has stalled as it has not yet secured full insurance and financing due to the many human and environmental rights abuses associated with it. These include the harassment and imprisonment of peaceful protesters, the disturbing of sacred burial grounds, and the forcible removal of communities to make way for the pipeline. If EACOP gets insured and goes ahead, it will cross 200 rivers and pass through Lake Victoria’s water basin. Over 40 million people depend on the lake for survival, as well as countless animal species; if the pipe leaks and spills oil into the water, what will happen to them?

The corporations behind EACOP say it will “unlock East Africa’s potential,” but let’s be clear: It is neocolonialism at its best, and the only ones who will gain are the foreign companies set to profit. EACOP will irrevocably damage East Africa’s biodiversity, displace thousands of people, destroy their livelihoods and communities, and unleash 32.3 million metric tons of carbon into the atmosphere per year, setting off a climate bomb that will make our world overheat to devastating levels. The International Energy Agency has stated that there can be no new oil pipelines if we are to save the future, and yet insurance companies including AIG, Tokio Marine, Chubb, Hiscox, and Lloyd’s of London still refuse to rule out insuring EACOP.

[mysublimedestiny]

Organic Starch Market: Key Drivers Fueling Growth Through Trends, Demand, and Innovations

Drivers of Growth in the Organic Starch Market

The global organic starch market is experiencing significant expansion, with projections indicating a rise from $1.1 billion in 2023 to $2.2 billion by 2035, reflecting a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6.1% . This growth is propelled by several key drivers across various industries.

1. Rising Consumer Demand for Clean-Label Products

Consumers are increasingly seeking products with transparent labeling, free from artificial additives and preservatives. This "clean-label" trend is particularly evident in the food and beverage sector, where organic starches are valued for their natural composition and minimal processing . The preference for simple, recognizable ingredients aligns with the growing health consciousness among consumers.

2. Shift Towards Health-Conscious and Plant-Based Diets

The adoption of plant-based and vegan diets is influencing ingredient sourcing in food manufacturing. Organic starches, derived from non-GMO crops like corn, cassava, and potatoes, are integral to plant-based formulations, such as dairy alternatives and vegan bakery products . This shift supports the demand for organic starches as sustainable and healthful alternatives.

3. Increased Awareness of the Adverse Effects of Synthetic Ingredients

Consumers are becoming more aware of the potential health risks associated with synthetic food ingredients. This awareness is driving the preference for organic and natural alternatives, including organic starches, which are perceived as safer and healthier options .

4. Government Support for Organic Farming Practices

Government policies promoting organic farming, such as subsidies and certification programs, are facilitating the growth of the organic starch market. These initiatives reduce production costs and enhance the availability of organic raw materials, making organic starches more accessible to manufacturers and consumers alike .

5. Expansion of Organic Processed Food Products

The increasing demand for organic processed foods, including ready-to-eat and ready-to-cook products, is contributing to the growth of the organic starch market. Organic starches are essential in these products for their functional properties, such as thickening and stabilizing agents .

6. Technological Advancements in Starch Processing

Innovations in starch processing technologies are enhancing the quality and sustainability of organic starches. These advancements improve yield, reduce waste, and ensure the production of high-quality starches, thereby supporting market growth .

7. Expansion in Emerging Markets

In emerging economies, rising disposable incomes and increasing awareness of health and environmental issues are driving the demand for organic products. Countries such as India, China, and Brazil are witnessing a shift towards organic food products, including those containing organic starches, as consumers seek healthier and more sustainable options .

8. Application Diversification Across Industries

Beyond the food and beverage sector, organic starches are finding applications in pharmaceuticals, textiles, cosmetics, and bio-based industries. Their versatility as binding agents, stabilizers, and thickeners in various products is broadening the market scope and contributing to its growth .

Conclusion

The organic starch market is poised for continued growth, driven by consumer demand for natural, clean-label products, health-conscious dietary trends, and supportive government policies. As industries across the globe embrace organic ingredients for their functional and environmental benefits, organic starches are becoming integral components in a wide array of products, from food items to pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. The ongoing advancements in processing technologies and the expansion into emerging markets further bolster the market's trajectory, positioning organic starch as a key player in the global shift towards sustainability and health.

[adalidda]

Strategies for Boosting Agricultural Exports from Africa to China 

China’s ambitious goals to strengthen political and commercial ties with Africa have paved the way for African agribusinesses to explore the Chinese market. With its immense population and growing demand for agricultural products, China offers a lucrative opportunity for African exports, supported by initiatives like preferential shipping rates by COSCO and streamlined customs registration through the GACC. These efforts align with China's broader policy to diversify its agricultural imports while enhancing trade relations with Africa. 

However, navigating the Chinese market presents unique challenges, from meeting large-scale demand to adhering to strict quality standards. Drawing from successful experiences of African exporters, this guide provides actionable strategies to help agribusiness leaders establish robust export pipelines to China, leveraging the opportunities and mitigating potential risks along the value chain. 

Key Strategies for Export Success 

1. Collaborate for Large-Scale Supply 

One of the most critical lessons learned from African exporters is the necessity of scale. China's demand for agricultural commodities often requires volumes that exceed the capacity of individual firms. For example, Chinese buyers may request quantities like 100,000 metric tons (MT) of dried cassava chips monthly—volumes that are difficult for a single producer to meet consistently. 

To address this, African agribusinesses should adopt a consortium approach, where multiple firms collaborate to pool resources, standardize production practices, and share logistics infrastructure. Countries like Côte d’Ivoire have successfully employed this strategy for cocoa beans, enabling exporters to compete in high-demand markets like China. Consortia not only amplify production capacity but also enhance bargaining power, allowing African exporters to negotiate better terms with Chinese importers. 

2. Focus on Quality, Logistics, and Reliability 

Experiences from exporting coffee and tea to China highlight the importance of quality and consistency. Chinese buyers place a premium on reliable delivery and adherence to quality standards, often rejecting shipments that fall short of specifications. 

Exporters must implement rigorous quality assurance systems, from farm-level production to post-harvest processing. For instance, Kenya's tea exporters have gained a foothold in China by consistently delivering premium-quality products, backed by certifications and traceability. Additionally, partnering with dependable logistics providers is vital to ensure shipments arrive on time and in optimal condition. Meeting these expectations fosters trust and lays the groundwork for long-term partnerships. 

3. Secure Favorable Payment Terms 

A recurring challenge for African exporters is managing the financial dynamics of international trade. Delayed payments, currency fluctuations, and access to working capital can strain operations. Lessons from exporters of cashew nuts and sesame seeds show that negotiating favorable payment terms with Chinese buyers is crucial. 

For example, securing letters of credit or partial advance payments can ease cash flow challenges. Collaborating with banks to secure export financing or credit guarantees further enhances financial stability. These measures allow exporters to maintain operations smoothly while meeting the stringent demands of the Chinese market. 

4. Implement Robust Risk Management Practices 

Exporting to China involves navigating complex risks, including fluctuating commodity prices, regulatory changes, and logistical challenges. Insights from the palm oil and cotton industries underline the importance of proactive risk management. For instance, exporters in Nigeria have successfully mitigated risks by diversifying their buyer base, insuring shipments, and employing forward contracts to lock in prices. 

Additionally, maintaining compliance with Chinese import regulations—such as those for packaging, labeling, and pesticide residue limits—minimizes the risk of shipment rejections. Continuous monitoring of market conditions and regulatory updates ensures that exporters can adapt swiftly to changes, reducing potential disruptions in the supply chain. 

5. Tailor Products to Chinese Consumer Preferences 

Beyond meeting basic export requirements, understanding Chinese consumer preferences can significantly enhance market penetration. For instance, the growing popularity of African coffee in China has been driven by targeted marketing campaigns that highlight its unique flavors and origins. Similarly, packaging innovations and certifications like organic or fair trade can add value and attract discerning Chinese consumers. 

Engaging with local partners in China, such as distributors and trade associations, provides valuable insights into market trends and helps African exporters tailor their offerings to align with consumer demands. 

Lessons from Experience 

Successful African exporters have highlighted several critical lessons that others can emulate: 

Collaborative Models Work

Countries like Ethiopia and Côte d’Ivoire have demonstrated that pooling resources through cooperatives and consortia significantly improves their ability to compete in high-demand markets like China. 

Adaptability is Key

Regulatory landscapes and consumer preferences in China are dynamic. Exporters who proactively monitor these changes and adapt their strategies—such as switching to organic certifications or refining logistics—have consistently outperformed their peers. 

Relationship Building is Essential

Establishing trust with Chinese buyers takes time and requires a commitment to quality, reliability, and transparency. Long-term success hinges on building relationships that extend beyond transactional trade. 

Conclusion 

Exporting agricultural products to China presents African agribusinesses with unparalleled opportunities to scale and grow. By adopting collaborative supply models, prioritizing quality and logistics, securing favorable financial terms, and implementing robust risk management, exporters can meet the demands of this dynamic market. 

Drawing on lessons from successful exports of cocoa beans, coffee, sesame seeds, and other commodities, African businesses can align their strategies with China’s import needs while addressing challenges with resilience and innovation. In doing so, they not only contribute to their own growth but also strengthen the broader trade partnership between Africa and China, driving mutual prosperity for years to come.

I hope you enjoyed reading this post and learned something new and useful from it. If you did, please share it with your friends and colleagues who might be interested in Agriculture and Agribusiness.

Mr. Kosona Chriv

Group Chief Sales and Marketing Officer.

Solina / Sahel Agri-Sol Group (Ivory Coast, Senegal, Mali, Nigeria, Tanzania)

Chief Operating Officer (COO)

Deko Group (Nigeria, Cambodia)

Photo: Cocoa Beans (AI-generated Image)

[hardynwa]

Hardship: AfDB plans $2.7bn budget, agric loans for Nigeria

…approves $134m fund for emergency food productionThe African Development Bank Board of Directors has approved $134m for Nigeria to implement an emergency food production plan, AfDB President Akinwumi Adesina has said. According to him, talks are also ongoing for a $1.7bn economic and budget support loan as well as the launch of a $1bn agro-industrial processes in 28 states. Adesina made the disclosures during an interview with journalists in Lagos on Monday. The development came amid a biting food shortage that has led to hunger protests in Nigerian states and most recently attacks on grain warehouses in Abuja, Ogun, Niger and Kaduna states. Last June’s fuel subsidy removal and exchange rate unification policy of the government have led to severe hardships with inflation now nearing 30 per cent amid a sharp depreciation of the naira. Weak consumer purchasing power has affected businesses with the nation recording weak Gross Domestic Growth during the last quarter of the last year. However, Adesina told journalists in Lagos that AfDB had pledged to support Nigeria through this period, disclosing that a number of agric initiatives should yield about five million metric tons of wheat, rice, cassava, maize this year for the country. He exuded confidence that the development bank would work with Nigerian government to proffer solutions to the problems confronting Africa’s biggest economy. He said, “I’m not used to complaining; I’m used to finding solutions. I did tell the President when I can last year that we would strongly support the Nigerian government in finding a solution to the challenges. As I speak to you today, we have approved $134m for Nigeria to implement an emergency food production plan. And that is not something that we are planning to do; it is what we are already doing. “We have supported the cultivation of 118,000 hectares of wheat in Nigeria already this season. We will do 150, 000 hectares of maize production this march. By the rainy season, in May and June, we will support Nigeria to do 300,000 hectares of rice. We will also do 300,000 hectares of maize, 150,000 hectares of cassava and 50,000 hectares of soybean. So, that means that by the end of March, Nigeria would get out an additional one million metric tons of wheat; and by November, we will have an additional four million metric tons of rice, cassava, maize and soybeans.” The AfDB chief however advised Nigeria to push for more food supply, pointing out that food inflation is a major component of the nation’s inflation figure. Tackling inflation requires looking at some of the structural drivers, according to him. “A big part of that (Nigeria’s) inflation is food price inflation. If you look at the Consumer Price Index, probably 65 per cent of it If not even 75 per cent of it now, is actually the price of food. And so, you don’t necessarily deal with food price inflation through your standard macroeconomic policy of tightening monetary supply. You deal with it by producing the food because that’s the thing that needs to be done. So I think it’s very important to be able to deal with that,” He emphasised the need to enhance food production in the country. On how the country could boost food production as quickly as possible, Adesina said, “But one thing that I would say is that the government needs to go back to the policy of electronic wallet system. Remember when I was minister, we did design a programme to get seeds and fertilizers to farmers directly via their mobile phones by electronic vouchers. We were able to reach 15 million farmers in four years; the whole place was booming with food. And I think that is what I will advise needs to be done and done very quickly. Because access to high performing yields, high performing seeds and fertilizers and farm inputs is very critical; otherwise you will not be able to do it.” Nonetheless, Adesina also pointed out the need for Nigeria to get low-interest concessionary financing to overcome its economic challenges. The development bank boss said issues around the exchange rate must be dealt with as an import dependent nation. According to him, the AfDB is planning about $1.7bn economic and budget support loan for the country. He said, “There needs to be a lot of support around Nigeria, given the tight fiscal space and the lack of forex, to make available a lot more concessional financing to the Nigerian economy. And that’s what we’re doing at African Development Bank. This year we expect to approve with our board because we always go to our board of directors for approval, but our plan is to be able to do $1.67bn of financing to Nigeria in different sectors, including considering a potential policy base operation of budget support to Nigeria. We are discussing with the Minister of Finance; that is part of a $1bn budget support operation that will go into two tranches. Again, I will say it has to be approved by the board, but these are all the things that we are hoping to be able to do.” He spoke about other agric projects in the country. Also, the AfDB is planning to launch this year a programme for a $1bn special agro-industrial processes are in 28 states, adding that “It this structural interventions that I will say would make agriculture more productive, efficient, and competitive.” “So those are the things that we are doing in Nigeria. In addition to that, we have a programme that we’ve already implemented, called Special Agro Industrial Processing zones. So these are new economic zones we are supporting Nigeria to develop. We provided $520m for that, ourselves, the African Development Bank, the Islamic Development Bank, and the International Fund for Agricultural, currently working now in eight states. We expect that those things will start hitting the ground and start construction by June of this year,” he added. Read the full article

[brandspurng]

Agriculture News Update: The Latest Developments in Nigeria's Farming Sector

Introduction: Nigeria's agricultural sector plays a vital role in the country's economy, providing livelihoods for millions of people and contributing significantly to food security and economic growth. Keeping abreast of the latest news and developments in the agricultural industry is essential for farmers, policymakers, and stakeholders alike. In this blog post, we'll explore the most recent updates and trends shaping agriculture News in Nigeria Today.

Government Initiatives and Policies: The Nigerian government continues to implement various initiatives and policies aimed at boosting agricultural productivity, enhancing food security, and promoting rural development. Stay informed about government programs such as the Anchor Borrowers Program, the Presidential Fertilizer Initiative, and the Agriculture Promotion Policy (APP) to understand their impact on farmers and agricultural practices nationwide.

Technological Advancements: Advancements in agricultural technology are revolutionizing farming practices in Nigeria, making them more efficient, sustainable, and resilient to climate change. Keep an eye out for news about innovative technologies such as precision agriculture, drone surveillance, and mobile applications that are empowering farmers with real-time data and insights to improve crop yields and manage resources more effectively.

Market Trends and Prices: Monitoring market trends and prices is crucial for farmers, traders, and consumers to make informed decisions about production, marketing, and purchasing agricultural products. Stay updated on commodity prices, market demand, and supply chain dynamics for key crops such as rice, maize, cassava, and cocoa to capitalize on market opportunities and mitigate risks.

Climate Change Resilience: Climate change poses significant challenges to Nigeria's agriculture sector, including unpredictable weather patterns, droughts, floods, and pest outbreaks. Stay informed about climate-smart agriculture practices, adaptation strategies, and resilience-building initiatives that are helping farmers mitigate the impacts of climate change and safeguard their livelihoods.

Youth Engagement and Empowerment: Engaging youth in agriculture is essential for the future sustainability of Nigeria's farming sector. Keep abreast of news about youth-led initiatives, training programs, and entrepreneurship opportunities that are encouraging young people to pursue careers in agriculture, innovate new solutions, and contribute to the development of rural communities.

International Partnerships and Trade: Nigeria's agricultural sector is increasingly interconnected with global markets and international trade agreements. Stay informed about bilateral and multilateral partnerships, trade negotiations, and export opportunities that are shaping Nigeria's position in the global agricultural economy.

Conclusion: Staying informed about the latest news and developments in Nigeria's agriculture sector is essential for driving innovation, fostering resilience, and unlocking the full potential of the country's farming industry. By staying abreast of government initiatives, technological advancements, market trends, climate change resilience efforts, youth engagement initiatives, and international partnerships, stakeholders can work together to build a more sustainable, inclusive, and prosperous future for Nigeria's agriculture sector.

[bring-it-all-down]

It seems essential to Black Sails’ themes of anti-imperialism to understand the general history of the Bahamas, from Columbus to the general time period of the show.

Prior to Christopher Columbus landing there in 1492, the Bahamas had been home for approximately a thousand years to the Lucayan people. A number of archeological projects have discovered that the Lucayans were a matrilineal society structured through the family, such that each house was home to a full extended family, and the ruler was chosen through material ties (e.g. the sister’s son would become the next ruler). Their diet consisted largely of seafood and cassava, and they produced enough cotton for their own use and for trade. While the Lucayans did have class divisions, they had little specialization––people generally participated in multiple of the following: the construction of housing, in fishing, in farming, and in the construction of pottery and the making of cotton products. 

By 1515, the Spanish had entirely enslaved the Lucayans and transported them to Cuba, leaving none of them on their home islands.

When he landed in the Bahamas in 1492, Columbus immediately began enslaving the Lucayans, forcing them to dangerously dive for pearls, which were to be transported back to Spain. Then, in 1509, King Ferdinand of Spain ordered the enslavement of the entire Lucayan people in order to replace the enslaved peoples of Cuba and Haiti (Hispaniola) who had died while forced to mine for gold. The barbaric working conditions, coupled with the importation of diseases like smallpox, measles, malaria, and influenza decimated the Lucayans. The 40,000 Lucayans pre-Columbus, had already been reduced to 15,000 by 1509, and then to the hundreds by 1513. The remaining few Lucayans were once again forced to dive to their death for pearls, a practice fellow colonizer Bartolome de Las Casas called “one of the most cruel and condemnable things which there would have been on earth.”

Following the genocide of the Lucayns, the Bahamas remained deserted until an English faction of colonizers led by WIlliam Sayle landed there in 1648. Although Sayle and his 70 pals were unsuccessful in establishing a settlement on the island due to being unable to extract surplus value from the land, his efforts placed the Bahamas in the interests of the British Empire. In 1670, Charles II granted proprietorship of the island to the Duke of Albemarle and six other men. These men drew up a plan for the island in which roughly 500 white families and 9,000 enslaved Africans would relocate there over a period of 2 years in order to begin establishing cotton, tobacco, and indigo plantations. 

By this time, however, New Providence Island had become a haven for piracy, due to its close proximity to Spanish, French, and English ships. In an attempt to maximize profits, the English “owners” of this island  instituted laissez-faire policies that frequently ended in conflicts with the French and Spanish, who took turns razing parts of the island. In 1684, for instance, the Spanish burned much of New Providence to the ground, after which control of the Island returned to the Crown, and it became a haven for privateers (state-owned pirates who turned over a portion of their profits to the Crown). 

In 1697, the English attempted to institute a stricter set of trade laws and a court system designed to enforce them. However, when the War of the Spanish Succession broke out in 1701, England’s attention was pulled elsewhere, leaving New Providence open to raids by the French and Spanish in 1703 and 1706, which further destabilized the Bahamas and expanded piracy in the area. 

The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, which resulted in England letting go of 36,000 sailors who had served during the war. Many of these sailors turned to piracy to make a living, vastly increasing the number of pirates in New Providence and once again establishing piracy as a threat to the British Empire. As pirates attempted to fully control the economic and political systems in the Bahamas, the British Empire dedicated increasing resources to squashing piracy, resulting in the conflicts that shaped the Golden Age of Piracy, as well as the events of Black Sail.

(The bulk of this information is from Michael Craton and Gail Saunders’ Islanders in the Stream: A History of the Bahamian People: Volume One: From Aboriginal Times to the End of Slavery, and John C. Appleby, “Pirates, Privateers and Buccaneers: The Changing Face of English Piracy from the 1650s to the 1720s” in The Social History of English Seamen, 1650-1815.)

[faroukgumel]

Farouk Gumel - The Role of Agriculture in the Economic Development of Nigeria

Nigeria, like many Africa nations, is an agrarian nation. Contrary to the general perception that it is an oil and gas country, the majority of Nigerians in reality earn their living through the agricultural and food value chain. This should not be a surprise. A country with over 200 million people will surely have a large appetite. 

In this article, we are going to briefly look at how agriculture is one of the biggest reasons why Nigeria is the world’s 27th largest economy, and why investing in this sector will propel Nigeria  to greater heights globally.

The Truth About Nigerian GDP

Nigeria is the largest economy in Africa with the highest population on the continent. It was ranked the 27th largest economy globally and is among the largest producers of oil and gas in the world. 

The whole world knows Nigeria for its Oil while ignoring its other assets – arable land, water, solid minerals and ofcourse, its young and talented population. 

Oil is considered by many as the biggest contributing factor to the Nigerian economy, and to some extent, they are right. Oil reserves in Nigeria amount to 35 billion barrels and oil still remains the largest earner for the Nigerian government. Most of the oil is exported in crude form. There is little value addition locally this means only a few jobs are created locally.

So if oil is such a big factor in the Nigerian economy, then why is agriculture the main focus of this article?

Statistically, agricultureis a key factor of the Nigerian GDP. In 2019, agriculture accounted for nearly 22% of Nigeria’s GDP and employs more than one-third of the population. We have 14 million cattle produced in our countryand are the largest producer of cassava (59.4 million tons) and yam (47.5 million tons) plus major exporters of cocoa,  cashew, sesame and beans to mention a few. For local consumption, Nigeria produces maize, sorghum, rice, millet and wheat. It has a vibrant and fast growing poultry and fisheries industry. There have also been significant investments in vegetable oil refining in recent years. 

It is worth noting that as the oil and gas and many other sectors fell into recession in recent years, Nigeria’s agriculture sector continued to grow and create jobs.

What can be Done in the Future?

Just to be clear, Oil is and will remain a huge factor in the GDP of Nigeria, but to create a better and more inclusive economy, Nigeria needs to focus on its secret weapon,  agriculture which supports more than 70 million people in Nigeria, 

In the last 5 years,  the Nigerian Government and the Central Bank of Nigeria have pushed aggressive fiscal and monetary policies aimed at harnessing Nigeria's agricultural potentials. The policies, which target both small scale farmers and large scale corporates, have resulted in significant investments in Nigeria’s agricultural value chain.

TGI Group, through its numerous subsidiaries such as WACOT Ltd is one of the many private sector companies to participate in this latest push by Nigeria to put Agriculture to work.

WACOT Ltd has started up projects of new rice mills across Nigeria and employs over 9,000 workers both in blue and white-collar jobs. Its new rice mill which is speculated to be the turning point in Nigerian agriculture and will provide farming the boost it needs can store up to 120,000 tonnes of rice paddy and has the storage facility to keep that much raw produce for 6 months in advanced silos.

Farouk Gumel, executive director of Tropical General Investment (TGI) Group has rightly stated in an article that TGI/WACOT Ltd projects are made to take advantage of the new government policy direction and that the new WACOT Ltd rice mill will bring with it a lot of opportunities for the people of Nigeria. Farouk Gumel also stated that WACOT is planning to build two more rice mills in the coming years.

In addition to WACOT, many other well known brands are participating in Nigeria’s rice revolution. For example, Dangote Industries, intends to set up 10 rice mills in the coming years. Aliko Dangote, Africa’s richest man announced he is investing over $4 billion in farming and food processing in Nigeria. Olam in a recent press release also announced its plans to make more investments in food production and processingacross Nigeria. As these big names and many more continue to invest in food production, Nigeria’s agricultural sector may finally deliver its true potential.

[farmerstrend]

Developing Vegetatively Propagating Seeds (VPS) in Kenya

Discover how Kenya is revolutionizing agriculture by developing a regulatory framework for Vegetatively Propagating Seeds (VPS) like potatoes and cassava, empowering farmers with access to high-quality planting materials. Learn about the Ministry of Agriculture’s initiative to promote Vegetatively Propagating Seeds (VPS) in Kenya, bridging policy gaps to boost food security and farmer…

[xtremereturns]

Farming in Nigeria – Everything you should know now

In Nigeria, there is tremendous agriculture. There is prominence in food production and self-sufficiency in the food supply. Nigeria is famous for exporting peanuts and palm kernel oil, but its export rate has decreased over the years. Farming in Nigeria is very easy and pleasant.

 If Nigeria were held to its market share in palm oil, cocoa, peanuts, and cotton, today these commodities would yield at least $ 10 billion per year. Farm training program Nigeria is also beneficial for farmers.

 With the country's vast agricultural resources and large expanses of arable land, well-distributed rainfall and warm temperatures throughout the year, agriculture played a progressive role in serving as a major source of livelihood for the country's population. Major crop production in Nigeria includes bean rice, sesame, cashew, cassava, cocoa beans, peanuts, gum arabic, cola nuts, maize (maize), melon, millet, palm kernels, palm oil, plants, rice, rubber, sorbet, soybean, Bananas. 

 There are lots of Modern farming methods in Nigeria. Before the colonial masters arrived on Nigerian soil, our ancestors were mainly engaged in farming as a major occupation and using raw agricultural equipment as a means of subsistence and feeding themselves, despite the use of crude oil. Sufficient food was produced for and cash crops were produced for barter. 

 British colonial policy in Nigeria was largely shaped by economic considerations, inspired by the Industrial Revolution in Britain, during which British industries required more raw materials. Until that time, there was an urgent need to obtain the resources of other lands to survive the British economy. Farm training program Nigeria proves why this country is moving forward in the field of farming.

 This shifted farmers' attention and expertise from food crop to cash crop production. Despite Nigeria's immense potential in modern farming methods, the country has still lost its place in the global community as a major player in agriculture Neglect of the agricultural sector, and total dependence on oil exports have been a disaster for the country's economy.

There is nothing that can be done about the economic past of Farming in Nigeria. There is support for and support of agriculture in Nigeria by all economic indices for the nation at the rate of awareness and speed. The days of adverse effects and neglect of agriculture are certainly counted. To get proper training, visit our website now and make more profit.

[vyldan]

The Merikins or Merikens[1][2] were African-American Marines of the War of 1812 – former African slaves who fought for the British against the USA in the Corps of Colonial Marines and then, after post-war service in Bermuda, were established as a community in the south of Trinidad in 1815–16. They were settled in an area populated by French-speaking Catholics and retained cohesion as an English-speaking, Baptist community. It is sometimes said that the term "Merikins" derived from the local patois, but as many Americans have long been in the habit of dropping the initial "A" it seems more likely that the new settlers brought that pronunciation with them from the United States. Some of the Company villages and land grants established back then still exist in Trinidad today. During the American Revolution, the British recruited Freedmen.[3] After that war, the British settled the Marines in colonies of British Empire including Canada, Jamaica and the Bahamas.[3] During the War of 1812, there was a policy that was somewhat similar except that Freedmen were treated as free as soon as they came into British hands and there were no conditions nor bargains attached to recruitment. Six companies of Freedmen were recruited into a Corps of Colonial Marines along the Atlantic coast, from Chesapeake Bay to Georgia.[3][4]Vice Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane, on taking over the command of British forces on the North America station on 2 April 1814, issued a proclamation offering a choice of enlistment or resettlement:[3]... all who may be disposed to emigrate from the UNITED STATES will, with their Families, be received on board His Majesty's Ships or Vessels of War, or at the Military Posts that may be established, upon or near the Coast of the UNITED STATES, when they will have their choice of either entering into His Majesty's Sea or Land Forces, or of being sent as FREE Settlers to the British Possessions in North America or the West Indies, where they will meet with due encouragement ...Cochrane's recruitment of the Colonial Marines, mostly in the Chesapeake, went doubly against his orders from the British government, who had instructed him to accept volunteers for military service only from Georgia and South Carolina and to send all such volunteers away immediately for training overseas for the Army.[4][5]After the end of the War, the Colonial Marines were first stationed at the Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda. Although they had signed on for a military life, they rejected government orders to be transferred to the West India Regiments, and finally agreed to be settled in Trinidad and Tobago.[4]The Governor of Trinidad, Sir Ralph Woodford, wanted to increase the number of small farmers in that colony and arranged for the creation of a village for each company on the Naparima Plain in the south of the island.[3] Local planter Robert Mitchell managed the establishment and maintenance of the settlements, petitioning the governor for supplies when needed.Unlike the American refugees who were brought to Trinidad in 1815 in ships of the Royal Navy, HMS Carron and HMS Levant, the Veteran Marines were brought there in 1816, with their families, in the hired transports Mary & Dorothy and Lord Eldon .[6][7][8] There were 574 former soldiers plus about 200 women and children.[3] To balance the sexes, more black women were subsequently recruited – women who had been freed from other places such as captured French slave ships.[3] The six companies were each settled in a separate village under the command of a corporal or sergeant, who maintained a military style of discipline.[3] Some of the villages were named after the companies and the Fifth and Sixth Company villages still retain those names.[3][4]The villages were in a forested area of the Naparima Plain near a former Spanish mission, La Misión de Savana Grande.[9] Each of the Veteran Marines were granted 16 acres of land and some of these plots are still farmed today by descendants of original settlers.[7][9] The land was fertile but the conditions were primitive initially as the land had to be cleared and the lack of roads was an especial problem.[9] It is sometimes said that some of the settlers were craftsmen more used to an urban environment and, as they had been expecting better, they were disgruntled and some returned to America,[8] but this comment applies to later free Black American settlers, who came from towns, and not to the Veteran Colonial Marines, who were all refugees from the rural areas of the Cheasapeake and Georgia. The settlers built houses from the timber they felled, and planting crops of bananas, cassava, maize and potatoes.[3] [4] Rice was introduced from America and was especially useful because it could be stored for long periods without spoiling.[3]Twenty years after the initial establishment, the then governor Lord Harris supported improvements to the infrastructure of the settlements and arranged for the settlers to get deeds to their lands, so confirming their property rights as originally stated on arrival, though it is not clear that the initiative was carried through universally.[7][3] [4] As they prospered, they became a significant element in Trinidad's economy.[3] Their agriculture advanced from subsistence farming to include cash crops of cocoa and sugar cane.[3] Later, oil was discovered and then some descendants were able to lease their lands for the mineral rights.[3] Others continued as independent market traders.Many of the original settlers were Baptists from evangelical sects common in places such as Georgia and Virginia.[3] The settlers kept this religion, which was reinforced by missionary work by Baptists from London who helped organise the construction of churches in the 1840s.[3] The villages had pastors and other religious elders as authority figures and there was a rigorous moral code of abstinence and the puritan work ethic.[3] African traditions were influential too and these included the gayap system of communal help, herbal medicine and Obeah – African tribal science.[3] A prominent elder in the 20th century was "Papa Neezer" – Samuel Ebenezer Elliot (1901–1969)[10] – who was a descendant of an original settler, George Elliot, and renowned for his ability to heal and cast out evil spirits.[3] His syncretic form of religion included veneration of Shango, prophecies from the "Obee seed" and revelation from the Psalms.[3] The Spiritual Baptist faith is a legacy of the Merikin community.[11][12]

Famous Merikins[edit]The following people are descended from this community:Tina Dunkley, American museum director[13]Hazel Manning, Trinidadian senator and education minister[13]Althea McNish, British textile designer[14]Brent Sancho, footballer, Minister for Sport for Trinidad and Tobago

[hardynwa]

Hardship: AfDB plans $2.7bn budget, agric loans for Nigeria

…approves $134m fund for emergency food productionThe African Development Bank Board of Directors has approved $134m for Nigeria to implement an emergency food production plan, AfDB President Akinwumi Adesina has said. According to him, talks are also ongoing for a $1.7bn economic and budget support loan as well as the launch of a $1bn agro-industrial processes in 28 states. Adesina made the disclosures during an interview with journalists in Lagos on Monday. The development came amid a biting food shortage that has led to hunger protests in Nigerian states and most recently attacks on grain warehouses in Abuja, Ogun, Niger and Kaduna states. Last June’s fuel subsidy removal and exchange rate unification policy of the government have led to severe hardships with inflation now nearing 30 per cent amid a sharp depreciation of the naira. Weak consumer purchasing power has affected businesses with the nation recording weak Gross Domestic Growth during the last quarter of the last year. However, Adesina told journalists in Lagos that AfDB had pledged to support Nigeria through this period, disclosing that a number of agric initiatives should yield about five million metric tons of wheat, rice, cassava, maize this year for the country. He exuded confidence that the development bank would work with Nigerian government to proffer solutions to the problems confronting Africa’s biggest economy. He said, “I’m not used to complaining; I’m used to finding solutions. I did tell the President when I can last year that we would strongly support the Nigerian government in finding a solution to the challenges. As I speak to you today, we have approved $134m for Nigeria to implement an emergency food production plan. And that is not something that we are planning to do; it is what we are already doing. “We have supported the cultivation of 118,000 hectares of wheat in Nigeria already this season. We will do 150, 000 hectares of maize production this march. By the rainy season, in May and June, we will support Nigeria to do 300,000 hectares of rice. We will also do 300,000 hectares of maize, 150,000 hectares of cassava and 50,000 hectares of soybean. So, that means that by the end of March, Nigeria would get out an additional one million metric tons of wheat; and by November, we will have an additional four million metric tons of rice, cassava, maize and soybeans.” The AfDB chief however advised Nigeria to push for more food supply, pointing out that food inflation is a major component of the nation’s inflation figure. Tackling inflation requires looking at some of the structural drivers, according to him. “A big part of that (Nigeria’s) inflation is food price inflation. If you look at the Consumer Price Index, probably 65 per cent of it If not even 75 per cent of it now, is actually the price of food. And so, you don’t necessarily deal with food price inflation through your standard macroeconomic policy of tightening monetary supply. You deal with it by producing the food because that’s the thing that needs to be done. So I think it’s very important to be able to deal with that,” He emphasised the need to enhance food production in the country. On how the country could boost food production as quickly as possible, Adesina said, “But one thing that I would say is that the government needs to go back to the policy of electronic wallet system. Remember when I was minister, we did design a programme to get seeds and fertilizers to farmers directly via their mobile phones by electronic vouchers. We were able to reach 15 million farmers in four years; the whole place was booming with food. And I think that is what I will advise needs to be done and done very quickly. Because access to high performing yields, high performing seeds and fertilizers and farm inputs is very critical; otherwise you will not be able to do it.” Nonetheless, Adesina also pointed out the need for Nigeria to get low-interest concessionary financing to overcome its economic challenges. The development bank boss said issues around the exchange rate must be dealt with as an import dependent nation. According to him, the AfDB is planning about $1.7bn economic and budget support loan for the country. He said, “There needs to be a lot of support around Nigeria, given the tight fiscal space and the lack of forex, to make available a lot more concessional financing to the Nigerian economy. And that’s what we’re doing at African Development Bank. This year we expect to approve with our board because we always go to our board of directors for approval, but our plan is to be able to do $1.67bn of financing to Nigeria in different sectors, including considering a potential policy base operation of budget support to Nigeria. We are discussing with the Minister of Finance; that is part of a $1bn budget support operation that will go into two tranches. Again, I will say it has to be approved by the board, but these are all the things that we are hoping to be able to do.” He spoke about other agric projects in the country. Also, the AfDB is planning to launch this year a programme for a $1bn special agro-industrial processes are in 28 states, adding that “It this structural interventions that I will say would make agriculture more productive, efficient, and competitive.” “So those are the things that we are doing in Nigeria. In addition to that, we have a programme that we’ve already implemented, called Special Agro Industrial Processing zones. So these are new economic zones we are supporting Nigeria to develop. We provided $520m for that, ourselves, the African Development Bank, the Islamic Development Bank, and the International Fund for Agricultural, currently working now in eight states. We expect that those things will start hitting the ground and start construction by June of this year,” he added. Read the full article

[findsunbiz]

Angola, country located in southwestern Africa. A large country, Angola takes in a broad variety of landscapes, including the semidesert Atlantic littoral bordering Namibia’s “Skeleton Coast,” the sparsely populated rainforest interior, the rugged highlands of the south, the Cabinda exclave in the north, and the densely settled towns and cities of the northern coast and north-central river valleys. The capital and commercial centre is Luanda, a large port city on the northern coast that blends Portuguese-style colonial landmarks with traditional African housing styles and modern industrial complexes.

The Portuguese government regarded Angola as its overseas crown jewel during the colonial period. It made the colony a target of ambitious settlement schemes and encouraged investment in the economy. As a result of these efforts, the Angolan economy was growing rapidly by the 1970s, with commodities such as coffee, sisal, diamonds, and petroleum the leading exports. Some light industry also developed in the major towns. But this growth was unbalanced, most of the profits being concentrated in the hands of a small settler class, with the majority of the population relegated to forced-labour projects or compelled to sell agricultural goods at artificially low prices to marketing boards. The resultant inequality of income and opportunity played a significant role in the development of the nationalist movements.

There was a large exodus of skilled Portuguese workers at national independence in 1975, and, because the colonial state had failed to adequately develop local educational systems and job opportunities, few Angolans were available to take their place. The loss of capital and skills had an immediate negative impact on economic development. In addition, the new government sought to impose socialist development on a Soviet and Cuban model that included a high degree of state participation in the economy, such as collective and state-run agricultural enterprises. Foreign capital was often nationalized, and exchange rates were set artificially high.

Colonial policies favoured the growth of large Portuguese-owned estates producing export crops and discouraged production of any but subsistence crops on the small holdings of the majority of the rural population. Rural people were subjected to various schemes of forced and contract labour to provide workers for the estates. Only about 3 percent of the land area was under cultivation, with less than 1 percent irrigated. Coffee was of greatest importance, with production concentrated in the Malanje highlands and along the northwestern margins of the Bié Plateau near the centre of the country. Prior to independence, Angola supplied almost one-fifth of world coffee production, with an annual output of more than 200,000 tons in the early 1970s. Cotton, sisal, and corn (maize) were also important cash crops, while cassava (manioc), millet, sorghum, and rice were grown as subsistence crops, and livestock such as goats, pigs, and chickens were also kept for subsistence.

Estates were nationalized after independence, and the creation of state farms followed. The contract-labour system was replaced by a similar system of forced labour, called voluntary brigades. The ensuing civil war, however, prevented the implementation of a state-run estate system, and agricultural production faltered. Cooperatives replaced marketing boards for the small holders and proved to be just as inequitable, and the flight of Portuguese petty traders broke the distribution system. The transport network deteriorated; insecurity spread throughout the country; the overvaluation of the currency acted as an increasingly heavy de facto tax on exports; and the collapse of manufacturing removed all incentives to sell agricultural commodities to the towns. As a result, the urban population came to depend on imported food.

Fertile agricultural land is limited to a few favoured locations in the highlands and river valleys, and less than one-tenth of the land area is thought to be arable. The combination of poor soils and insufficient rainfall over most of Angola is a severe limitation to crop growing, although the country does contain both temperate and tropical climates. However, the country’s agricultural potential remains underutilized outside the Bié Plateau, the coastal oases, and the Ovambo floodplain on the Namibian border. Although pastoralism is inhibited by infestations of tsetse flies, poor pastures, and the lack of surface water in the Namib zone, the southwestern quarter of the country has favourable conditions. The main subsistence crop is cassava. Commercial food crops such as coffee and sugar are again being grown; the production of palm oil and tobacco increased in the 1990s; and even cotton production has increased slightly. The greatest impediment to agriculture, whether subsistence or commercial, however, is the number of land mines that were buried throughout the countryside during years of conflict.

Prior to independence, timber extraction from natural forests was concentrated in Maiombe in the Cabinda exclave and in Luso on the eastern stretch of the Benguela Railway. Large eucalyptus plantations along the western stretches of the Benguela Railway provided firewood for the steam locomotives and fed the paper-pulp plant near Benguela. Timber exports ceased at independence, and available resources came to be used primarily for fuel. Timber resources remain significant, however, as nearly one-fifth of the country is forested. The Maiombe forest in the north of the Cabinda exclave contains the most-valuable commercial species, notably white tola (Balsamiferum harms) and limba (Terminalia superba). There are also stands of commercial timber along the rivers of the southeast, especially mussibi (Guibourtia coleosperma).

Angola’s resources are considerable in comparison with those of most African countries. There are large reserves of petroleum and natural gas, concentrated in the maritime zones off the Cabinda exclave and the Congo River estuary. Production is largely concentrated off the coast of Cabinda, although there is some onshore production near Soyo and Luanda, and prospecting extends as far south as Kuanza Sul. The quality of the crude oil is generally good, with a low sulfur content.

Petroleum was first discovered in 1955. Angola has become one of the largest exporters of petroleum in sub-Saharan Africa, and production has nearly tripled since independence. Because Angola was not a member of OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) until 2007, for many years the country was not subject to any restrictive quotas on its exports. Angola has also benefited from a combination of favourable geologic conditions, a high rate of exploration success, and relatively low operating costs. Natural gas has been found both associated and unassociated with petroleum, but about half of this has been burned off and the rest injected back into oil wells. A state company was set up in 1977 to engage in joint ventures and production-sharing agreements, while management of the oil business was left largely in foreign hands.

Alluvial diamonds occur widely over the northeastern quarter of the country, with a high proportion of gem-quality stones, and there are several kimberlite pipe formations that may be mined. Before independence, Angola was the fourth largest diamond exporter in the world in terms of value, but since that time output has fluctuated. The National Diamond Enterprise of Angola, a parastatal company, is responsible for approving diamond concessions, and it also licenses buyers. In 1992–94 most Angolan diamonds on the market were mined and smuggled from regions controlled by UNITA. The Angolan government gained control of this area in mid-1994 and tried to halt the activities of thousands of illegal diamond prospectors. UNITA retook some diamond regions in the mid- to late 1990s and controlled them until early 2002, when UNITA’s leader, Jonas Savimbi, was killed.

Manufacturing had expanded rapidly prior to independence, but it was severely disrupted after 1975. Nationalization and the loss of skilled labour hit the manufacturing sector especially hard. Industries in Angola produce construction materials, refined petroleum and equipment for the petroleum industry, processed food, textiles, and electrical goods. Output declined severely during the quarter century after independence because of the continuing threat of warfare, raw material shortages, and disruptions of power and the transportation infrastructure. In the 1990s Angola attempted to counteract these problems by privatizing many businesses and industries and by introducing a new foreign investment code. The construction industry saw an increase of activity after the end of the civil war, as reconstruction was a priority of the government.

Hydrocarbons account for the largest proportion of exports; almost half goes to China, where low-sulfur crude oil is sought by refineries. The economy is thus highly vulnerable to shifts in the price of oil. A small quantity of diamonds are also exported.

Imports come from several countries, with Portugal, China, and the United States among the top sources for imports. Angola imports consumer goods and capital goods and some transport equipment. It generally has a positive balance of trade.

Although Angola has rural beauty and the economic resources to develop a thriving tourist industry, the long-term civil war prevented the development of this sector. Nevertheless, the country does have a national tourist agency, and some 40,000 tourists entered Angola annually in the late 1990s; in the years following the end of the civil war, that number increased dramatically.

Finally, I will leave a link which includes all companies and enterprises in Angola, for those who want to research and discover more about this island. Thanks for reading.

All businesses address in Angola: https://findsun.net/AO

[irispublishersagriculture]

Iris Publishers - World Journal of Agriculture and Soil Science (WJASS)

Biofertilizer Impacts on Cassava (Manihot Esculenta Crantz) Cultivation: Improved Soil Health and Quality, Igbariam, Nigeria

Authored by Ayodele A Otaiku

Introduction

Many diseases are caused by pathogens, whose damage symptoms appear on the leaves, stems and storage roots [1] during cassava cultivation. The common diseases of cassava are cassava mosaic disease, cassava bacterial blight, cassava anthracnose disease, cassava bud necrosis and root rot. Some of these diseases attack the leaves and stems of cassava plants while others attack the storage roots [2]. Cassava mosaic disease is caused by the African cassava mosaic virus which occurs inside the leaves and stems and causes yield reductions of up to 90 percent [3]. Economical damage by diseases, pests and weeds of cassava is relatively moderate, although white flies can be a menace in some regions, if the problem is not identified early, and remedial action not implemented in a timely manner (Figure 1). Correct identification of the pest and an understanding of its behaviour, including its most vulnerable stages would provide insights into its management affects crops yield and development. Care must be then taken if pesticide application is contemplated, since there is the likelihood of high residual levels remaining in the product after harvest if an inappropriate formulation is not used.

Biopesticides can exert fungicidal, insecticidal, or nematocidal action via the microbial inoculate in the biofertilizer, a combination of them and possibly other auxiliary functions such as bird and mammal repellents or herbicides. According to recent classifications [4,5]. Bio-control action is due to multiple synergic mechanisms, generally including: i) production of antibiotics and other secondary metabolites (e.g., phenazines by Pseudomonas spp., lipopeptides by Bacillus spp., and hydrocyanic acid by Rhizobia); and ii) secretion of lytic and defense enzymes (e.g., chitinases, glucanases, peroxidases, polyphenol oxidases, and phenylalanine ammonia lyases produced by Trichoderma, Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, Serratia, Streptomyces and Bacillus strains) [6,7]. The drawback of using living microorganisms is that their efficacy is often unpredictable under changing field conditions, and their fitness is reduced by the presence of an indigenous microbiota difficult to displace by non-native microorganisms [7,8]. Additionally, the antagonistic interactions occurring in formulations containing more than one microbial species limit their potential in integrated pest management strategies [9,10].

Climate change and soil biological health

It is commonly observed that applying only N or N + P can lead to a decline in particulate organic matter (>53 m fraction) and soil biological activity (soil respiration, microbial biomass C and N). These however improved significantly by moving towards balanced application through the addition of NPK or NPK+ organics [19]. Also, actual field studies on microbial diversity and activity are few. Contrary to a hypothesis that leaf litter produced under elevated CO2 and having a high C: N ratio would be difficult to decompose, the microorganisms were found to adapt to changing soil carbon input under elevated CO2 and there was no effect on their turnover and behaviour [20]. Expectedly, under 15 elevated CO2, increased immobilization of fertilizer N by stimulation of mineralization (SMB) of soil organic matter (SOM) nitrogen was observed [21].

Thus, greater microbial demand for N (>27%) was observed under elevated CO2 [22]. As warmer temperatures are maintained, the less efficient use of carbon by the microbes causes them to decrease in number, eventually resulting in less carbon dioxide being emitted into the atmosphere [23] via an agricultural soil vis-à-vis a desert soil (warmed in real world over time) attests this reality. Mycorrhizal and N2-fixing relationships are generally enhanced by CO2 enrichment, but effects of warming are highly variable [24]. There are reports proving that soil resistance and resilience is linked to soil biodiversity [25] and ‘higher’ soil diversity protects the soil against ecosystem malfunctions under stress or disturbance: an ‘insurance hypothesis’ linked to soil biodiversity [26].

Unfortunately, some African soils lack essential nutrients. In Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania low yield of crops was attributed mainly to poor soil fertility [27]. For instance, Zn is deficient in most West African soils, especially the lowland areas [28] while plant viable P is unavailable in the iron-rich tropical soils of Africa due to low pH and high level of iron and aluminum oxides [29]. The soil lacks Ca, Mg and K, and when acidic, has a high level of free Mn, which is toxic to crops. Buhmann, et al. [30], some South African soils are deficient in K and P, making it unsuitable for cultivation. Africa has lower fertilizer consumption when compared to other regions of the world. In 2002, sub-Saharan Africa had about 8 kg/ha of fertilizer consumption which increased to 12 kg/ ha in 2010 and 18 kg/ha in 2013 (Sommer et al., 2013). This is far below that of other regions of the world such as North America, South Asia, and East Asia and Pacific which were estimated at 127.9 kg/ha, 151.8 and 337.0 kg/ha respectively (World Bank Fertiliser Consumption, 2013).

Sub-Saharan Africa fertilizer market lacks basic infrastructure for sustainability, efficient pricing and competition (Sommer et al., 2013). Biofertilizers should not be misunderstood for organic fertilizers such as compost, animal manure and plant manure or extracts [31,32]. However, whether the beneficial microbes improve crop accessibility to nutrients [6,33] or replenish soil nutrients (Shridhar, 2012; Thamer et al., 2011), if the overall nutrient condition of crop and soil has been improved, such substances containing the beneficial microorganisms are considered as biofertilizers [32]. The objectives are:

• How biofertilizer functional architecture links system design (microbial inoculant) impacts on the cassava crops nutrient use efficiency.

• To use the outcome indicators (crop yield, soil organic matter) as a determinant of soil health and quality and soil nutrient facility management.

• How the microbial inoculant impacts on the integrated soil management?

• What are the indicators of soil quality?

Methodology

Biofertilizer functional models - soil health and quality

The environment-centric view (biofertilizer impacts) considers function as its effects (biofertilizer). The device-centric view considers function in term of internal parameters of the object (cassava crop physiology). The device-centric functions are the outcome (yield, soil health and quality) of the deployment of the environment centric functions. Eppinger and Browning, 2012 define. Underrating the biofertilizer system architecture of cassava crop cultivation within the agro-ecology, their relationships to crop development, evolution and outcome (yield, soil health and quality). Models are representations of the current understanding of a phenomenon or process of interest [34,35]. Functional models describe the relationship among variables using the simplest description of causal relations possible that still provides a useful description of the process or phenomenon [36]. A functional model would describe the components of the biofertilizer system and how they interact soils and crops cultivation. A mechanistic model would describe the properties of the biofertilizer contained in the components of the soil systems during cultivation. Information is also required on the driving forces that impact the variables controlling outcomes This driving force-outcome-response framework (or pressure-state- response framework) is widely used in environmental assessment [37].

Biofertilizer is dependent variable is the variable being tested and measured in the cassava (independent variable or manipulated variable) field experiment. The independent variable (cassava crop) effect on the dependent variable is observed and recorded. Indicators can be used to communicate information on driving forces, outcomes, or responses. Driving force indicators communicate information on the causes of a problem, which may provide incentives for appropriate responses or be used to monitor the efficacy of responses. Outcome indicators communicate information on the effects of a problem on a goal. Outcome indicators are often slow to respond but are directly related to the issue and are useful for assessment and planning. Response indicators communicate information on the extent to which remedial actions are implemented. Response indicators respond quickly, but their effects are not evident until much later. Indicators may communicate information on level, change or structure [38]. An indicator of structure provides information on industry or policy structures related to driving force (e.g., average farm size) or response (e.g., proportion of farms with an environmental farm plan). Water quality: watersheds with the greatest risk of non-point pollution are identified based on leaching and runoff vulnerability indices calculated for pesticides and nutrients (Figure 3).

For example, vulnerability indices for nutrients are obtained from estimates of excess nutrient levels (manure or commercial fertilizer sources) combined with estimates of leaching (based on precipitation and hydrologic factors) or estimates of run-off, Figure 2 reported by Kellogg et al. [39]. In the United States to develop soil ratings based on measured soil properties for the comparison of land management systems [40] and the approach, soil quality is considered an inherent property of the soil that can be determined from measurable soil attributes [41]. When a soil quality parameter declines below an acceptable limit, an appropriate response is required to increase soil quality. Acceptable limits depend on land use, soil characteristics, landform and climatic conditions. Many potential parameters of soil quality, measurable at various scales of assessment, have been proposed (Table 1). Wander & Bollero [42] concluded that particulate organic matter, mean wet weight diameter of aggregates, bulk density and penetration resistance may be good indicators of soil quality because they are sensitive to management and environmentally relevant.

Acton & Gregorich [43] defined soil quality as “the soil’s fitness to support crop growth without resulting in soil degradation or otherwise harming the environment”. Larson & Pierce [41] stated that “soil quality describes how effectively soils: 1) accept, hold, and release nutrients and other chemical constituents; 2) accept, hold, and release water to plants, streams and groundwater; 3) promote and sustain root growth; 4) maintain suitable biotic habitat; and 5) respond to management and resist degradation”. Karlen et al. [44] defined soil quality as “the capacity of a specific kind of soil to function, within natural or managed ecosystem boundaries, to sustain plant and animal productivity, maintain or enhance water and air quality, and support human health and habitation”.

Soil quality and health

Soil quality can be defined as the fitness of a specific kind of soil, to function within its capacity and within natural or managed ecosystem boundaries, to sustain plant and animal productivity, maintain or enhance water and air quality, and support human health and habitation [45]. Soil quality is related to soil functions and soil health concepts views soil as a finite and dynamic living resource [46]. Plant health is clearly a component of soil health but necessarily not of soil quality [47]. Baker & Cook [48] described the soils in which disease severity or incidence remains low, in spite of the presence of a pathogen, a susceptible host plant and climatic conditions favorable for disease development, as suppressive soils. Soil biota like arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi play a significant role in improving plant nutrition but also act as bioprotectants against pathogens and toxic substances [49]. Thus, there is a considerable degree of overlap in the meaning of soil quality and soil health (Doran, 2002), though soil health perceptions tend to focus more on biotic components of soil [50]. Soil degradation or deterioration in soil health or quality implies loss of the vital functions of soil: (i) providing physical support, water and essential nutrients required for growth of terrestrial plants; (ii) regulation of the flow of water in the environment and (iii) elimination of the harmful effects of contaminants by means of physical, chemical and biological processes, i.e., environmental buffer or filter [38,51]. The quality and health of soil determine agricultural sustainability and environmental quality, which jointly determine plant, animal and human health [21,52].

Results and Discussion

Biofertilizer - mechanism of action

The absence of a population of degrading microorganisms can be overcome by the inoculation of the plant rhizosphere with pollutant degrading strains and biosurfactants during crop cultivation via biofertilizer. This approach successful in reducing the levels of benzene, ethylene, toluene xylenes, hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls and pesticides in polluted environments [50,53] especially in Africa poor soil profile. The rhizosphere is defined as the volume of the soil over which roots have influence, and which is shared with soil bacteria. Plants release exudates in the rhizosphere likely to serve as carbon source for microbes [54]. Consequently, rhizosphere microbes can promote plant health by stimulating root growth via production of plant growth regulators, enhance mineral and water uptake. Some bacteria, especially fluorescent pseudomonads, produce siderophores that have very high affinities for iron as compared to fungal siderophores [55] and can sequester this limited resource from other microflora thereby preventing their growth [56].

Earlier reports have demonstrated the importance of P. fluorescens siderophores in disease suppression [57,58], Figure 4. However, many endophytic bacteria are facultative plant colonizers and have to compete well in the rhizosphere before entering the plant [59] and might be therefore equipped with a rich arsenal of metabolites involved in defense as well as in interaction with the plant. Many bacteria with the capacity of colonizing plants utilize the nutrient niche of root surfaces in the rhizosphere and most of them might even actively switch from root surface to endophytic lifestyles [59,60]. These bacteria comprise several well characterized species of Bacillus and Pseudomonas and a number of metabolites, particularly lipopeptides synthesized by non-ribosomal peptide synthesases, have been described to be important for rhizosphere bacteria for antibiosis and for inducing plant defense mechanisms (Figure 5). Biofertilizer characteristics (Table 2) and biosurfactants (Table 3) applied in the filed cassava cultivation requires no chemical pesticide. This was as a result of might be cassava plant-associated lifestyle requires adaptation to several niches, in which different metabolites act as signals for interaction (communication) with the plant and host specific plants nutrient and crop protection.

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