#analysis with only one measure of central tendency)

[tea-earl-grey]

Voyager rewatch recap

just finished my Voyager re-watch (still feeling a little emotional from Endgame) and I actually had the foresight to rate all the episodes and was curious about what my average episode rating, top episodes, and bottom episodes were and I thought I'd post it for funsies. however despite my love of rating and reviewing things I'm terrible at actually assigning scores to stories so it's incredibly subjective based on how I was feeling when I watched it. in general, a 5 or below is abysmally bad, 7 is meh/average, and a 9 or above is a strong love.

SEASON AVERAGES:

Season 1 – avg: 7.17, median: 7

Season 2 – avg: 7.37, median: 7.15

Season 3 – avg: 7.58, median: 7.3

Season 4 – avg: 8.15, median: 8.4

Season 5 – avg: 8.2, median: 8.2

Season 6 – avg: 8.02, median: 8.15

Season 7 – avg: 7.65, median: 7.4

TEN FAVORITE EPISODES:

Barge of the Dead (10)

Bride of Chaotica (9.8)

Timeless (9.7)

Survival Instinct (9.7)

Mortal Coil (9.6)

Night (9.6)

The Gift (9.5)

Riddles (9.5)

Endgame (9.5)

Latent Image (9.5)

TEN LEAST FAVORITE EPISODES:

Fury (3.5)

Retrospect (4.8)

Twisted (4.9)

Darkling (5)

Tattoo (5)

Alice (5.8)

Cathexis (6)

Favorite Son (6)

Vis a Vis (6)

The Fight (6)

despite having its share of bad and average episodes, I think I can very safely say that Voyager is my favorite Trek. it's certainly not perfect but it feels like home and it inspires me to have so many thoughts and ideas and I simply need to rotate all the characters in my head for awhile more before I can ever be coherent about them.

[farasexcelr]

The Role of Statistics in Data Analyst Course

Statistics play a fundamental role in Data Analyst Courses, serving as the backbone of many analytical techniques and methodologies. As data becomes an increasingly valuable asset for decision-making across industries, understanding statistical principles is crucial for aspiring data analysts. In a Data Analyst Course, statistics not only enhance analytical capabilities but also provide the tools needed to interpret data accurately and make informed decisions. This exploration into the role of statistics in Data Analyst Courses highlights why these principles are essential and how they are integrated into the curriculum.

1. Foundation of Data Analysis

Statistics form the foundation of data analysis, providing the methods and techniques used to summarize, interpret, and draw conclusions from data. In Data Analyst Course, students learn about descriptive statistics, which involve summarizing data through measures such as mean, median, mode, and standard deviation. These basic statistics help analysts understand the central tendencies and variability of data, laying the groundwork for more complex analyses.

2. Data Distribution and Probability

Understanding data distribution and probability is another crucial aspect of statistics taught in Data Analyst Courses. Students learn about different types of data distributions, such as normal, binomial, and Poisson distributions. Probability theory, including concepts like probability distributions and statistical inference, is used to make predictions and assess the likelihood of various outcomes. Mastery of these concepts enables analysts to model data accurately and make probabilistic forecasts.

3. Inferential Statistics

Inferential statistics is a key component of Data Analyst Courses, focusing on making inferences and predictions about a population based on a sample of data. Techniques such as hypothesis testing, confidence intervals, and p-values are essential for determining whether observed patterns in data are statistically significant or occurred by chance. This aspect of statistics allows analysts to generalize findings from sample data to the broader population and make data-driven decisions with a quantifiable level of confidence.

4. Regression Analysis

Regression analysis is a vital statistical method covered extensively in Data Analyst Courses. It involves exploring relationships between variables and making predictions based on these relationships. Students learn about various types of regression, including linear regression, multiple regression, and logistic regression. These techniques are used to model the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables, helping analysts identify trends, make forecasts, and understand the factors influencing outcomes.

5. Data Cleaning and Preparation

Before conducting statistical analyses, data cleaning and preparation are critical steps. In a Data Analyst Course, students learn how to preprocess data by handling missing values, outliers, and inconsistencies. Statistical methods are employed to detect anomalies and ensure data quality. Techniques such as imputation, normalization, and transformation are used to prepare data for analysis, ensuring that statistical results are accurate and reliable.

6. Advanced Statistical Techniques

Beyond basic statistics, Data Analyst Courses delve into advanced statistical techniques that provide deeper insights into data. Topics may include multivariate analysis, time series analysis, and Bayesian statistics. Multivariate analysis allows analysts to examine relationships between multiple variables simultaneously, while time series analysis is used to analyze data points collected over time to identify trends and seasonal patterns. Bayesian statistics offers a probabilistic approach to data analysis, incorporating prior knowledge and updating beliefs based on new evidence.

7. Statistical Software and Tools

A Data Analyst Course often includes training in statistical software and tools that facilitate the application of statistical techniques. Students gain hands-on experience with tools like R, Python, SAS, and SPSS, which are essential for performing complex statistical analyses. These tools provide functionalities for data manipulation, statistical modeling, and visualization, allowing analysts to execute analyses efficiently and accurately.

8. Interpretation of Statistical Results

Interpreting statistical results is a crucial skill developed in Data Analyst Courses. Students learn how to analyze the output of statistical tests and models, understand the meaning of statistical metrics, and draw valid conclusions. This involves understanding how to interpret coefficients, confidence intervals, and significance levels, and how to communicate findings effectively to stakeholders who may not have a statistical background.

9. Ethical Considerations in Statistics

Ethical considerations are an important aspect of statistics covered in Data Analyst Courses. Students learn about the ethical implications of data analysis, including issues related to data privacy, consent, and the responsible use of statistical methods. Understanding these ethical considerations ensures that analysts conduct their work with integrity and respect for individuals and data sources.

10. Practical Applications and Case Studies

To reinforce theoretical knowledge, Data Analyst Courses often include practical applications and case studies. These exercises allow students to apply statistical methods to real-world problems and datasets. Through case studies, students explore how statistical techniques are used to solve business problems, make data-driven decisions, and provide actionable insights. This hands-on experience helps bridge the gap between theory and practice, enhancing students’ ability to apply statistics in diverse contexts.

11. Data Visualization and Reporting

Statistics also play a role in data visualization and reporting, which are key components of Data Analyst Courses. Students learn how to create visual representations of data that effectively communicate statistical findings. This includes designing charts, graphs, and dashboards that highlight key trends and insights. Statistical principles guide the choice of appropriate visualization techniques and ensure that visualizations accurately represent the data and support decision-making.

12. Enhancing Decision-Making Skills

Ultimately, the role of statistics in a Data Analyst Course is to enhance decision-making skills. By understanding and applying statistical methods, students are equipped to analyze data rigorously, make informed predictions, and support strategic decisions. Statistical analysis provides a framework for evaluating data objectively, identifying patterns and trends, and deriving actionable insights that drive business and organizational outcomes.

Conclusion

Statistics are integral to Data Analyst Course in kolkata, forming the foundation of many analytical techniques and methodologies. From basic descriptive statistics to advanced techniques like regression analysis and time series forecasting, statistics provide the tools needed to interpret data accurately and make data-driven decisions. By mastering these statistical principles, students gain the skills necessary to tackle complex data challenges, enhance their analytical capabilities, and contribute valuable insights in various professional contexts. The comprehensive understanding of statistics gained through a Data Analyst Course equips students with the expertise needed to excel in the data-driven world and make a significant impact in their careers.

Name: ExcelR- Data Science, Data Analyst, Business Analyst Course Training in Kolkata

Address: B, Ghosh Building, 19/1, Camac St, opposite Fort Knox, 2nd Floor, Elgin, Kolkata, West Bengal 700017

Phone: 08591364838

[academicstrive]

Essential Statistical Methods and Tools for Researchers

AcademicStrive #Researchers #ResearchArticle #OpenAccess

Key statistical methods are integrated into the research and data analysis sphere, and they are more and more being dependent on the precise utilization of the statistical methods to come up with the right interpretation of the insights. Academic Strive, as a Registered Open Access Publisher, is the one-stop-shop that researchers can refer to for the availability of the top-notch materials, which includes data sources, that they need for their projects. The blog article reviews the statistical methods that are made easy and the software technologies that support these analyses, which, in turn, make the research process richer.

Introduction to Statistical Analysis

Statistical Analysis is the process of the collection, organization, interpretation, and transmission of data. It gives the reason for proving scientific truths, which are strong, without any doubt. Consequently, bright whites of the eyes de-classify. At Academic Strive, we lay emphasis on statistical literacy as it is the learning curve for researchers and professionals from different fields.

Common Statistical Methods

Descriptive Statistics: Definition: Descriptive statistics are the ones that sum up the dataset and give a textual description of the main features of a dataset. Key Techniques: Measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode), measures of variability (range, variance, standard deviation). Application: It serves as a data snapshot, which informs the user of the data state.

Inferential Statistics: Definition: Inferential statistics make predictions or inferences about a population that has been sampled from the data that is in actuality available. Key Techniques: The hypothesis testing, confidence intervals, regression analysis, and ANOVA belong to the list. Application: As it is vital for investigating the relationships between variables as they make predictions.

Correlation and Regression Analysis: Definition: To check the shared situation between two or more variables, these ways are used. These methods assess the relationship between two or more variables. Key Techniques: The Pearson correlation coefficient, Spearman's rank correlation, linear regression, and multiple regression are some important methods of statistical methods. Application: It finds a lot of uses in the realm of the social science areas, particularly in economics and psychology, where it refers to uncovering the relationships and predicting the possible changes.

Non-Parametric Methods: Definition: They are non-parametric methods, that is, they do not make assumptions about distribution for the data. Key Techniques: Chi-square test, Mann-Whitney U test, Kruskal-Wallis test would be other measures of this research. Application: When no alternative hypotheses are possible, like when the data are non-normal. Software Tools for Statistical Analysis

SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences): Features: With advanced data techniques and the main thing being a user-friendly interface, it is hard to find a comparison for an SPSS product. There is, however, a comprehensive range of statistical tests and robust data management capabilities. (The) statistical package Usage: It is used not only in the social sciences, but also in the health sciences and marketing research as well.

R: Features: Extensive statistical high-level packages programming language as well as built-in extensive statistical analysis can be used with the R programming language. Usage: It is those people who are into statistics and data science that are the most likely to opt for it, because of its adaptability and hands-on approach.

SAS (Statistical Analysis System): Features: High-level! -d 8,9 Usage: This software is an effective tool mostly applied in clinical trials, treatment of diseases, pharmaceutical research, and as well as the case

Stata: Features: A logically  Usage: Widely used in economics, sociology, and epidemiology research.

Excel: Features: Widely accessible, simple and relatively effective for basic statistical analysis and data manipulation. Usage: However, in the context of

Conclusion

Mastery in statistical methodologies and tools for data analysis is a must for the researchers in quest for substantial and influential researches. Academic Strive is the ultimate provider to researchers giving open access to relevant and the latest information, which significantly uplifts their statistical skills and is compelling in real-world settings. As they project the right scientific methods and software, scientists can verify the reality and accuracy of their discoveries, thereby making a significant contribution to the advancement of knowledge in various fields. For more insights and resources, visit Academic Strive and explore our comprehensive range of academic publications and guides.

[swadesqms]

A Beginner's Journey through Statistical Process Control Training

As the world becomes increasingly data-driven, the importance of statistical process control (SPC) cannot be overstated. SPC is a method of monitoring, controlling, and improving processes through the use of statistical analysis. It is widely used in industries such as manufacturing, healthcare, and finance to ensure quality and efficiency in operations.

As a beginner, the concept of SPC can seem daunting and overwhelming. However, my journey through SPC training has been an eye-opening experience that has not only enhanced my understanding of statistical analysis but also improved my problem-solving skills. In this blog post, I will share my insights and learnings from my beginner's journey through SPC training.

The first step in my SPC training was understanding the basics of statistical analysis. This included learning about data distribution, measures of central tendency, and variability. I also learned about the different types of data, such as continuous and discrete, and how to choose the appropriate statistical tools for each type.

Next, I delved into the world of control charts, which are the backbone of SPC. Control charts are graphical representations of data over time, and they help identify any variations or patterns in a process. I learned about the different types of control charts, such as X-bar and R charts, and how to interpret them to make data-driven decisions.

One of the most crucial aspects of SPC training is understanding process capability. This involves measuring the ability of a process to produce outputs within a specified range of values. I learned about process capability indices, such as Cp and Cpk, and how to use them to assess and improve process performance.

Apart from the technical aspects, SPC training also emphasized the importance of teamwork and communication. SPC is a collaborative effort, and effective communication is crucial for the success of any SPC project. I learned how to work in a team to identify and solve problems, and how to effectively communicate the results of our analysis.

One of the most significant takeaways from my SPC training was the importance of continuous improvement. SPC is not a one-time process; it is an ongoing effort to monitor and improve processes. I learned about techniques such as root cause analysis and the Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle, which are essential for continuous improvement.

Also Read: Minitab Training

Overall, my beginner's journey through SPC training has been a challenging yet fulfilling experience. I have gained a deeper understanding of statistical analysis and its practical application in various industries.

[excelrthane]

Unveiling the Basics of Statistics, Probability Theories, and Their Application in Data Analysis

Statistics and Probability Theories serve as the backbone of data analysis, providing the tools necessary to make sense of the vast amounts of information generated in our data-driven world. These mathematical concepts empower Data Analysts to extract meaningful insights, make informed decisions, and predict future trends. In this article, we will understand how the basics of statistics and probability theories find application in data analysis. We will also understand how Data Analysts can keep themselves updated on the latest developments through a comprehensive Data Analyst Course, especially a Data Analysis course in Mumbai.

First, let us understand the basics of statistics and probability theories:

Statistics: Statistics involves collecting, organising, interpreting, analysing, and presenting data. It plays a pivotal role in summarising information and making informed decisions. Key concepts in statistics include measures of central tendency - mean, median, and mode, which provide a central value around which data points cluster. Measures of dispersion, like standard deviation and range, highlight the spread of data, providing insights into its variability.

Probability Theories: Probability is the likelihood of an event occurring. It is denoted by a value between 0 and 1, where 0 indicates impossibility, 1 denotes certainty, and values in between represent varying degrees of likelihood. Probability theories help quantify uncertainty and randomness, making them indispensable in statistical analysis.

Basic Probability Concepts:

Probability Distribution: Probability distributions describe the likelihood of different outcomes in a given set of events. Common distributions include the normal distribution, binomial distribution, and Poisson distribution.

Conditional Probability: Conditional probability is used to measure the chances of an event occurring, given that another event has already occurred. It is expressed as P(A|B), where A and B are events.

Independence: Events are considered independent if one event occurs but does not affect the probability of the other event. Independence is a crucial concept in probability theory.

Applications of Statistics and Probability in Data Analysis:

Descriptive Statistics: This is used to describe the main features of a dataset and summarise it. This includes measures of central tendency, like mean and median, and measures of dispersion, like standard deviation.

Inferential Statistics: Inferential statistics involve making predictions for a population based on a sample of data. This includes hypothesis testing, confidence intervals, and regression analysis.

Predictive Modeling: Probability theories play a vital role in predictive modelling, where analysts use statistical methods to make predictions about future events. Machine learning algorithms often rely on probability theories to make accurate predictions.

Quality Control: In manufacturing and business processes, statistical methods are employed for quality control. Control charts, process capability analysis, and hypothesis testing help ensure consistency and quality in production.

Risk Assessment: Probability theories are essential in assessing and managing risks. In finance, for example, probabilistic models are used to estimate the chances of different financial outcomes. This is a core concept taught in the Data Analysis Course in Mumbai, the financial capital of India.

The basics of statistics and probability theories form the foundation of data analysis. These mathematical tools enable Data Analysts to uncover patterns and make informed decisions through meaningful conclusions in a world inundated with data. The importance of these concepts in various fields, including business, science, and healthcare, will only continue to grow, even as technology advances. A solid understanding of statistics and probability through a Data Analyst Course is indispensable for anyone seeking to navigate the complexities of the data-driven landscape.

Business name: ExcelR- Data Science, Data Analytics, Business Analytics Course Training Mumbai

Address: 304, 3rd Floor, Pratibha Building. Three Petrol pump, Lal Bahadur Shastri Rd, opposite Manas Tower, Pakhdi, Thane West, Thane, Maharashtra 400602

Phone: 9108238354, Email: enquiry@excelr.com

[deltainfoteklive]

Statistical Data Types: All You Need to Know

Statistical data is an essential part of any research or analysis. It provides valuable insights and helps us make informed decisions. In this article, we will explore the different types of statistical data and their significance. Understanding these data types is crucial for conducting accurate analysis and drawing meaningful conclusions. I. Introduction Statistical data types refer to the different forms of data that can be collected and analyzed in statistical studies. These data types help us categorize and understand the nature of the information we are dealing with. II. Categorical Data Categorical data includes variables that fall into distinct categories or groups. These variables are usually non-numeric and represent qualitative characteristics. Examples of categorical data include gender, occupation, and marital status. Categorical data can further be classified into nominal and ordinal data. Nominal Data Nominal data represents qualitative variables with no inherent order or ranking. For example, the colors of cars or the types of fruits belong to nominal data. Nominal data can only be categorized and has no numerical significance. Ordinal Data Ordinal data, on the other hand, represents qualitative variables with a natural order or ranking. Examples include movie ratings or levels of education. Unlike nominal data, ordinal data can be ranked or ordered. III. Numerical Data Numerical data, also known as quantitative data, consists of variables with numerical values. These variables can be further divided into discrete and continuous data. Discrete Data Discrete data represents variables that can only take on specific, exact values. These values are usually countable and have gaps between them. Examples of discrete data include the number of people in a household or the number of cars in a parking lot. Continuous Data Continuous data represents variables that can take on any numerical value within a specific range. These values are typically measured and can include decimals or fractions. Examples of continuous data include temperature, height, and weight. IV. Summary Statistics Summary statistics are used to summarize and analyze data. They provide a snapshot of the data set and help in understanding its characteristics. The most common summary statistics include measures of central tendency (mean, median, and mode) and measures of dispersion (range and standard deviation). The choice of summary statistics depends on the type of data being analyzed. For categorical data, the mode (most frequent value) is commonly used. For numerical data, the mean (average), median (middle value), and mode can be calculated. V. Data Visualization Data visualization is an effective way to present and interpret statistical data. Graphical representations help in understanding patterns, trends, and relationships within the data. The choice of visualization depends on the data type. For categorical data, bar graphs are commonly used. They display the frequency or proportion of each category. Bar graphs can easily compare different categories and identify the most common or least common. For numerical data, histograms are commonly used. Histograms display the distribution of values and provide insights into the spread and shape of the data. They can be used to identify outliers or check for skewness. VI. Data Transformation Data transformation involves converting data from one type to another. This can be useful when analyzing data or when certain statistical methods require specific data types. Converting numerical data to categorical data can be done through the process of discretization. Discretization involves dividing the numerical values into range intervals and assigning each value to a corresponding category. Converting categorical data to numerical data can be done through the process of encoding. Encoding assigns numerical values to each category, allowing statistical analysis to be performed. VII. Conclusion Understanding statistical data types is crucial for accurately analyzing and interpreting data. By recognizing the different types of data, researchers can choose appropriate statistical techniques and draw meaningful conclusions. Categorical data and numerical data have distinctive characteristics that require different analysis methods. Summary statistics and data visualization techniques further enhance our understanding of the data. Additionally, data transformation techniques allow for flexibility in working with different data types. By mastering the knowledge of statistical data types, researchers can extract valuable insights and make informed decisions. VIII. FAQs FAQ 1: What are the different types of statistical data? There are four primary types of statistical data: categorical data, numerical data, discrete data, and continuous data. FAQ 2: How are summary statistics used? Summary statistics summarize the characteristics of a data set. They provide measures of central tendency and dispersion, facilitating data interpretation. FAQ 3: What is the purpose of data visualization? Data visualization helps in understanding patterns, trends, and relationships within the data. It provides a visual representation for easier interpretation. FAQ 4: What is data transformation? Data transformation involves converting data from one type to another. It can be useful for analysis purposes or when specific data types are required for statistical methods. FAQ 5: Why is it important to understand statistical data types? Understanding statistical data types is essential for accurate analysis and interpretation. It ensures that appropriate statistical techniques are used and meaningful conclusions are drawn. In conclusion, statistical data types are diverse and significant in any research or analysis. Categorical data and numerical data have distinctive characteristics that require different analysis methods. Summary statistics and data visualization techniques further enhance the understanding of the data. By mastering the knowledge of statistical data types and their analysis techniques, researchers can extract valuable insights and make informed decisions. Read the full article

[emergingindiaanalyticsnoida]

Market basket analysis for bakery data

Hey Merchant!

Have your sales stagnated? Do you want to increase sales revenue and/or decrease overhead but don’t know how to do so in an intelligent, data-driven manner? Consider work of  the past participant of Emerging India who conducted a market basket analysis (M.B.A.) of your data so as to unearth insights to help you maximize sales, minimize expenses, and maximize profits.

In one such analysis of sales data, our group employed the Python programming language to assess sales data from a bakery client, utilizing multiple approaches with varying degrees of bias.

Beginning with a dataset of largely non-numerical data, we undertook data preprocessing to prepare the data for analyses. This preprocessing involved feature selection via one-hot, label, & ordinal encoding methods, ensuring the absence of null values, feature elimination by deleting unhelpful attributes, and dataset reorganization.

Before we delved into the machine learning-based M.B.A., we conducted exploratory data analysis (E.D.A.) to scrutinize the dataset in an unbiased fashion. This E.D.A. involved the computation of measures of central tendency & dispersion for each attribute, the determination of correlations across variables, and various & sundry colorful & engaging data visualizations within & across features (histograms, bar plots, pie-plots, etc.). Our E.D.A. revealed which days resulted in more sales, which times of day resulted in more sales, and which items were most popular. Thus informed, we recommended to our client multiple measures that they could take to increase sales revenue or decrease operational costs.

Figure 1. Bar Plot for the frequency of Bakery Items. Coffee, bread, and tea are the most frequently bought items.

Figure 2. Pie Plots for total sales and transactions by Day of Week. Pie Plots for total item sales and transactions by Time of Day.

Figure 3. Bar Plot for Transactions by days of week and Pie Plot for total item sales by time of day.

Figure 4. Pie Plot for the frequency of baker items sold.

Figure 5. Pie Plot for frequency of sales based on time of day/week. Weekday afternoons contain the most purchases.

Figure 6. Bar Plots for top selling items based on type of day. X-axis consists of time of day and Y-axis for items.

Figure 7. Bar Plots for top selling items based on parts of the day. X-axis consists of the type of day and Y-axis for items.

Resulting from our E.D.A., we advise our client of the following:

As fewer that 1% of sales occurred during the hours designated as night and only 2.5% during the hours designated as evening:

NOT OPERATING DURING THESE HOURS should likely increase profits by decreasing the operational costs (e.g.: employee salary/ wages, utilities, insurance premiums for operating a cash business during periods more prone to (potentially violent) robbery/ theft, etc.) to a degree that more than offsets any loss in sales revenue;

As folks love coffee, bread, tea, pastries, cakes, & sammiches:

this recommendation must be weighed against the grave inconvenience that such a dramatic truncation of operating hours would have on the patrons (especially dedicated/ loyal night-time customers).

INCREASING STOCK* & VARIETY of such items might increase sales revenue;

as might CREATING PROMOTIONAL OFFERS tailored to the sale of these items; this insight should dovetails w/ those from the Market-Basket Analysis.

As part of our efforts to determine which items were more closely associated with others, we progressed to using an unsupervised learning algorithm (the K-Modes Clustering Algorithm) to group items.

Figure 8. Elbow curve for k modes clustering.

Finalizing the analysis with a supervised machine learning approach, market basket analysis using the association rules framework, we segregated item groupings based on the support value criterion designated by our a priori algorithm, then we finalized the item groupings based on the confidence value criterion similarly designated. Finally, we computed lift value scores for the selected item groupings so as to establish the association rules that were the ultimate result of our M.B.A.

Figure 9. Bar Plot for the support of bakery combination items.

Figure 10. Association rule for combination of bakery items frequently bought together.

With this work, we were able to inform the client of which items predisposed the purchasing of which other items most robustly; and to suggest to the client that they 0. manage their just-in-time supply chain parameters appropriately, 1. alter slotting fees accordingly, 2. co-localize such associated items, and/or 3. offer promotional enticements linking such items as:

increasing slotting fees for cake, toast, bread, & pastries vendors to place their wares near the coffee, hot chocolate, & tea machines;

crafting buy-one-get-one-50%-off and buy-one-get-one-free promotional offers encouraging the co-purchase of any combination of coffee, tea, hot chocolate, toast, bread, cake, & pastries;

co-localizing toast, bread, cake, & pastries items;

stocking a greater variety of the items that sell like hotcakes: coffee, tea, hot chocolate, toast, bread, cake, & pastries;

taking appropriate steps to minimize the probability of running out of (or low on*) the best selling items;

considering increasing the sales of poorly selling items by co-localizing them with hot sellers.

In so doing, we utilized various & sundry data science libraries (pandas, numpy, matplotlib’s pyplot,  seaborn, KModes, and apriori & association_rules from mlextend’s frequent_patterns) to identify meaningful & potentially profitable discernments from a simple sales transactions dataset.

[tejimandiblog]

Stock Investing in India – What is Securities Transaction Tax

Tax evasion is a deep-rooted scourge among many taxpayers. Attempting to avoid paying income tax by not disclosing profits from the sale of securities is an illegal and illegal activity. This not only results in taxpayers shirking their responsibilities as citizens, but also results in a significant reduction in state coffers used for social welfare schemes.

Keeping this in mind, the Indian government has introduced measures to control illegal activities, one of which is the securities trading tax. Since its inception in October 2004, the law requires investors to pay taxes on their capital gains from the stock market.

This is a detailed description of the characteristics, scope and rates of securities trading tax in India.

What is Securities Transaction Tax in India?

Securities Transaction Tax (STT) is a tax on transactions of securities made in the stock exchange of India. Securities refer to negotiable investment instruments such as stocks, checks, bonds, any equity-related funds, etc., issued by a company or government. The main purpose of introducing STT is to curb the tendency of investors to avoid paying the appropriate income tax. Not paying taxes on your capital gains is one of the biggest investing mistakes new investors make. Check out this link for other investing mistakes you want to watch!

Features of Securities Transaction Tax

It is a direct tax that the Central Government levies and collects.

Off-market share transactions do not fall under the ambit of STT.

The rate of STT depends on the type of security being traded and whether the transaction is a sale or purchase.

Sell transactions for both options and futures fall under the scope of the tax regime. Options are valued at a premium and futures are valued at the actual traded price.

Clearing members pay an STT, which is a collective sum of the STTs of trading members under them.

Securities Transaction Tax rates in India

One can trade in securities for investment purposes or for trading purposes. In both cases, the government levies STT. Also, the tax that affects stock market transactions depends on the purpose or nature of the transaction, as explained above. Investment advisors at TejiMandi help you calculate the tax you will pay on capital gains in your investment portfolio, so you don't have to fear the math again!

Income from trading also attracts income tax. It is of two types:

1. Income from professional stock trading

2. Capital gains

The takeaway

Sale Are you looking for a simplified way of investing in stocks? The TejiMandi App is the ultimate destination for all your investment-related needs! Trusted by over 10,000 investors, Teji Mandi makes investing in stocks hassle-free and straightforward. From active portfolio management to practical analysis of stock picks, Teji Mandi ensures that you sail smoothly through your investment journey. Connect with us today to supercharge your investment portfolio!

[jaimeartblog]

Light and Movement: A Stylistic Analysis of Felix Resurreccion Hidalgo

Looking through and comparing four of Felix Resurreccion Hidalgo’s most popular oil paintings reveals a lot about his stylistic tendencies and techniques, especially when it comes to light and shadows, as well as the movement of the viewer’s eye. The first painting, “The Christian Virgins Exposed to the Populace,” measures 45 x 62 inches and is set in a dark underground dungeon made of stone, with stairs on the upper left hand corner where a group of savage men are descending down into the darkness towards two women on the right who have both been stripped. The second painting is “The Boat of Charon,” whose 32 x 45-inch canvas depicts the boatman Charon naked on the right of the painting, where his face has been morphed beyond recognition, traversing wild and dangerous waters underneath an ominous black and yellow sky, with a landslide of intertwining naked human bodies coming from the left threatening to come onto his boat. The third painting is “Oedipus and Antigone,” measuring about 20 x 28 inches, shows the titular characters together, with Antigone at the center of the painting, kneeling on the ground with her hands on her face, mourning the dead Oedipus, whose legs and right hand can be seen peeking out from the left. Lastly, “A Lady in the Moonlight,” which measures 37 x 20, is a portrait of a lady wearing an orange dress with a translucent veil wrapped around her body and head with her arm raised up, standing in the middle of a dark field at night.   

What one first notices from afar are the strong contrasts of dark and light colors, brought about most prominently by the darkness of the surroundings and the lightness of the human figures. In “Christian Virgins” and “Boat of Charon,” Hidalgo employs chiaroscuro, with the dark backgrounds of the painting creating harsh contrasts against the more well-lit figures. Looking more closely, one can also see how their shapes and curves of their bodies are highlighted by the shadows created from the singular light source. For “Oedipus” and “Lady in Moonlight,” the contrast of dark and light is prominent with their garments. With the two paintings, it is not only the figures’ skin tone, but also their light garments -- Antigone’s white, flowy garments and the lady’s bright orange dress and white veil -- that contrast strongly against the dark backgrounds. 

Another similar use of contrast between the four paintings is Hidalgo’s use of smooth brushstrokes for human skin to contrast the rough brushstrokes used everywhere else in the frame. This contrast draws the eye to the human figures themselves, highlighting them within the sea of rough textures. The smooth skin of the figures -- the standing virgin, the back of the man in the landslide, the shoulder of Antigone, and the face of the lady in the dress -- stand out and grab the viewer’s attention against the aggression of the men in “Christian Virgins” and the ravaging waters of “Boat of Charon,” as well as the dark colors and textures around the main figures in “Oedipus” and “Lady in Moonlight.” 

As seen in the way I have been grouping the paintings, there are clear parallels between “Christian Virgins” and “Boat of Charon.” Looking at the first pairing, one notices that there are multiple figures in the painting, drawing the viewer’s eye across the canvas instead of focusing on a central figure. In “Christian Virgins,” the eye is first drawn to the bright virgins and is guided by the lined-up heads of the savage men to the left that glides across the canvas all the way to the staircase on the left. In the “Boat of Charon,” the eye is guided by the “invisible line” of the intertwined bodies to the boat, and to Charon himself at the other end of it. 

Likewise, one can also notice visual parallels with “Oedipus” and “Lady in Moonlight,” as both paintings only have one main figure at the center (not counting the parts of Oedipus on the side). Instead of being drawn on a horizontal axis, the viewer’s eye is drawn vertically in “Oedipus” from the garments of Antigone down to the ground where the lifeless Oedipus lay. In “Lady in Moonlight,” the eye is drawn from the face of the lady down to the details of her dress. The figure itself serves as the “invisible line” in these two paintings, and thus draws the viewer along their figure and down to the ground, where the eyes are led to explore the background as well.

However, there is actually a similar movement in all four paintings: a semicircular J-shape. Though subtle, it allows the eye not only to observe the main figure/s, but also the surrounding background and details. In “Christian Virgins,” the eye may be drawn horizontally from the women to the men, but the heads of the few men still descending the staircase draw the eye slightly around and upwards towards the small light peering out from the top of the staircase, in an almost semicircular J-shape. In “Boat of Charon,” the eye is drawn down the line of the bodies and back up around to the face (or lack thereof) of Charon. In “Oedipus,” the invisible line flows down from Antigone to Oedipus in a similar semicircular J-shape. Lastly, in “Lady in Moonlight,” the eye is not only drawn down to the ground, but around the arm of the lady holding the shawl up, a shape which also appears in the quarter moon above her. There was a clear intent by Hidalgo to add dynamic movement to his works.

[arthurrosj548]

The Ultimate Guide to grandsoccertips.com

Free football Tips

Sevilla returned to profitable methods towards Real Betis on the weekend and now face an Elche facet that have lost their final five away games, failing to attain in 4 of their last nine away video games. Bayern Munich have scored 22 targets in their seven Champions League games this season and hammered Lazio four-1 in the first leg. The Bavarians have scored no less than three objectives in every of their final four games. Blackburn are winless in their final five house games and have lost seven of their final ten, while Bristol City are on a 3 match successful streak away from house. Championship leaders Norwich have won their final eight video games and have one of the best away document within the league, profitable 12 of their 18 trips so far this season. IIt’s not only faculty soccer we have experts in, we also have school basketball picks including March Madness.

In some cases, you may want extra perception into what’s going on within the game in the meanwhile. We provide this betting evaluation in our Football Betting Predictions for that purpose. Bielefeld have lost three and drawn 1 of their last 4 league games.

You might have been a supporter for years, but your love for the team is not going to make them play any higher or improve their probabilities when playing Liverpool or Man City away. Picking the best bet is about using your head not your heart. With 22 players, plus substitutes, plus a whole range of backroom employees influencing the end result of every game, there's a lot of analysis to be accomplished if you are to make an knowledgeable wager. This is where professional evaluation actually comes into its own. Chelsea solely sit one place and one point above visiting Everton, however the Londoners have not misplaced at residence to the Toffees since a 2011 penalty shootout within the FA Cup.

There are endless methods to bet on football matches other than a simple prediction of who will win. The extra you perceive about the game, and concerning the teams concerned, the more markets will speak in confidence to you, which is where oddschecker’s free football betting ideas can help. These football bets are created by the FA group and embody soccer ideas for the most important video games in the entire top leagues & tournaments in the world. However, we don’t restrict ourselves to just the highest leagues, we analyse the smaller ones so as to ensure we’re bringing you the best football betting tips potential. If you want regular, dependable, proven soccer predictions at present, oddschecker is the place to head.

The hosts head into this recreation on the again of four wins from their last four matches, three of which they've scored exactly 4 objectives in. Man Utd have won five of their final six encounters with AC Milan and each groups have scored in four of those matches. Man Utd have picked up three wins and three draws from their last six outings, bringing an finish to Man City's long successful streak final outing. Both teams have scored in 4 of AC Milan's final six fixtures and the visitors have only won twice throughout that period. Lyon beat PSG 1-0 when the two sides collided in December and this time, they have the home benefit. Both groups are level on 60pts in Ligue 1 and Lyon have secred three wins and two attracts from their last 5 fixtures.

Our day by day football tips are put collectively by our skilled group utilizing the previous match statics in addition to the current group news and kind. This means there are absolutely no half measures on the soccer betting ideas we suggest. Want to kick off your weekend with a Premier League winner? Searching for some midweek worth within the domestic and European leagues? Looking for the latest insight for the Nations League, Euros or the World Cup qualifiers?

See all Both teams to attain predictions for football video games. Btts ideas and stats primarily based on last teams games performances. Alongside the same old ideas and predictions, you’ll also get to take your pick of the most effective football betting provides every single day. We have those new buyer presents rolled out for you every time they’re out there alongside In Play presents, all buyer price boosts and plenty extra from the likes of bet365 and Betbull. Next to our soccer predictions we offer every day tips on our bet of the day web page which is well-liked amongst our visitors. All of the football betting suggestions that you just’ll discover on Footy Accumulators are a hundred% free.

This sort of wagering permits you to resolve uponon your bets depending on the unfolding motion, whether that’s a cup ultimate between two European giants or a tussle on the bottom of the desk in one of the lower leagues. For our tips, it’s difficult to submit them on web site because of the timing of matches, however you'll be able to comply with us on Twitter for the most effective stay tweets, stats, reactions and most importantly In Play suggestions as the fixtures unfold. During summer time when common soccer leagues are in a break we keep offering football ideas and predictions.

Three of the last four conferences between these two golf equipment have produced under 2.5 targets and we're predicting one other carefully fought ninety-minutes on Sunday. Under 2.5 objectives have additionally been produced in every of Man Utd's final six outings in all competitions. You can again Sassuolo to win & BTTS @ 15/four (4.75) with bet365. As you'd count on we provide in-depth betting advice for the main racing festivals and races such as the Cheltenham Festival and Grand National. You’ll discover a lot of help with the way to bet on football in our posts and of course you possibly can all the time ask questions in the feedback part in case you have any questions. You should also create a twitter account when you do not have already got one, and begin to comply with some key accounts, together with official football staff accounts where as much as the minute group information shall be posted.

The most effective ‘betting formulation’ is to put money into your knowledge as that is also the best way of enhancing your chances of winning. Football Predictions will help you increase your betting capability by offering numerous betting methods and guides where you're certain to search out some helpful methods of the commerce that can assist you polish your betting tactics. Have no worries, as your betting companion we are right here to information you want a guru and offer you knowledge that you can really apply in order to make some revenue alongside the way.

21 Soccer Ideas

Where you really see the distinction is over the long term. One particular person it is all the time necessary to listen to is your coach. They spend their week thinking about how each player can improve, how the staff can carry out better and dealing on achieving this. There are numerous choices that your targets could possibly be. Maybe it’s to score extra consistently or maybe its to be more assured at heading the ball. To see a fast enchancment in your recreation take the time outdoors of game time to work in your expertise and fitness.

It is very important that each time you'll method to the opponent you do it with confidence, security, and conviction. In this way, you impose your presence as a defender in the subject and they'll assume it twice earlier than trying to get previous over you. All defenders need to make the attackers feel their presence. You must be sure that each time they are going to get the ball, they know you'll be right next to them. When doubtful, maintain it simple and kick the ball out to a nook, sideline or to your forwards!

If you wish to go deeper examine our Free Betting Prediction all soccer matches part the place you can find all our betting predictions. Use our LiveScores for extra info, H2H statistics, group kind, standings and so on. To view all of our ideas for tomorrow's video games, go to predictions tomorrow. WinDrawWin is one of the best supply of free soccer betting tips and football predictions and betting statistics, soccer outcomes, soccer statistics and tendencies. Browse these free soccer predictions for at present and the weekend. Football match previews include statistics, betting odds markets & the most recent bookieoffers.

It takes an knowledgeable opinion or educated guess regarding the result of a specified sport of soccer to type each individual prediction. At oddschecker we offer a variety of betting recommendations on the extensive choice of betting events we cowl each day. All of our tips are free for you, the person, and we aim to provide you with the most effective research and stats to higher inform you when choosing a guess on your chosen match/occasion. This feature will enable you to generate a betting ticket in your bet slip. You can also choose between a variety of two and sixteen matches with soccer betting suggestions. Just generate a ticket with our betting tips and replica it under your bookmakers wager slip.

The worse thing that a defender can do is being “fancy” back there. When in doubt, just kick the ball out, and let all that artistic stuff to the attackers. The scenario in the picture above is something you need to totally avoid.

As mentioned in the final tip, positioning is important as it gives players that additional bit of time on the ball. But with a great first touch you can take the ball beyond the incoming tackle and open up space. By hovering between the central defenders or the gaps that emerge between them and the fullbacks, you can simply create confusion as to who is supposed to be marking you.

The stakes are higher, the lines are sharper and the betting handles are higher. Without further ado, listed here are a few suggestions to keep in mind as you wager on the insanity. To do this, a mix of algorithmic and human components are thought of. For an upcoming recreation let's say that a prediction was made by utilizing a heavy check here weighting on the last six results for both groups. It's one thing that many mathematical suggestions sites use as certainly one of their main factors.

A Novices Information To Betting On Soccer 2021

You have a way to redeem your self on the online sportsbooks as a result of they submit odds at halftime on the sides and the totals. This can be a second probability, nevertheless it may also be a method to hedge your authentic bet. If you go this route, the team that you just choose has to win the game outright, and the rating doesn’t matter.

In an effort to make baseball and hockey more interesting to point spread bettors, the sportsbook operators provide run and puck lines, respectively. Betting on the NFL remains by far the leading single driver of sportsbook enterprise. It's no shock that America's hunger for the newest and best NFLpoint spreadscontinues to develop, together with soccer damage updates and matchup data to help them win more bets, and ultimately more cash. While there are lots of high NFL betting sites on-line, we believe Bovada to be the most effective web site to bet on NFL video games. Having stated that, each online sportsbook is totally different and presents their own distinctive incentives. Bovada, nonetheless, has fast withdrawals, exclusive bonuses on certain deposit options, in addition to a bunch of special promotions.

The 2nd half line accounts for what happened in the first half to help determine how the rest of the game will play out. Now that you understand the basics of NFL spread betting you’ll wish to take a look at ourSports Betting Strategyguide which has some great NFL strategy articles written by a professional bettor. Here you can see that the Rams are +three.5, while the Cowboys are -3.5. So for this instance the Cowboys are three.5 level favorites, whereas the Rams are underdogs of three.5 points.

The data discovered on Gamblingsites.org is for leisure purposes only. It is a purely informational web site that doesn't settle for wagers of any sort. Gamblingsites.org makes use of associates links from a number of the sportsbooks/casinos it promotes and reviews, and we might obtain compensation from those specific sportsbooks/casinos in certain circumstances. Gamblingsites.org does not promote or endorse any form of wagering or playing to customers beneath the age of 18.

Online NFL prop wagers aren't offered for every sport every Sunday; they're usually limited to video games that are the only focus inside a time slot, like Sunday and Monday night time frays. A proposition wager, or prop, is a bet on a selected focused side of a recreation or the individual performance of a player. You might even see a prop on the over/under on total area goals made by each teams in a contest, the entire interceptions thrown, or whether or not there will be a particular groups touchdown scored. Live NFL betting is another choice that involves inserting wagers after the sport has started, however they are often posted at any time during the sport. This lets you make subtle wagers primarily based on your analysis of what you could have seen on the field, and it’s one other sort of wager that can be utilized to hedge.

This provides you the power to run by way of a bunch of different prospects before you place your guess. Our presents change frequently, so you can at all times ensure there’ll be one thing to make the weekend’s fixtures a little spicier. Register for free and make your predictions forward of the subsequent massive recreation. We have all the latest motion from the English Premier League and the excitement of European soccer, from ‘El Clasico’ to the Belarusian league. lots of them supply extra rewards to current clients too.

This would imply in order for a wager on the favored group on the spread to win they would need to win by more than 6.5 points in order to win the wager. It additionally implies that a guess on the underdog team would win if the underdogs lost by lower than 6.5 factors or received the game outright. Major League Soccer the top soccer league within the United States and Canada has expressed sports betting as a attainable approach to gain reputation.

Free Tennis tips

Below we are able to see an example of set handicap odds listed at Paddy Power for an upcoming match between Caroline Wozniacki and Svetlana Kuznetsova. Set winner betting works the identical as match winner betting, besides that somewhat than betting on the result of a whole match, you might be only betting on the result of an individual set. In this example, we will see that Nadal is at very brief odds to win the opening set of the match.

The grass floor favours some gamers while different players have types appropriate for clay or onerous court docket. Clay is the slowest of the ATP surfaces and hard courtroom is considered the center floor. Take these components into consideration when putting bets and which surfaces favour a specific gamers type. Likewise, it is essential to keep in mind previous matches between the 2 gamers. Some gamers might be thought of of lesser expertise within the event, but typically they have a enjoying fashion that troubles gamers that others contemplate to be of far higher capability.

Thus, while Novak Djokovic and Roger Federer have often entered the French Open ranked #1 on the earth, Nadal has typically been the overwhelming favourite in the tournament. The handicapping, sports odds information contained on this web site is for leisure purposes solely. Please confirm the wagering regulations in your jurisdiction as they range from state to state, province to province and country to nation.

Tennis futures bets may be very entertaining as a result of you'll be able to observe a participant through the match or the year. Continuing with the Medvedev vs Djokovic instance, the total is set at forty.5 video games. If you suppose it is going to be a protracted, drawn-out match, guess on over. If you assume one participant will dominate and that the match will be over rapidly, ideally leading to a straight units win, guess on beneath. All you care about with these bets is the entire video games performed in the match.

PointsBet has listed 42 totally different outcomes on the ladies’s side versus 27 different outcomes on the boys’s. Remember, we are attempting to predict who may win the Australian Open in 2021. At the time of writing, this sportsbook thinks there are significantly fewer males who stand an opportunity of profitable than girls. It is simply much harder to beat the best gamers in a five-set format. The men’s and ladies’s draws are played concurrently at the Grand Slams and 4 different premier mandatory tournaments each year, with equal prize money supplied to each genders. The males’s Association of Tennis Professionals Tour and the Women’s Tennis Association Tour play most different tournaments separately and for different amounts of prize cash, with a couple of exceptions.

Tennis Consultants Predictions And Every Day Free Betting Tips

This is a tip for the players which are both playing tournaments or wish to bounce into the competitive aspect of things. Whether you are a superstitious player like Nadal or a cool and calm participant like Federer, make your self snug on the tennis courtroom. If you're at any stage of your tennis journey, whether or not you are a beginner, intermediate and even advanced, I actually have compiled an inventory of 20 tips which is able to surely take your recreation to the next stage. For all of the advanced players out there who assume the following tips may simply be too fundamental, I advise you to learn by way of the article.

Make sure you allow them to know the shoes are for taking part in actual tennis. This easy tennis tip will allow you to get your shots precisely the place you need them. If their shots appear to fall in the midst of the court docket as an alternative of the baseline…hang on the market as an alternative. You will need to know how to change your serves and strokes on a windy day when compared to taking part in in stillness. Be ready by taking part in on a lot of completely different courts and in all types of climate.

The spin will hold the ball in the service box, whereas making it more difficult to return. three.When running to a ball from one nook to the opposite, take a couple of large strides giant at first, after which switch to smaller steps as you get into place to hit the ball. Those faster, smaller steps will allow you to stay balanced and let you make needed adjustments for dangerous bounces, wind, etc. Visit Tennis to study more about tennis applications, coaches and the Tennis Centre at North Vancouver Recreation and Culture. If there's a doubt about court net dividers remaining open or closed, the desire is given to teams who want to hold the nets closed. Even should you’re on the way to accessing your courtroom, please don’t discuss in your telephone or keep on loud conversations.

Because it's so enjoyable to play, teammates have a great time with one another and the relationships amongst them get stronger and stronger. It is fundamental that staff members have nice hyperlinks and chemistry among each other. I think that the best way to tell if the court has the correct size is to play some video games and look should you feel comfy with the scale. The return of serve is a troublesome shot except your opponent has a very bad serve. The

[bluewatsons]

Maria Fernanda Laus et al., Body image and the role of romantic relationships, 5  Cogent Psychol (2018)

Abstract

A variety of sociocultural factors have been recognized as important influences on appearance-related issues but little research has examined the intersection between romantic relationships and body image among adults. This study examined whether self-evaluative and motivational investment in appearance, overweight preoccupation, and body satisfaction differ between men and women who were involved (or not) in a romantic relationship. Moreover, we investigated the associations between relationship experiences (relationship type, relationship length, commitment, passion, and intimacy) and body image. To that, 423 men (Mage = 45.32 ± 13.86 years) and 505 women (Mage = 43.52 ± 13.07 years) completed an online survey through the SurveyMonkey Audience database in the United States, including several measures of body image and relationship functioning. Our results demonstrated that the importance given to appearance was lower among uninvolved (“single”) participants; overweight preoccupation did not differ between men and women who were involved or not in a romantic relationship; and that single men and women were more dissatisfied with their overall appearance than adults who were romantically involved but not currently cohabitating. For men and women, romantic involvement plays a pivotal role in promoting and maintaining a less negative body image. The type of relationship and its functioning are also important aspects related to body image. This study provides some context for understanding the importance of romantic situation on one’s body image.

1. Introduction

A variety of sociocultural factors have been recognized as important influences on appearance-related issues, and there is little debate that family, peers, and the media play an important role on the development of children and adolescents’ body image (McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2003; Vincent & McCabe, 2000). However, as they transition into adulthood, individuals tend to seek/maintain a romantic partner, and it is surprising that little research has examined the intersection between romantic relationships and body image among adults.

In the present study, we examined whether psychological investment in appearance, weight concerns, and body dissatisfaction differ between men and women who were involved in a romantic relationship and those who were not romantically involved. We included more nuanced romantic relationship categories (e.g. non-cohabitation, cohabitation, and marriage) compared with prior research and we also investigated the association between body image and relationship characteristics and functioning (relationship length, relationship satisfaction, commitment, passion, and intimacy). The empirical basis of this study is guided by two important theories: the “selection hypothesis” of marriage and the “marriage market” theory.

1.1. Theoretical background

There is an extensive literature suggesting the existence of a marriage selection hypothesis (Horwitz & White, 1991; Horwitz, White, & Howell-White, 1996; Lee, 2015; Mastekaasa, 1992; Stutzer & Frey, 2006), which suggests that healthier people may be more likely to be selected into marriage, and the criteria to select a mate includes physical attractiveness and aspects related to mental and physical health (Goldman, 1993). In line with this assumption, Dion, Berscheid, and Walster (1972) asked participants to estimate the likelihood that physically attractive and unattractive people, both males and females, would marry early or marry at all. Results from this study demonstrated that attractive individuals were expected to marry earlier and to be less likely to remain single.

It has long been argued that men value physical attractiveness in potential mates more than women do, while women value a potential mate’s earning capacity more so than men (Buss, 1989; Stewart, Stinnett, & Rosenfeld, 2000). Several studies, however, have been demonstrating that this might not always be true. Eastwick’s works, for example, indicate that men and women have identical tendencies to associate physical attractiveness with the concept of an ideal romantic partner (Eastwick, Eagly, Finkel, & Johnson, 2011; Eastwick, Luchies, Finkel, & Hunt, 2014). Walster, Aronson, Abrahams, and Rottman (1966) conducted a classic study in which first-year college students were randomly paired with another at a dance, and answered questions about their attraction to their date, how interested they were in perusing a second date with their partner, and investigated, a few months later, who actually pursued a second date. Their results demonstrated that personality, self-esteem, and intelligence were unrelated to couple compatibility. The largest determinant of romantic interest was how attractive the participant’s date was. Further, a meta-analysis performed by Langlois and colleagues (2000) tested the prediction that attractiveness should be more important in how men judge and treat women than in how women judge and treat men. Their findings, however, did not support these predictions for either judgment or treatment—no gender difference was found in the importance of attractiveness. Finally, Buss, Shackelford, Kirkpatrick, and Larsen (2001) evaluated the cultural evolution of mate preferences over 57 years and found that both sexes increased the importance they attach to physical attractiveness in a mate. In sum, these data support the universal importance of attractiveness for partner preferences among men and women.

Studies that investigate attraction in the context of speed dating and online dating have also been demonstrating that self-reported mate preferences deviate markedly from actual mate choices (e.g. Eastwick & Finkel, 2008; Todd, Penke, Fasolo, & Lenton, 2007). That is, both men and women, in their actual partner choices, prefer more physically attractive partners to the same extent. For example, Kurzban and Weeden (2005) investigated the choices that people make in dating partners using data provided by a commercial dating service, and found that choices made by both men and women derived almost exclusively from physically observable attributes like attractiveness, body mass index (BMI), height, and age, while their choices were unrelated to other attributes such as education, religion, sociosexuality, having children, or desiring future children. Another study has also concluded that the strongest predictor of initial attraction in a speed-dating context was partner’s physical attractiveness, and, most importantly, men and women showed an extremely similar pattern (Luo & Zhang, 2009).

A second theoretical perspective from which our study was drawn relies on the competition established as people seek a partner, which presumably creates a “marriage market” (Becker, 1974). The success rate of attracting a mate is dependent on the individual’s own value in this market and it has been suggested that the incentives to make health/attractiveness investments to gain a high value on the marriage market vary with marital status (Lundborg, Nystedt, & Lindgren, 2007). For example, a qualitative study of newly married couples found that participants, once in a committed romantic relationship, became less concerned about gaining weight or being overweight (Bove & Sobal, 2011), possibly because they see themselves out of the “marriage market” and no longer need to attract an intimate partner (Dinour, Leung, Tripicchio, Khan, & Yeh, 2012). In this direction, studies have shown that intrasexual competition (ISC), which refers to rivalry amongst members of the same sex for access to mates, is strongly associated with drive for thinness and disordered eating behavior in women (Abed et al., 2012; Faer, Hendriks, Abed, & Figueredo, 2005). Thus, it is plausible that non-partnered individuals will invest more attention and resources to become more attractive to prospective partners.

It is noteworthy that people with high amounts of desired characteristics are more likely to couple with others of equally high value (e.g. social status, intellect), and individuals with lower value will pair with similarly “poor” others (Regan, 1998). In fact, because most people in America eventually marry (U.S. Census Bureau, 2015), less desirable physical characteristics, such as overweight or obesity, does not appear to prevent marriage but it may influence partner selection and mate quality (Averett, Sikora, & Argys, 2008). In light of this body of knowledge, body image concerns and investment in the physical self could be viewed as an adaptive way of securing and maintaining romantic relationships (Sanchez & Kwang, 2007).

1.2. Body image and romantic relationships

Body image is a multidimensional construct that includes self-perceptions of one´s physical appearance and attitudes about the body (Cash, 2012). Body image attitudes are classified into four components: body satisfaction, feelings (e.g. affect, emotions, anxiety, stress, discomfort), cognition (e.g. thoughts, social comparisons, investment in appearance, internalization of beauty ideals), and behavior (e.g. avoidance, body-checking) (Menzel, Krawczyk, & Thompson, 2011). Even though it is widely recognized that body image has several dimensions, a great deal of researchers use only one measure to assess the construct, commonly body dissatisfaction (Smolak & Cash, 2011). While this is an important aspect of body image, several others are also relevant to consider in the context of romantic relationships.

One dimension of special interest to the present study is the psychological investment in physical appearance, which has been neglected by researchers worldwide. Appearance investment represents the psychological importance of appearance in individual’s life (Cash, 2003), including the centrality of appearance to one’s sense of self (Cash, Melnyk, & Hrabosky, 2004). As reported by Thomas F. Cash in several occasions (i.e. Cash, 2003, 2012), there are two different forms of appearance investment, namely self-evaluative and motivational. Self-evaluative investment reflects the extent to which individuals define or measure themselves by their physical appearance, which they judge essential in their daily experiences. Motivational investment refers to the importance of having or maintaining an attractive appearance. It reflects the extent to which individuals engage in behaviors to manage their appearance. Importantly, self-evaluative investment is more dysfunctional than motivational investment (Cash, 2012). While the first is more predictive of negative body image, the second is thought to be relatively benign.

As already mentioned elsewhere, the influence exerted by family, peers, and the media on one’s body image is widely studied, but much less is known about how romantic relationships relate to various components of body image, especially at midlife. Here, the term “romantic relationships” will be used to indicate relationships in general (non-cohabitation, cohabitation, or marriage), unless otherwise specified.

We were able to find three studies that compared body dissatisfaction between married and single individuals. Friedman, Dixon, Brownell, Whisman, and Wilfley (1999) interviewed 16,377 men and women and investigated whether married individuals have comparable body image disturbance to non-married individuals. Results demonstrated that marital status was not significantly related to body dissatisfaction, but low marital satisfaction was significantly related to greater body dissatisfaction. Hoyt and Kogan (2001) examined body image and relationship satisfaction in 101 male and 187 female college students. The authors concluded that single, engaged, and married participants were equally satisfied with their appearance and physical attractiveness, but individuals who had less satisfying dating situations and sex lives were less satisfied with their overall appearance. Interestingly, those most dissatisfied with both their dating situations and sex lives were those who were not currently engaged in a dating relationship. Finally, Tom, Chen, Liao, and Shao (2005) investigated the importance of body image dissatisfaction as a function of marital status in 141 married couples and 274 single people. Body image dissatisfaction was observed in both married and single people at comparable levels, but single women rated it more important that they strive to change to reach the ideal body than did married women. The authors concluded that marriage decreases the importance of the ideal, thin, body and makes the impact of the unattainable body less powerful. Importantly, participants in their study reported high levels of marital satisfaction, leading the authors to speculate that relationship quality may be necessary to the mitigation of the importance of the ideal body image.

In this direction, Juarez and Pritchard (2012) examined the effect of three measures of relationship quality on body dissatisfaction in 256 women and 170 men. Results demonstrated a negative correlation between body dissatisfaction and trust and support in men and women, but relationship commitment was not related to body dissatisfaction. In a study conducted by Juda, Campbell, and Crawford (2004), 100 heterosexual women currently involved in a romantic relationship responded to three subscales of the Eating Disorders Inventory: Body Dissatisfaction, Drive for Thinness, and Maturity Fears; questions measuring perceived parental readiness, and perceptions of social support from their partners, family, and friends. The authors reported that higher levels of dieting symptomatology were uniquely associated with perceptions of relatively low levels of available support from romantic partners.

Some researchers included both partners in their studies to evaluate the influence of relationship functioning on body image. Markey and Markey (2006) examined young women’s satisfaction with their own bodies, their perceptions of their significant others’ satisfaction with their bodies, and their significant others’ actual satisfaction with their bodies. Ninety-five heterosexual couples completed a figure rating scale, a measure of relationship love and harmony, and informed the length or duration of couples’ relationships. None of the correlations between relationship quality and body satisfaction were significant, but relationship length was negatively associated with women’s perceived partners’ satisfaction. The study conducted by Morrison, Doss, and Perez (2009) with 88 heterosexual couples explored the relations between eating, weight, and shape concerns and relationship functioning (i.e. global relationship quality and negative relationship events) among men and women and did not find significant associations between the measures. Lastly, Goins, Markey, and Gillen (2012) examined men’s body image in the context of their romantic relationships and found that they expressed greater body satisfaction when there was a relatively high degree of sexual intimacy in the relationship.

As could be noticed in some studies cited above (Juda et al., 2004; Morrison et al., 2009), another important variable linked to body image and romantic relationships is weight concerns. Preoccupation on being overweight includes worries about being or becoming fat, consciousness of small changes in weight, and diet practices (Cash, 2000). In fact, some researchers have demonstrated that dieting behaviors can be associated to relationship status and relationship quality. For example, Markey, Markey, and Birch (2001) examined the relations between couples’ marital quality and dieting behavior. One hundred and eighty-seven married couples’ dieting behaviors, marital quality, BMI, weight concerns, depression, and self-esteem were evaluated, and the authors concluded that marital discord predicted unhealthy dieting behaviors among wives, even after wives’ BMI, weight concerns, self-esteem, and depression were controlled for.

In another study, Sheets and Ajmere (2005) explored the importance of weight in college students’ dating relationships and the expression of weight-related concerns between dating romantic partners. Five hundred and fifty-four undergraduates were interviewed, and results demonstrated that overweight women were less likely to be dating than their peers, and that weight was positively correlated with relationship satisfaction in men, but negatively correlated with satisfaction in women. Finally, Boyes, Fletcher, and Latner (2007) investigated unhealthy dieting (e.g. skipping meals, vomiting), healthy dieting (e.g. reducing calories, reducing, or eliminating snacks), and body satisfaction in intimate relationships in 57 predominantly unmarried couples. Results demonstrated that intimate relationships are linked in important ways with dieting and body image but that related psychological processes operate differently for men and for women. Women who dieted more and had more negative body image had partners who were less satisfied with their relationships,

Altogether, these studies demonstrate the necessity of clearly establishing which characteristics of relationships act as a positive influence on one’s body image. In this sense, several theories can be applied to determine which aspect of love is important to be considered. One of the most cited theory is the Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love (Sternberg, 1986), which deals both with the nature of love and with loves in various kinds of relationships. The theory holds that love can be understood in terms of three components: intimacy, passion, and commitment. These three components are somewhat intercorrelated and have appeared in various other theories of love (Aron & Westbay, 1996).

In addition, little is known about body image in the context of different types of relationships. For example, there are several differences between marriage and cohabitation, whether the latter is thought as an alternative or a precursor to marriage. In general, cohabiting relationships are shorter and entail less commitment and investment than marriage (French, Popovici, Robins, & Homer, 2014). On the other hand, cohabitation resembles marriage in several respects, providing individuals security to a greater extent than non-cohabitation. Thus, one might postulate that body image experiences may vary according to relationship arrangements.

In sum, further research exploring the connections between romantic relationships and body image is still needed. As negative body image is associated with poor psychosocial functioning (e.g. perfectionism, low self-esteem, and eating disturbance) (Cash et al., 2004), the investigation of factors that might influence appearance-related issues is essential for establishing and improving intervention strategies. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate if the importance given to appearance (namely psychological investment in appearance), overweight concerns, and body dissatisfaction differ between men and women who were involved (or not) in a romantic relationship. Moreover, we investigated the association between relationship experiences (type of relationship, relationship length, commitment, passion, and intimacy) and body image. We extended prior research by investigating several components of body image (e.g. investment in appearance and overweight concerns), including more nuanced romantic relationship categories (e.g. non-cohabitation, cohabitation, and marriage), and exploring the association between measures of body image and relationship quality that have not yet been investigated (e.g. intimacy and passion).

1.3. Hypotheses

Hypothesis 1: Single men and women will report higher levels of self-evaluative and motivational investment in appearance, will be more concerned about their weight, and will be more dissatisfied with their overall appearance than their romantically involved counterparts.

Hypothesis 2: The longer men and women are single, the higher their self-evaluative and motivational investment in appearance, weight concerns, and body dissatisfaction.

Hypothesis 3: Among romantically involved adults, relationship duration, relationship satisfaction, and higher levels of commitment, intimacy, and passion will be negatively associated with self-evaluative and motivational investment in appearance, weight concerns, and body dissatisfaction.

2. Methods

2.1. Participants

Participants included 423 men and 505 women who were members of the SurveyMonkey Audience database in the United States (https://www.surveymonkey.com/mp/audience/our-survey-respondents/). Participants were excluded from the study if they were younger than 18 years old; currently or recently pregnant (within the past 12 months); had any medical condition that may affect their physical appearance (e.g. AIDS, cancer, severe burns); or if they recently had or were seeking weight loss surgery. On average, men were 45.32 years of age (SD = 13.86, ranging from 18 to 67 years) and women were 43.52 years of age (SD = 13.07, ranging from 18 to 72). The majority of the sample included white (men = 69.3%; women = 76.6%) and heterosexual (men = 87.0%; women = 85.9%) adults. Forty-two percent of men and 44.8% of women had attained at least a bachelor’s degree. About 29.3% of men were normal weight and 69.7% were overweight or obese. Among women, 39.2% were normal weight and 56.4% were overweight or obese. Mean BMI was 27.70 kg/m2 (SD = 5.47) for men and 26.98 kg/m2 (SD = 6.53) for women. Forty-two percent of men were single (i.e. not dating; divorced, separated, or widowed, but not currently involved in a close romantic relationship) and 58.4% were romantically involved: 11.1% were not cohabitating, 9.9% were cohabitating, and 37.4% were married. Twenty-seven percent of women were single and 73% were romantically involved: 10.3% were not cohabitating, 16.8% were cohabitating, and 45.7% were married.

2.2. Measures

2.2.1. Sociodemographic variables

Participants self-reported their age, height, weight race/ethnicity, educational level, sexual orientation, romantic relationship status—(1) not involved (single, casually dating one or more persons, divorced, separated, or widowed, but not currently involved in a close romantic relationship) or (2) involved (exclusively dating one person and not living together, exclusively dating one person and living together, engaged to be married and not living together, engaged to be married and living together or married), duration of non-attachment, and current relationship duration.

2.2.2. Body image

Appearance Schemas Inventory-Revised (ASI-R) (Cash, 2003): The ASI-R was used to evaluate psychological investment in appearance. It assesses beliefs or assumptions about the importance, significance, and influence of appearance through 20 items divided into two factors: (1) Self-Evaluative Salience, which taps a dysfunctional type of investment and reflects the intensity to which beliefs about appearance influence the social and personal life; and (2) Motivational Salience, which reflects the intensity of concern about people’s appearance and how individuals adopt behaviors to control it. Participants were asked to respond each item based on the four weeks prior to the study. All items were rated on a 5-point scale (1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree) and subscale scores were obtained by calculating the means of the constituent items. The instrument demonstrated good internal consistency for men and women in the current sample (men α = .80—.85; women α = .85—.87).

Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire—Appearance Scales (MBSRQ-AS) (Cash, 2000): The MBSRQ-AS includes 34 items grouped into 5 subscales, 2 of which were used in this study: Overweight Preoccupation (OWPREOC; 4 items), which assesses fat anxiety, weight vigilance, dieting, and eating restraint; and Appearance Evaluation (APPEVAL; 7 items), which measures feelings of physical attractiveness and satisfaction with one’s looks. Participants were asked to respond to each item based on the four weeks prior to the study. All items were rated on a 5-point scale (1 = definitely disagree and 5 = definitely agree), and subscales scores were determined by obtaining the average of the constituent items. The instrument demonstrated good internal consistency for men and women in the current sample (men α = .77—.83; women α = .73—.87).

2.2.3. Romantic relationship characteristics

Relationship Assessment Scale (RAS) (Hendrick, Dicke, & Hendrick, 1998): The RAS was used to assess overall relationship satisfaction. This is a single factor scale with 7 items rated on a 5-point scale (e.g. 1 = never and 5 = very often) and averaged to obtain an overall score. The reliability of the RAS in the current sample was .88 for men and .93 for women.

Triangular Love Scale (TLS) (Lemieux & Hale, 2000): The TLS includes 20 items divided into 3 subscales: Intimacy (refers to feelings of closeness and connectedness to one’s romantic partner), Commitment (indicates one’s willingness to remain with their partner, encompasses the decision to love and maintain a potential long-term relationship, and the likelihood of seeking other partners), and Passion (consists of items associated with attraction and sexual activity and focused on the infatuation and sexual excitement associated with one’s partner). All items were assessed using a 7-point scale (1 = strongly disagree and 7 = strongly agree) and subscales scores were calculated as the means of the constituent items. The instrument demonstrated good internal consistency for men and women in the current sample (men α = .72–.94; women α = .78–.96).

2.3. Procedures

The study was approved by the University Institutional Review Board and data were collected using a web-based survey provider, SurveyMonkey. Participants were randomly recruited from their member site called SurveyMonkey Contribute, and those who were eligible to complete the study were provided with a link to the online survey where they first read the informed consent, provided their consent, and then moved on to the questionnaires. Participants did not receive any direct compensation from the researchers, but SurveyMonkey made a $0.50 donation to the charity of their choice along with a chance to win $100. All analyses were conducted using SPSS 22.0 and the alpha value was set to .05. Data were screened for outliers and missing data was handled using listwise deletion. Unequal group sizes were accounted for in the analyses using regression formulations (Slinker & Glantz, 1988).

3. Results

The mean and standard deviation for all study variables are presented in Table 1. Pearson’s correlation analyses were conducted between age, BMI, and body image subscales, because they are often shown to be related (Fallon, Harris, & Johnson, 2014; Green & Pritchard, 2003; McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2004; Pingitore, Spring, & Garfieldt, 1997; Tiggemann & Lynch, 2001; Tiggemann & McCourt, 2013) (Table 2). All correlations among the body image subscales were significant for men and women. Additionally, for men and women, age was negatively correlated to self-evaluative investment and overweight preoccupation; while BMI was negatively correlated to motivational investment and appearance evaluation, and positively correlated to overweight preoccupation.

Table 1. Means and standard deviations of all study constructs investigated, by sex and relationship status (N = 928)

Table 2. Correlations among age, BMI, and body image subscales (N = 928)

Separate multiple linear regression analyses were conducted to test if romantic involvement (involved or not-involved) predict each body image component, beyond the variance explained by age and BMI (H1). Scores on body image subscales served as dependent variables (DVs) for the regression analyses. Each analysis included two control variables in Step 1: age and BMI. Relationship categories were dummy coded and entered in Step 2 of the regressions as independent variables (IVs); single participants served as the reference group. It is important to highlight that multiple regression is a statistical technique that allows the researcher to assess the relationship between one DV and several IVs. The term regression is used when the intention is to assess the best predictor of a DV but not however to determine causation (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007).

As shown in Table 3, single men were less motivationally invested and more dissatisfied with their overall appearance than their non-cohabiters peers. Among women, single participants reported lower levels of self-evaluative investment than cohabiters and married women, were less motivationally invested than non-cohabiters and married participants, and were more dissatisfied with their overall appearance than their non-cohabiters peers. These results partially confirm Hypothesis 1.

Table 3. Multiple linear regression analyses with romantic relationship status predicting body image components, controlling for age, and BMI (N = 928)

Hypothesis 2 was tested by evaluating the partial correlations between the mean time uninvolved in a romantic relationship and each body image component, including age and BMI as control variables. The mean time not involved in a stable romantic relationship was 7.62 years (SD = 9.30) among men and 7.15 years (SD = 7.12) among women. For men, length of romantic non-involvement was significantly negatively correlated with self-evaluative investment (r = −0.18; p < .01), motivational investment (r = −0.27; p < .001), overweight concerns (r = −0.16; p < .05) and appearance evaluation (r = −0.16; p < .05). For women, length of romantic non-involvement was significantly negatively correlated with motivational investment (r = −0.22 p < .05) and overweight concerns (women: r = −0.26; p < .01). These results contradict Hypothesis 2 and suggest that the importance given to appearance, concerns about weight and overall body satisfaction decreased over time of non-attachment.

Separate multiple linear regression analyses were used to determine how relationship length and relationship functioning predicted each body image component, beyond the variance explained by participants’ age and BMI (H3). Scores on each body image subscale served as dependent variables. Again, each analysis included two control variables in Step 1—age and BMI. In Step 2, length of relationship and the four measures of relationship functioning were entered. Each of the significant correlates maintained sufficient tolerance (Variance Inflation Factor—VIF < 10 and tolerance > .10) to be nonredundant with the other correlates in the model (Montgomery, Peck, & Vining, 2012), thus, presented no problems with multicollinearity.

For romantically involved men and women, the associations between relationship characteristics and body image varied somewhat between the sexes. For men, longer relationships emerged as a significant predictor of body dissatisfaction; higher relationship satisfaction significantly predicted lower self-evaluative investment and overweight preoccupation; and higher levels of passion emerged as a predictor of weight concerns and body satisfaction (Table 4). Among women, relationship functioning emerged as a significant predictor of appearance evaluation only. Contrary to our expectations, greater body dissatisfaction was predicted by longer relationships, higher levels of commitment and lower levels of intimacy and passion (Table 4). Therefore, relationship functioning seems to influence men’s body image in a wider range of components compared with women.

Table 4. Multiple linear regression analyses with romantic functioning variables predicting body image components, while controlling for age and BMI (N = 928)

4. Discussion

We evaluated if the importance given to appearance (namely psychological investment in appearance), overweight concerns, and body dissatisfaction differed between men and women who were involved (or not) in a romantic relationship. Contradicting our supposition, self-evaluative investment was lower among single women compared to cohabiting and married participants. Self-evaluative investment essentially means “the extent to which individuals believe that their appearance is important to their sense of self-worth” (Cash et al., 2004, p. 312). It seems that, in our sample, appearance played a more central role in women’s lives when they were living with a romantic partner, refusing our assumption that romantic relationships might act as a barrier against dysfunctional psychological investment in appearance.

Additionally, results also demonstrated that single men were less motivationally invested than their non-cohabiters peers, and that single women reported lower motivational investment than non-cohabiters and married participants. Motivational investment reflects the extent to which individuals attend to their appearance and engage in appearance-management behaviors (e.g. spending time trying to be physically attractive) (Cash, 2003; Cash et al., 2004). If one is following a long-term mating strategy, retaining a mate is as important as attracting one, which might elucidate why non-cohabiting men and women reported the highest levels of motivational investment in appearance. Alternatively, it is known that married people in societies where divorce risks are high are more inclined to invest in their outer appearance (Lundborg et al., 2007). Thus, it is reasonable to consider that some married people—particularly those in lower quality relationships—may prepare for a potential divorce and future return to the marriage market by investing in their physical appearance. This might be especially true for middle-age people in the United States, where the divorce rates have doubled between 1990 and 2008 among persons over age 35 (Kennedy & Ruggles, 2014).

Single men and women were more dissatisfied with their overall appearance than their non-cohabiting peers. It is relevant to notice, however, that even though body dissatisfaction was higher among single participants, appearance was less important to them. In fact, it has been argued that dissatisfaction in a particular domain has an impact on one’s life to the extent that the domain is important in the person’s self-definition (Webster & Tiggemann, 2003). These results clearly demonstrate the necessity of evaluate body image as the multidimensional construct that it is.

Results also demonstrated that, although romantic relationships may enhance women’s body affirmation (Ambwani & Strauss, 2007), non-cohabitation was associated to higher motivational investment and lower body dissatisfaction for both men and women. These findings corroborate, in a certain way, the conclusions from Friedman and colleagues (1999) that simply being in a stable relationship does not protect individuals from experiencing body dissatisfaction. A potential explanation for our results relies on the dynamic of non-cohabitation among middle-aged people. At this age, a relationship without cohabitation could offer only the benefits of having a partner, buffering them against the daily problems faced by a coresidential relationship. In that way, non-cohabitation could provide more space and time to experience the support produced by a romantic relationship.

Contradicting our second hypothesis, investment in appearance (both self-evaluative and motivational), overweight concerns, and satisfaction with appearance were, for men, negatively correlated to the period of time non-involved in a romantic relationship. In addition, appearance-management behaviors and overweight preoccupation decreased over time of non-attachment for women. As far as we are aware, no study investigated the role of “singleness” on body image, but our results demonstrated that, as time passes by, single people may become less preoccupied with enhancing their attractiveness. One possible explanation for this finding is that in the absence of a partner for longer periods of time, people may shift their focus to other arenas of life, valuing more their friends, family, and work. On the other hand, it is possible that individuals at this age, especially women, are single by choice (e.g. Brown & Shinohara, 2013; Fileborn, Thorpe, Hawkes, Minichiello, & Pitts, 2015); thus, appearance may become of lesser concern if they see themselves as not fully participating in the “marriage market.”

It is known that high romantic relationship quality is associated with lower body dissatisfaction for men and women (Friedman et al., 1999; Goins et al., 2012; Juarez & Pritchard, 2012). In our study, several aspects of the relationship have shown to influence one’s body image. First, relationship length emerged as a significant predictor of higher body dissatisfaction in both sexes. This result was not found by past research (Goins et al., 2012; Markey & Markey, 2006) and contradict our hypothesis, but it is possible that, as their relationships progress, individuals gradually start to receive less positive feedback about their appearance from their partners, which could result in increased body dissatisfaction (Markey & Markey, 2006). Second, relationship satisfaction predicted lower self-evaluative investment and overweight preoccupation, but only for men. Because studies have shown that successful intimate relationships may provide women with a psychological buffer against societal pressures to attain a slim appearance (e.g. Boyes et al., 2007), we expected to find the same for women. Third, body satisfaction was predicted by intimacy in women, suggesting that feelings of closeness and connectedness increase positive aspects of body image. Fourth, commitment emerged as a predictor of body dissatisfaction in women. This result was unexpected. We hypothesized that individuals in a highly committed relationship would present lower body dissatisfaction because commitment can be seen as a form of acceptance. Lastly, passion predicted body satisfaction in both sexes. This result was anticipated because aspects related to attraction and sexual activity is an indicative of a person’s desirability, likely favoring one’s body image. Taken together, these findings suggest that some characteristics of romantic relationships are indeed tied to a more favorable body image, while others seem to be detrimental.

4.1. Limitations

Although this study expands on the existing literature in a number of ways, it also has important limitations. First, our sample was composed primarily of white, heterosexual, married, and overweight or obese individuals. Thus, precautions must be taken regarding the generalization of the results. Second, given that this was a cross-sectional study, causality and relationship direction cannot be ascertained. Finally, we did not investigate propensity to enter long-term relationships in individuals who were single, which could exacerbate appearance worries. Furthermore, it is important to highlight that body image is influenced by a number of variables not taken into account in the present study; therefore, intimate relationships might be though as part of the puzzle. Moreover, relationship status might interact with other variables such as thin-ideal internalization (Ramirez, Perez, & Taylor, 2012), self-objectification (Sanchez & Broccoli, 2008), or even self-esteem that may come as a result of both positive and negative aspects of relationships.

5. Conclusion

With research suggesting that negative body image is associated with poor psychosocial functioning (Cash et al., 2004), the investigation of factors that might influence appearance-related issues is essential for establishing and improving intervention strategies. The present study extended prior research by evaluating several components of body image, including more intimate relationship categories, and exploring measures of relationship quality that have not yet been investigated in the context of body image research. Our results demonstrated that intimate relationship is an important influence on one’s body image and, therefore, should be taken into account in the design and implementation of education and intervention efforts that address the development of a more positive body image and decreased weight concerns.

References

Abed, R., Mehta, S., Figueredo, A. J., Aldridge, S., Balson, H., Meyer, C., & Palmer, R. (2012). Eating disorders and intrasexual competition: Testing an evolutionary hypothesis among young women. The Scientific World Journal, 2012, Article ID 290813 8. doi:10.1100/2012/290813.

Ambwani, S., & Strauss, J. (2007). Love thyself before loving others? A qualitative and quantitative analysis of gender differences in body image and romantic love. Sex Roles, 56(1–2), 13–21. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9143-7

Aron, A., & Westbay, L. (1996). Dimensions of the prototype of love. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(3), 535–551. doi:10.1037/0022- 3514.70.3.535

Averett, S. L., Sikora, A., & Argys, L. M. (2008). For better or worse: Relationship status and body mass index. Economics and Human Biology, 6(3), 330–349. doi:10.1016/j.ehb.2008.07.003

Becker, G. S. (1974). A theory of marriage. In T. W. Schultz (Ed.), Economics of the family: Marriage, children, and human capital (pp. 299–351). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Bove, C. F., & Sobal, J. (2011). Body weight relationships in early marriage. Weight relevance, weight comparisons, and weight talk. Appetite, 57(3), 729–742. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2011.08.007

Boyes, A. D., Fletcher, G. J., & Latner, J. D. (2007). Male and female body image and dieting in the context of intimate relationships. Journal of Family Psychology,21(4), 764–768. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.21.4.764

Brown, S. L., & Shinohara, S. K. (2013). Dating relatioships in older adulthood: A national portrait. Journal of Marriage and Family, 75(5), 1194–1202. doi:10.1111/jomf.12065

Buss, D. M. (1989). Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 culgures. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 12(1), 1–14. doi:10.1017/s0140525x00023992

Buss, D. M., Shackelford, T. K., Kirkpatrick, L. A., & Larsen, R. J. (2001). A half century of mate preferences: The cultural evolution of values. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63(2), 491–503. doi:10.1111/j.1741- 3737.2001.00491.x

Cash, T. F. (2000). Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ). Norfolk, VA: Author.

Cash, T. F. (2003). Brief manual for the appearance sche- mas inventory–revised. Norfolk, VA: Author.

Cash, T. F. (2012). Cognitive-behavioral perspectives on body image. In T. F. Cash (Ed.), Encyclopedia of body image and human appearance (pp. 334–342). Oxford: Elsevier.

Cash, T. F., Melnyk, S. E., & Hrabosky, J. I. (2004). The assessment of body image investment: An extensive revision of the appearance schemas inventory. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 35(3), 305– 316. doi:10.1002/eat.10264

Dinour, L., Leung, M. M., Tripicchio, G., Khan, S., & Yeh, M. C. (2012). The association between marital transitions, body mass index, and weight: A review of the literature. Journal of Obesity, 2012, 16. doi:10.1155/ 2012/294974. Article ID 294974

Dion, K., Berscheid, E., & Walster, E. (1972). What is beautiful is good. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24(3), 285–290. doi:10.1037/h0033731

Eastwick, P. W., Eagly, A. H., Finkel, E. J., & Johnson, S. E. (2011). Implicit and explicit preferences for physical attractiveness in a romantic partner: A double dissociation in predictive validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(5), 993–1011. doi:10.1037/a0024061

Eastwick, P. W., & Finkel, E. J. (2008). Sex differences in mate preferences revisited: Do people know what they initially desire in a romantic partner? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(2), 245–264. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.94.2.245

Eastwick, P. W., Luchies, L. B., Finkel, E. J., & Hunt, L. L. (2014). The predictive validity of ideal partner preferences: A review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 140(3), 623–665. doi:10.1037/a0032432

Faer, L. M., Hendriks, A., Abed, R. T., & Figueredo, A. J. (2005). The evolutionary psychology of eating disor- ders: Female competition for mates or for status? Psychology and Psychotherapy, 78(3), 397–417. doi:10.1348/147608305x42929

Page 14 of 16

Laus et al., Cogent Psychology (2018), 5: 1496986 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311908.2018.1496986

Fallon, E. A., Harris, B. S., & Johnson, P. (2014). Prevalence of body dissatisfaction among a United States adult sample. Eating Behaviors, 15(1), 151–158. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2013.11.007

Fileborn, B., Thorpe, R., Hawkes, G., Minichiello, V., & Pitts, M. (2015). Sex and the (older) single girl: Experiences of sex and dating in later life. Journal of Aging Studies, 33, 67–75. doi:10.1016/j.jaging.2015.02.002

French, M. T., Popovici, I., Robins, P. K., & Homer, J. F. (2014). Personal traits, cohabitation, and marriage. Social Science Research, 45, 184–199. doi:10.1016/j. ssresearch.2014.01.002

Friedman, M. A., Dixon, A. E., Brownell, K. D., Whisman, M. A., & Wilfley, D. E. (1999). Marital status, marital satisfaction, and body image dissatisfaction. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 26(1), 81– 85. doi:10.1002/(sici)1098-108x(199907)26:1<81:: aid-eat10>3.3.co;2-m

Goins, L. B., Markey, C. N., & Gillen, M. M. (2012). Understanding men’s body image in the context of their romantic relationships. American Journal of Men’s Health, 6(3), 240–248. doi:10.1177/ 1557988311431007

Goldman, N. (1993). Marriage selection and mortality patterns: Inferences and fallacies. Demography, 30 (2), 189–208. doi:10.2307/2061837

Green, S. P., & Pritchard, M. E. (2003). Predictors of body image dissatisfaction in adult men and women. Social Behavior and Personality, 31(3), 215–222. doi:10.2224/sbp.2003.31.3.215

Hendrick, S. S., Dicke, A., & Hendrick, C. (1998). The relationship assessment scale. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 15(1), 137–142. doi:10.1177/ 0265407598151009

Horwitz, A. V., & White, H. R. (1991). Becoming married, depression, and alcohol problems among young adults. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 32(3), 221–237. doi:10.2307/2136805

Horwitz, A. V., White, H. R., & Howell-White, S. (1996). Becoming married and mental health: A longitudinal study of a cohort of young adults. Journal of Marriage and Family, 58(4), 895–907. doi:10.2307/353978

Hoyt, W. D., & Kogan, L. R. (2001). Satisfaction with body image and peer relationships for males and females in a college environment. Sex Roles, 45(3–4), 199– 215. doi:10.1023/a:1013501827550

Juarez, L., & Pritchard, M. (2012). Body dissatisfaction: Commitment, support, and trust in romantic relationships. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 22(2), 188–200. doi:10.1080/10911359.2012.647478

Juda, M. N., Campbell, L., & Crawford, C. B. (2004). Dieting symptomatology in women and perceptions of social support: An evolutionary approach. Evolution and Human Behavior, 25(3), 200–208. doi:10.1016/j.dvolhumbehav.2004.02.001

Kennedy, S., & Ruggles, S. (2014). Breaking up is hard to count: The rise of divorce in the United States, 1980–2010. Demography, 51(2), 587–598. doi:10.1007/s13524-013-0270-9

Kurzban, R., & Weeden, J. (2005). Hurry date: Mate pre- ferences in action. Evolution and Human Behavior, 26 (3), 227–244. doi:10.1016/j. evolhumbehav.2004.08.012

Langlois, J. H., Kalakanis, L., Rubenstein, A. J., Larson, A., Hallam, M., & Smoot, M. (2000). Maxims or myths of beauty? A meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin, 126(3), 390–423. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.3.390

Lee, G. R. (2015). The limits of marriage: Why getting everyone married won’t solve all our problems. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.

Lemieux, R., & Hale, J. L. (2000). Intimacy, passion, and commitment among married individuals: Further testing of the triangular theory of love. Psychological Reports, 87(3 Pt 1), 941–948. doi:10.2466/pr0.2000.87.3.941

Lundborg, P., Nystedt, P., & Lindgren, B. (2007). Getting ready for the marriage market? The association between divorce risks and investments in attractive body mass among married Europeans. Journal of Biosocial Science, 39(4), 531–544. doi:10.1017/s0021932006001611

Luo, S., & Zhang, G. (2009). What leads to romantic attraction: Similarity, reciprocity, security, or beauty? Evidence from a speed-dating study. Journal of Personality, 77(4), 933–964. doi:10.1111/j.14676494.2009.00570.x

Markey, C. N., & Markey, P. M. (2006). Romantic relation- ships and body satisfaction among young women. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35(2), 256–264. doi:10.1007/s10964-005-9013-6

Markey, C. N., Markey, P. M., & Birch, L. L. (2001). Interpersonal predictors of dieting practices among married couples. Journal of Family Psychology, 15(3), 464. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.15.3.464

Mastekaasa, A. (1992). Marriage and psychological well- being: Some evidence on selection into marriage. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 54(4), 901–911. doi:10.2307/353171

McCabe, M. P., & Ricciardelli, L. A. (2003). Sociocultural influences on body image and body changes among adolescent boys and girls. The Journal of Social Psychology, 143(1), 5–26. doi:10.1080/00224540309598428

McCabe, M. P., & Ricciardelli, L. A. (2004). Body image dissatisfaction among males across the lifespan: A review of past literature. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 56(6), 675–685. doi:10.1016/s0022-3999 (03)00129-6

Menzel, J. E., Krawczyk, R., & Thompson, J. K. (2011). Attitudinal assessment of body image for adolecents and adults. In T. F. Cash & L. Smolak (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of science, practice, and prevention (pp. 154–169). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

Montgomery, D. C, Peck, E. A, & Vining, G. G. (2012). Introduction to linear regression analysis (5th ed.). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.

Morrison, K. R., Doss, B. D., & Perez, M. (2009). Body image and disordered eating in romantic relationships. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 28(3), 281– 306. doi:10.1521/jscp.2009.28.3.281

Pingitore, R., Spring, B., & Garfieldt, D. (1997). Gender differences in body satisfaction. Obesity Research, 5(5), 402–409. doi:10.1002/j.1550-8528.1997.tb00662.x

Ramirez, A. L., Perez, M., & Taylor, A. (2012). Preliminary examination of a couple-based eating disorder pre- vention program. Body Image, 9(3), 324–333. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2012.04.006

Regan, P. C. (1998). What if you can’t get what you want? Willingness to compromise ideal mate selection standards as a function of sex, mate value, and relationship context. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24(12), 1294–1303. doi:10.1177/01461672982412004

Sanchez, D. T., & Broccoli, T. L. (2008). The romance of self-objectification: Does priming romantic relationships induce states of self-objectification among women? Sex Roles, 59(7–8), 545–554. doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9451-1

Sanchez, D. T., & Kwang, T. (2007). When the relationship becomes her: Revisiting women’s body concerns from a relationship contingency perspective. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31(4), 401–414. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00389.x

Sheets, V., & Ajmere, K. (2005). Are romantic partners a source of college students’ weight concern? Eating Behaviors, 6(1), 1–9. doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2004.08.008

Slinker, B. K., & Glantz, S. A. (1988). Multiple linear regres- sion is a useful alternative to traditional analyses of variance. American Journal of Physiology Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology, 255(3), R353– R367. doi:10.1152/ajpregu.1988.255.3.R353

Smolak, L., & Cash, T. F. (2011). Future challenges for body image science, practice, and prevention. In T. F. Cash & L. Smolak (Eds.), Body image: A handbook of science, practice, and prevention (pp. 471–478). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Sternberg, R. J. (1986). A triangular theory of love. Psychological Review, 93(2), 119. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.93.2.119

Stewart, S., Stinnett, H., & Rosenfeld, L. B. (2000). Sex differences in desired characteristics of short-term and long-term relationship partners. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 17(6), 843–853. doi:10.1177/0265407500176008

Stutzer, A., & Frey, B. S. (2006). Does marriage make people happy, or do happy people get married? The Journal of Socio-Economics, 35(2), 326–347. doi:10.1016/j.socec.2005.11.043

Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon/ Pearson Education.

Tiggemann, M., & Lynch, J. E. (2001). Body image across the life span in adult women: The role of self-objectification. Developmental Psychology, 37(2), 243–253. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.37.2.243

Tiggemann, M., & McCourt, A. (2013). Body appreciation in adult women: Relationships with age and body satisfaction. Body Image, 10(4), 624–627. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2013.07.003

Todd, P. M., Penke, L., Fasolo, B., & Lenton, A. P. (2007). Different cognitive processes underlie human mate choices and mate preferences. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(38), 15011– 15016. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705290104

Tom, G., Chen, A., Liao, H., & Shao, J. (2005). Body image, relationships, and time. Journal of Psychology, 139(5), 458–468.

United States Census Bureau. (2015). America’s Families and Living Arrangements: 2015. Retrieved from: https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2015/demo/families/cps-2015.html

Vincent, M. A., & McCabe, M. P. (2000). Gender differences among adolescents in family, and peer influences on body dissatisfaction, weight loss, and binge eating behaviors. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29(2), 205–221. doi:10.1023/a:1005156616173

Walster, E., Aronson, V., Abrahams, D., & Rottman, L. (1966). Importance of physical attractiveness in dating behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4(5), 508–516. doi:10.1037/h0021188

Webster, J., & Tiggemann, M. (2003). The relationship between women’s body satisfaction and self-image across the life span: The role of cognitive control. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 164(2), 241–252. doi:10.1080/00221320309597980

[aslamdiaz]

Intro to IR: Answering Question

Aslam Luqman Diaz-072011233076-USA

Nationalism is an ideology based on the premise that the individual’s loyalty and devotion to the nation-state surpass other individual or group interests. Nationalism is a modern movement. Throughout history people have been attached to their native soil, to the traditions of their parents, and to established territorial authorities, but it was not until the end of the 18th century that nationalism began to be a generally recognized sentiment molding public and private life and one of the great, if not the greatest, single determining factors of modern history. Because of its dynamic vitality and its all-pervading character, nationalism is often thought to be very old; sometimes it is mistakenly regarded as a permanent factor in political behaviour (Kohn, hans, 1949-1962).

National character is an expression which describes forms of collective self-perception, sensibility, and conduct which are shared by the individuals who inhabit modern nation-states. It presupposes the existence of psychological and cultural homogeneity among the citizens of each country, as well as the idea that each nation can be considered a collective individual, with characteristics analogous to the empirical individuals who are its inhabitants. The noun character seeks to describe a universal aspect of social life-an internal dimension to the existence of individuals and an external one, observable through collective behaviour. The adjective national situates this universal aspect of social life in the specific context of those social units we call nations. Social theory interested in understanding the social force of feelings of national belonging has turned once again to this expression, which was first formulated in Europe during the second half of the eighteenth century. What distinguishes this trend is the fact that there is no attempt at attributing any theoretical status to national character; instead, it is more concerced with it as a practical category used in the discourse and action of the social agents and groups. The aim of this article is to summarize the genealogy of the expression and to discuss its current heuristic value (Neiburg, 2001).

One can differentiate between hard and soft power tools in international relations. Traditionally, the states opted for hard power tools in the framework of realpolitik thinking. Meanwhile, the scholars and practitioners start to recognize that the world is in need of a shift from old assumptions and rigid distinctions about ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ power since the economic and political challenges can no longer be simply resolved by military power or policy innovation (Bound, et al. 2007: 13). However, the concept of soft power, initially introduced by Joseph Nye (1990), is still in its theorization process and requires further studies. Hence, the aim of this paper is to evaluate the concept of power, with specific reference to Nye’s frames: hard, soft, and smart. The research objectives are three-fold; first, to provide an brief overview of the concept of power in international relations, second, to evaluate some of the key issues pertaining to the concept of soft power and, third, to assess education as a tool of power. This paper is based on the on-going research for the author’s Ph.D. dissertation.

The subject of power has been an interest of social scientists for many decades, if not centuries, if one were to go back to writings of Aristotle, Plato, and Machiavelli. Despite such great deal of attention, however, there are still notable academic debates over power’s specific definition and its features, which lead to the topic’s complexity and ambiguity. In discussing power, it is important to note whose power one is referring to. For instance, Arendt (1970: 44) defined power not as the property of an individual, but rather 2 argued that it belongs to a group and remains in existence only so long as the group keeps together. Meanwhile, Dahl (1957: 203) proposed to call the objects in the relationship of power as actors. The term actor is inclusive and may refer to individuals, groups, roles, offices, governments, nation-states, or other human aggregates. One of the most influential definitions of power in the field of social science belongs to Max Weber (1947: 152) who defined it as the probability of one actor within a social relationship to be in a position to carry out his own will despite resistance. According to Weber, power is a zero-sum game and is an attribute that derives from the qualities, resources and capabilities of one subject. However, the Weberian definition attracted a number of criticisms. Martin (1971: 243) pointed out that Weber did not define power, but rather provided the basis for a comparison between the attributes of actors. Moreover, the author argued that, by building the element of conflict into his definition and viewing power solely in zero-sum terms, Weber disregarded the possibility of mutually convenient power relations (Martin, 1971: 243). In contrast, Talcott Parsons (1967) offered a conceptualization of power, which did not define it in terms of conflict, but rather views it as a system resource. Parsons (1967: 208) argued that power is a capacity to secure the performance of binding obligations by units in a system of collective organization, when obligations are legitimized with reference to the collective goals, and where in case of recalcitrance, there is a presumption of negative sanctions. In this regard, Anthony Giddens (1968: 264) stated that, among other things, the Parsonian definition does not take into account that power is exercised over someone and by treating power as necessarily legitimate and assuming a consensus between power holders, Parsons ignores the hierarchical character of power. To sum up, the two major threads in this discussion about power, the Weberian and the Parsonian, both suffer from major problems of definition (Martin, 1971: 244). These are just two instances of how power discussion attracts intense debates and disagreements. The purpose of this short discussion is to emphasize that power is one of the most central and problematic concepts in social science. Despite widespread use, there is little agreement upon basic definitions, with individual theorists proposing their own idiosyncratic terminologies of power (Bierstedt, 1950). Gallie (1956) confirms that due to the existence of competing theories and meanings, power is essentially a contested subject.

Power remains one of the critical subjects in political science, including the sphere of international relations. The discipline of International Relations incorporates a number of competing schools of thought, but for the long time, the discipline has treated power as the exclusive prerogative of realism. In fact, there is still a tendency among scholars and 3 practitioners to view power predominantly through the realist lens. To reiterate, the five basic assumptions of realists about the international system are that it is anarchic; all great powers possess some offensive military capability; states can never be certain about the intentions of other states; survival is the primary goal of states; and states are rational actors (Mearsheimer, 2001: 30-31). The realists view the nation-states as the key actors in the international system. Hans Morgenthau (1954: 25) famously proclaimed that international politics, like all politics, is a struggle for power and ‘whatever the ultimate aims of international politics, power is always the immediate aim’. According to the author, the ‘ubiquity of the struggle for power in all social relations on all levels of social organization’ made the arena of international politics a necessity of power politics (Morgenthau, 1954: 31). Carr (1964: 102) was in agreement with Morgenthau and asserted that politics, at its heart, is power politics. For all realists, calculations about power lie at the core of how states perceive the world around them (Mearsheimer, 2001: 12). While realists are in agreement that power is a key determinant in political relations, there is there is a variation in how individual realists understand the concept. For instance, classical realists posit that the permanent struggle for power stems from the fundamental human drive for power (Morgenthau, 1954). In contrast, for structural or neo-realists, it is the architecture of the international system that forces states to pursue power and maximize their power position (Mearsheimer, 2001; Dunne, Kurki, and Smith, 2013). Furthermore, there are disagreements as to how the power should be conceived and measured (Walt, 2002). There are two dominant traditions of power analysis in IR: the ‘elements of the national power approach’, which depicts power as property of states, and the relational power approach, which depicts power as an actual or potential relationship (Baldwin, 2012: 2). In other words, some realists define power in terms of resources, while others define it in a relational manner as the ability to exercise influence over other actors. Proponents of the elements of the national power approach associate power with the possession of specific resources. All of the important resources that a state possesses are typically combined to determine its overall aggregate power. The resources that are indicators of national power are the level of military expenditure, size of the armed forces, gross national product, size of territory, and population. In line with this tradition, Morgenthau (1954) equated power with the possession of identifiable and measurable resources and listed geography, natural resources, industrial capacity, military, and population as stable power elements of a nation. Carr (1946: 109) argued that military power was the most important form of power in international politics, as it serves as both a means and an end in itself. However, one of the difficulties with the elements of the national power approach is the issue of power conversion.

Refrensi:

https://www.britannica.com/topic/nationalism

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/national-identity

http://www.culturaldiplomacy.org/academy/content/pdf/participant-papers/2015-12_annual/Power-In-Ir-By-Raimzhanova,-A.pdf

#IRFEST_USA_Intro to IR

[deltainfoteklive]

Statistical Data Types: All You Need to Know

Statistical data is an essential part of any research or analysis. It provides valuable insights and helps us make informed decisions. In this article, we will explore the different types of statistical data and their significance. Understanding these data types is crucial for conducting accurate analysis and drawing meaningful conclusions. I. Introduction Statistical data types refer to the different forms of data that can be collected and analyzed in statistical studies. These data types help us categorize and understand the nature of the information we are dealing with. II. Categorical Data Categorical data includes variables that fall into distinct categories or groups. These variables are usually non-numeric and represent qualitative characteristics. Examples of categorical data include gender, occupation, and marital status. Categorical data can further be classified into nominal and ordinal data. Nominal Data Nominal data represents qualitative variables with no inherent order or ranking. For example, the colors of cars or the types of fruits belong to nominal data. Nominal data can only be categorized and has no numerical significance. Ordinal Data Ordinal data, on the other hand, represents qualitative variables with a natural order or ranking. Examples include movie ratings or levels of education. Unlike nominal data, ordinal data can be ranked or ordered. III. Numerical Data Numerical data, also known as quantitative data, consists of variables with numerical values. These variables can be further divided into discrete and continuous data. Discrete Data Discrete data represents variables that can only take on specific, exact values. These values are usually countable and have gaps between them. Examples of discrete data include the number of people in a household or the number of cars in a parking lot. Continuous Data Continuous data represents variables that can take on any numerical value within a specific range. These values are typically measured and can include decimals or fractions. Examples of continuous data include temperature, height, and weight. IV. Summary Statistics Summary statistics are used to summarize and analyze data. They provide a snapshot of the data set and help in understanding its characteristics. The most common summary statistics include measures of central tendency (mean, median, and mode) and measures of dispersion (range and standard deviation). The choice of summary statistics depends on the type of data being analyzed. For categorical data, the mode (most frequent value) is commonly used. For numerical data, the mean (average), median (middle value), and mode can be calculated. V. Data Visualization Data visualization is an effective way to present and interpret statistical data. Graphical representations help in understanding patterns, trends, and relationships within the data. The choice of visualization depends on the data type. For categorical data, bar graphs are commonly used. They display the frequency or proportion of each category. Bar graphs can easily compare different categories and identify the most common or least common. For numerical data, histograms are commonly used. Histograms display the distribution of values and provide insights into the spread and shape of the data. They can be used to identify outliers or check for skewness. VI. Data Transformation Data transformation involves converting data from one type to another. This can be useful when analyzing data or when certain statistical methods require specific data types. Converting numerical data to categorical data can be done through the process of discretization. Discretization involves dividing the numerical values into range intervals and assigning each value to a corresponding category. Converting categorical data to numerical data can be done through the process of encoding. Encoding assigns numerical values to each category, allowing statistical analysis to be performed. VII. Conclusion Understanding statistical data types is crucial for accurately analyzing and interpreting data. By recognizing the different types of data, researchers can choose appropriate statistical techniques and draw meaningful conclusions. Categorical data and numerical data have distinctive characteristics that require different analysis methods. Summary statistics and data visualization techniques further enhance our understanding of the data. Additionally, data transformation techniques allow for flexibility in working with different data types. By mastering the knowledge of statistical data types, researchers can extract valuable insights and make informed decisions. VIII. FAQs FAQ 1: What are the different types of statistical data? There are four primary types of statistical data: categorical data, numerical data, discrete data, and continuous data. FAQ 2: How are summary statistics used? Summary statistics summarize the characteristics of a data set. They provide measures of central tendency and dispersion, facilitating data interpretation. FAQ 3: What is the purpose of data visualization? Data visualization helps in understanding patterns, trends, and relationships within the data. It provides a visual representation for easier interpretation. FAQ 4: What is data transformation? Data transformation involves converting data from one type to another. It can be useful for analysis purposes or when specific data types are required for statistical methods. FAQ 5: Why is it important to understand statistical data types? Understanding statistical data types is essential for accurate analysis and interpretation. It ensures that appropriate statistical techniques are used and meaningful conclusions are drawn. In conclusion, statistical data types are diverse and significant in any research or analysis. Categorical data and numerical data have distinctive characteristics that require different analysis methods. Summary statistics and data visualization techniques further enhance the understanding of the data. By mastering the knowledge of statistical data types and their analysis techniques, researchers can extract valuable insights and make informed decisions. Read the full article

[etutorworld123]

Why Just Math Learned at School is not enough?

Why Math at Home?​

The COVID-19 pandemic has left many students needing to learn from home. Without in-person instructions, many students have started to fall behind in their coursework. Now more than ever, students need to catch up on what they missed outside of the virtual classroom setting with e-tutoring. By adding e-tutoring to your student’s daily routine, they will be able to supplement what they learned in the classroom with more personalized instruction. Make sure your student is prepared for high school math courses and standardized tests by enrolling in an online pre-algebra course with eTutorWorld.​

How a pre-algebra online course prepares students for high school math​

Pre-algebra is the foundation of all high school math. Enrolling your student into a pre-algebra online summer course will prepare them for math in the future. Pre-algebra will help your student become familiar with some of the terms that they will run into during their high school career. The course will reinforce the basic arithmetic skills they learned during middle school and expand on them. Taking a pre-algebra course will help your student transition between middle school to high school math easier. The topics your student will learn in pre-algebra will continue to be present in every other math course they take in the future.​

Some topics covered in the pre-algebra course include reviewing exponents, rounding, and finding the mean, median, and range. All of these topics show up in high school math courses. Exponents are essential to algebra, geometry, and later statistics or calculus courses. Understanding the basics of exponents will prepare students to solve quadratic equations and complicated functions. Rounding is needed to simplify mathematic expressions.

By ingraining rounding into their foundational coursework, students will be able to conquer higher-level courses and equations faster. Once your student reaches statistics or calculus courses, measures of central tendency (also known as the mean, median, and range) are needed. Having a basic grasp of these concepts will help them with graphing problems in the future. As a foundational course, a solid pre-algebra course will be invaluable for your student’s future. 

​How pre-algebra prepares for standardized tests​​           

Pre-algebra is not only the foundation of high school math courses but also is the backbone of high school standardized tests. Tests such as the SCAT, SAT, ISSE, ACT, and others examine students’ pre-algebra skills. These skills appear in every high school math subject, so they are likely to appear in standardized tests for these subjects. Online pre-algebra practice will help prepare your student by introducing them to the topics that will appear on these standardized tests in the future. By solidifying their understanding of the basics, your student will be able to complete test questions faster and with more confidence.​​Let’s take the SAT and the ACT as examples. 

The SAT math section is timed allotting students 80 minutes to complete one calculator section and one no-calculator section. The SAT also contains three areas of focus: the Heart of Algebra, Problem Solving with Data Analysis, and Passport to Advanced Math. With a pre-algebra course under your student’s belt, they will be prepared to solve the no-calculator section faster with rounding.

They will also have an easier time with the Heart of Algebra focus as well as the Data Analysis focus. The mean, median, and mode that they learned will come in handy for Data Analysis.​​Similar to the SAT, the ACT also tests your student on mean, median, and mode. 20-25% of The ACT math section consists of pre-algebra concepts. A pre-algebra course will give your student a leg-up with the ACT just by taking a pre-algebra course. 

The ACT also consists of 15-20% basic elementary algebra. Combining both percentages, a pre-algebra course will prepare your student for up to 45% of the ACT. ​​

Why Your Student Should Take a Pre -Algebra Online Class

​​Enrolling your student into an online pre-algebra course will give them a foundation to build all of their high school math courses in the future. The course will also give your student an edge when taking standardized math tests. Enroll with eTutorWorld to give your child a headstart.  

[berniesrevolution]

The warning signs are flashing red: Democracy is under threat. Across Europe and North America, candidates are more authoritarian, party systems are more volatile, and citizens are more hostile to the norms and institutions of liberal democracy.

These trends have prompted a major debate between those who view political discontent as economic, cultural or generational in origin. But all of these explanations share one basic assumption: The threat is coming from the political extremes.

On the right, ethno-nationalists and libertarians are accused of supporting fascist politics; on the left, campus radicals and the so-called antifa movement are accused of betraying liberal principles. Across the board, the assumption is that radical views go hand in hand with support for authoritarianism, while moderation suggests a more committed approach to the democratic process.

Is it true?

Maybe not. My research suggests that across Europe and North America, centrists are the least supportive of democracy, the least committed to its institutions and the most supportive of authoritarianism.

I examined the data from the most recent World Values Survey (2010 to 2014) and European Values Survey (2008), two of the most comprehensive studies of public opinion carried out in over 100 countries. The survey asks respondents to place themselves on a spectrum from far left to center to far right. I then plotted the proportion of each group’s support for key democratic institutions. (A copy of my working paper, with a more detailed analysis of the survey data, can be found here.)

Respondents who put themselves at the center of the political spectrum are the least supportive of democracy, according to several survey measures. These include views of democracy as the “best political system,” and a more general rating of democratic politics. In both, those in the center have the most critical views of democracy.

Some of the most striking data reflect respondents’ views of elections. Support for “free and fair” elections drops at the center for every single country in the sample. The size of the centrist gap is striking. In the case of the United States, fewer than half of people in the political center view elections as essential.

Of course, the concept of “support for democracy” is somewhat abstract, and respondents may interpret the question in different ways. What about support for civil rights, so central to the maintenance of the liberal democratic order? In almost every case, support for civil rights wanes in the center. In the United States, only 25 percent of centrists agree that civil rights are an essential feature of democracy.

One of the strongest warning signs for democracy has been the rise of populist leaders with authoritarian tendencies. But while these leaders have become more popular, it is unclear whether citizens explicitly support more authoritarian styles of government. I find, however, evidence of substantial support for a “strong leader” who ignores his country’s legislature, particularly among centrists. In the United States, centrists’ support for a strongman-type leader far surpasses that of the right and the left.

(Continue Reading)

[drapeau-rouge]

Sweden’s Social Democrats and the Communist Movement during and after World War II

The Communist Party of Sweden's contribution to the European Communist Initiative Parties's february 2019 conference "Struggle for Communism: 100 Years of Political Heritage." The text will give an account of the ideological development of the communists in Sweden during and after World War II. During this time, the peaceful transition to socialism was introduced and the party revised its attitude towards Social Democracy and the bourgeois state, which have had long-term effects on the workers’ movement in Sweden. The role of the Social Democrats will also be analyzed and commented upon, so as to dispel myths and misconceptions concerning them.

After the war, the Social Democrats had taken command of Swedish capitalism and strengthened its ties with the Swedish capitalists and imperialists. Unfortunately, it is not possible to paint a complete picture of the developments during this time, as it would require much more work, but we want to highlight certain aspects of the period, so as to draw some conclusions.

The economic and political policy of the Social Democrats

The real wages of the workers had plummeted during the war – in fact, the government had introduced a freeze to the wages in 1942. Because of the constant attacks on the wages of the workers, the wages had been frozen on an already low level, which left a lot of workers frustrated and fueled demands for increases in wages. At the same time, the level of exploitation of the workers had increased through increases in the intensity of the work.

These factors allowed the communists to organize and lead 130,000 metal workers in a strike for wage increases. The strike lasted five months, and even though only small direct gains could be made, the strike put an end to the lowering of the workers’ wages.

In 1944, the Social Democrats had agreed upon and put forward a programme for the workers' movement in the post-war years. Through this programme, they advocated for the nationalisation of key industries, as well as an expanded welfare-state. Even though they quickly abandoned this programme, as their co-operation with the bourgeoisie and capitalists deepened, some of the demands were carried out – in fact, against the background of the militancy of the workers’, the influence of the communist party and the victory of the Soviet Union, they had to be carried out. The real wages of the workers began to increase and certain benefits, such as pensions and healthcare were made available to the workers.

In 1948, the Swedish government, headed by the Social Democrats, began receiving aid within the framework of the Marshall Plan. All in all, Sweden received 107 million USD in aid, which was less than Denmark and Norway, but it still served to bind Sweden closer to US-American imperialism and helped open Scandinavia to an influx of American capital. In this context, it is also important to note that Sweden, almost directly after the Second World War, had begun developing economic ties with the Soviet Union, and had begun exporting goods to them. The adherence of Sweden to the Marshall Plan ended this relationship.

In contrast to the Social Democratic programme of 1944, the policy around 1950 was openly in favor of capital. Price control on basic goods was dropped, allowing for an increase of the price of foodstuff, and in the beginning of the 1950’s, rationing, which had previously guaranteed workers a basic amount of foodstuff was abolished. At the same time, the government and the state took a more active stance in the development of the economy. Large amounts were invested in agriculture, which was soon mechanized, and new investments allowed for a renewal of the machine parks of the industries.

The Swedish state came to play a much more important role in the economic development during the post-war years than before. Nationalizations were carried out, mainly in sectors with low profitability that were essential to the smooth running of Swedish capitalism. These measures were directed at public transportations, postal and telecommunication services, the supplying of electricity and the construction of houses.

In brief, we would also like to highlight the role of the Swedish welfare state in the expansion of Swedish monopoly capital. With the development of the productive forces, new needs for the expansion of industry arose. Workers needed to be concentrated and moved to where the industry was, creating a need for public housing. The solution was the building of millions of new homes, propelling, amongst others, the construction company Skanska, into a position as one of the world’s largest construction companies.

For the working class, this meant a move from their homes in the countryside, which they had owned themselves, into the cities, where they received rental apartments, both municipal and private. This meant that the wages of the workers in some part was channeled back into the system, tying the workers even more closely to the machinery of wage slavery. Even though the standard was improved through these projects, it is not comparable to what would have been possible, had another system existed.

The welfare state developed primarily as a need for developed capitalism to expand further and to better correspond to the need of the productive forces, but the impact of a well-organized workers' movement could push parts of the welfare further than would have been necessary for the needs of the productive forces. Such an example is the introduction of a generalized scheme of childbenefits.

The state also intervened in the planning of the economy. This could take the form of the direction of workers from "stagnating" areas to areas with a lack of workers. In this way, the state could effectivize production and raise profitability for the capitalists. Another way of doing this was the implementation of the so called MTM-method. Carried out by the state and advocated by the Social Democrats, officials started monitoring the workers, mapping their every move in order to find more effective ways of doing the work.

Even though this is far from a complete picture of the period, we would like to draw to basic conclusions, before we move on the analysis of the development of the Communist Party of Sweden.

As regards the state, it is important to note that the basic role of the bourgeois state is to support the smooth running of the capitalist machinery. The nationalizations carried out were not carried out for the benefit of the people, but they corresponded to the needs of capital – in order for an economic expansion to be possible, it was imperative that the transportation networks were expanded, and in order to increase the profits of the construction companies, as well as to concentrate the workers to the industrial cities, the building of new homes for the workers became interesting for monopoly capital.

Even though it would be wrong to view the welfare of the workers as simply an effect of the development of capitalism – the workers struggled and sacrificed alot in order to achieve their gains – it is equally wrong to ignore this aspect of the building of the welfare state.

As regards Social Democracy as a phenomena, the role that they played (and play) in Sweden is one which entails the pacifying of the workers and the tying of them to capitalism. Without Social Democracy, it would have been impossible for the bourgeoisie to effectively combat the communists – the influence that the Social Democrats had in the union movement and in the workers’ movement became the most effective weapon that capital could use in their struggle against the communists.

After the war, the Social Democrats became excellent administrators of the capitalist system, ensuring the expansion of Swedish capitalism through effective and detailed managing, as well as through the work they did in pacifying the workers’ movement.

Overview: the ideological development of the SKP during and after World War II

As in a lot of other communist parties at the time, the tactics of the SKP were focused on political unity with the Social Democrats and other ”progressive” forces. Central to the ideological changes was an almost naïve optimism, which led leading cadres to believe that a peaceful transition to socialism was possible, and that this could be achieved through the creation of a united Marxist Workers’ Party.

This tendency can be traced back to the recommendation made by Dimitrov in 1935, where he claimed that "[t]he interests of the class struggle of the proletariat and the success of the proletarian revolution make it imperative that there be a single party of the proletariat in each country."

As we will see, the conditions for the unity of the workers’ parties that Dimitrov posed, was significantly watered down by the SKP and even led to accusation of liquidatory tendencies from the cadre of the party.

In the forming of the post-war policy of the SKP, a lot of different factors came into play. The previous repression that the movement was subjected to, in combination with the suspension of the Comintern and the ensuing free reins to form a national policy, the quantitative growth of the party in the last year of the war and the ideological heritage of popular and united fronts merged and gave birth to a new kind of policy.

As a response to the dissolution of the Comintern, a political commission had been launched by the Central Committee. Consisting of several prominent members, it was to lead the forming of a new party programme, aimed to replace the old Comintern programme. Four weeks later, in the summer of 1943, at a national conference of the party, the commission presented its work.

The suggestion was that as a basis for discussion, the party should use the Social Democratic programme of 1920, which had been inspired by the German Erfurt Programme. The reason for this was that the "programme was seen by hundreds of thousands of workers as directive." The party chairman, Sven Linderot, pointed out that the reason for the adoption of the programme of 1920 was tactical, not ideological – it was seen as a way to strengthen the left within the Social Democrats,at a time when there were serious political contradictions within the Social Democratic Party.

At the same conference, Nils Holmberg meant that the struggle for Soviets in Sweden was inadvisable – instead, the goal was to ”conquer and put in the service of the working class the old, historically developed, national organs for peoples’ power: city and municipal councils, as well as the national parliament.”

The conference approved of the suggestion of the political commission and adopted the programme of 1920 as a basis for discussion, although it sharpened its terminology. At the same time, the conference appointed a programme commission, charged with creating a new programme.

In February of 1944, the programme commission presented its proposal for a new party programme, which would be put to the vote of the members on the congress later that year. In the programme, vital ideological aspects, such as the dictatorship of the proletariat, the explicit mention of the revolution and the struggle for a Soviet-Sweden had been removed. It was also noted that the conditions were ripe for a transition to socialism, due to the fact that monopoly capitalism had transformed into state monopoly capitalism. In a comment on the proposal, Linderot said that since the goal of the party was the creation of a unified Workers’ Party, the programme of the SKP had to be one that could just as well be used for such a united party.

The proposal was accepted on the party congress in May 1944. In contrast to the earlier programmes of the parties, that of 1921 and that of the Comintern in 1928, explicit mentions of the road to socialism were omitted – in fact, the road to socialism was not mentioned at all. This omission of the violent revolution was not an explicit position in favor of a peaceful transition, but it opened the gates for such interpretations. On the same congress, both Hilding Hagberg and Fritjof Lager, members of the Political Bureau, claimed that a peaceful transition was "possible" and "could not be ruled out."

However, it took yet another year – until the meeting of the Central Committee in March 1945 – for the peaceful transition to socialism to take more concrete shape. During this meeting, Set Persson, was charged with the task of explaining the political situation and the tasks of the party. He explained that:

[w]e give our support to the aspirations to achieve progress through normal democratic ways [...] and on a peaceful road and we acknowledge that this road can be passable.

Apart from the adoption of the new party programme, the congress of 1944 adopted the so-called "Post-War Programme" of the Social Democrats as its programme of action.

Both of these programmes were adopted with the aim of strengthening the political unity of the working class, as well as to strengthen the left-wing within the social democratic party. In a famous comment on the Post-War Programme, Linderot claimed that it ”decapitated the shadow of capitalism.”

The reasoning of the SKP and Linderot was as follows: the programme would not be realizable within the framework of capitalism, but since this was not the aim of the Social Democrats, it would only serve to decapitate the shadow of capitalism. Linderot claimed that the most important aspect of this programme was its demand for full employment. This demand, along with others, could not be fulfilled within the framework of capitalism – if the SKP was successful in forcing the trade unions and the Social Democrats to keep the programme, this would become apparent for them.

By adopting a party programme built on an old social democratic one, as well as adopting the social democratic programme of action, the party had achieved one of the basic conditions for unity: the subordination of the Social Democrats under the programme of the communist party. The paradox, however, was that the communists had already adopted a social democratic programme, even though they sharpened the terminology – this meant, in essence, that the Social Democrats would be subordinate to a radical social democratic programme.

During the war, Sweden had been governed by a coalition of all parties except the communist party. To counter this, and to try to break loose the Social Democrats from co-operation with the bourgeoisie, the SKP launched the slogan of a "Left Government". Consisting of the communists, the Social Democrats, as well as "progressives from bourgeois parties", it would "draw a clear line against the forces of fascism, reaction and big finance."

The slogan of a "Left Government" was abandoned in October 1945, when the Social Democrats had assumed power and replaced the coalition government. To continue with the old slogan would imply that the communists wanted to assume state power by themselves.

When we leave the year 1945, there has been a significant shift in the analyses and tactical considerations taken by the communist party. Parts of the ideology, which were previously considered pillars of Marxism Leninism, such as the dictatorship of the proletariat and the revolutionary assumption of power, had been left out. First, it had been replaced by vague and open formulations, and then later, through the interpretation of the Central Committee, the road to the peaceful transition to socialism had been opened.

The peaceful road to socialism was central to the analysis of the communists in Sweden at this time, and it was adopted almost unanimously. Some protests and discontent could be heard from the various party cells and local organizations, but the opposition was never united, nor coherent in their critique.

The peaceful road to socialism

In order to understand the shift towards the peaceful transition, it is important to understand the material conditions that communists faced during this time.

During the war, Sweden had been governed by a coalition of all the "democratic" parties because of the special situation that developed accross Europe. The communists had been labeled violent and extremists, and by the bourgeoisie, they were judged as undemocratic and thus excluded from the national coalition.  

The repression against the communists

Instead, they were persecuted as never before. Culminating with the Finnish Winter War, the Social Democrats and the bourgeoisie unleashed furious attacks against the communists, including terrorist attacks, internment camps, as well as several attempts to silence the communist press.

In the beginning, the communist newspaper Ny Dag [New Day] was in the center of their attacks. By first recalling all the newspaper’s loans, then forcing newspaper venues to stop selling the newspaper and then forcing advertisers to withdraw their advertisments through threats against them, they tried to silence the press. By mobilizing members and sympathizers, the attempts to strike at the economy of the party was unsuccesful.

The next step was to involve the judiciary. It had been made illegal to "damage relationships to foreign powers" and this was frequently used to charge the communist press with criminal behaviour. Often, previous volounteers to the International Brigades signed articles and agreed to be formal editors of the newspapers. Since they returned from Spain, they had been blacklisted, and a couple of months in prison solved the issue of food and roof for them. The longest punishment handed out was five months of hard labor against an old volounteer to Spain because of an article that critizised the government’s support of the reactionary forces in Finland.

When it became apparent that this tactic would not work, they sharpened the repression. In 1940, parliament unanimously (apart from the communist MPs and one liberal) approved a law that would made it possible to outlaw the Communist Party. The law was never used – its approval meant that the party was constantly faced with the threat of illegalization. Due to the threats, the party chairman, Sven Linderot, was often absent from meetings, because the party feared his arrest. Almost at the same time, the police conducted searches in all of the party offices around the country, and in the houses of communists, as well as in communist-dominated labor unions.

Within the labor unions and the workers’ movement, the Social Democrats attempted to attack the communist by in some unions (such as the Metal Workers’ Union) simply ban communists from having a membership or being elected. In their newspapers, the Social Democrats called for "the extinction" of the communists, claimed that "all sentimentality has to be disregarded concerning the communists" and that communists "are not people in an ordinary sense."

At the same time, the government decided to forbid the transportation of communist newspapers on Swedish railways and through the Swedish post. Distribution was therefore organized by party members, who personally traveled accross the country to deliver the newspaper.

The atmosphere was thick with anti-communism, and as a natural development, attacks were preparted and carried out. The office of Ny Dag in Stockholm was raided by armed right-wing youths – luckily, veterans from the Spanish Civil War were present and could easily disarm them. Party members and veterans took turns guarding the party offices, defending them from attackers.

In the north of Sweden, they were not so lucky as in Stockholm. On the 3rd of March, the local police and representatives of the liberal party, as well as local right-wing journalists planned and carried out a bombing of the offices of the communist paper Norrskensflamman [Flame of the Northern Lights], resulting in the death of five persons, including two children. One of the casualties was Arthur Hellberg, member of the central committee of the party, as well as editor of the Norrskensflamman. The perpetrators were given symbolic punishments and let out shortly thereafter. This is the worst terrorist attack ever to take place in Sweden.

Simultaneously, thousand of communist cadres, many of whom had been called in to the army because of the threat of war, were interned in camps around Sweden, most of them in the north. They were kept there, cut off from the outside, not knowing whether or not they would be executed or not. One of the men inside lost his wife and child during the attack against the Norrskensflamman, but was refused leave.

The first internment camp was established in 1939, and they were reinforced and expanded as long as Nazi-Germany was on the offensive in the Soviet Union. As soon as the tide of war changed, they began dismantling the camps. Apart from the internment camps where they held young communists during the war, concentration camps were set up under the Social Democratic government, where foreign communists fleeing from Nazi occupation were placed.

This summary of the repression against the Swedish communists during World War II serves as one factor, which influenced the ideological development within the Swedish communist movement. As a consequence of the repression, the party became more cautious and it became more and more important to portray the party as democratic, so as to gain acceptance by other parties and nonrevolutionary workers. In combination with other factors described below, it serves as the material basis, from which the ideological development of the party gained traction.

The attacks on communists in the post-war years

After the war, the repression against the communists took other forms than before. It was no longer possible to continue on the same path, partly due to the prestige of the Soviet Union, and partly due to the growth of the communist movement (in the elections to parliament in 1944, the communists managed to gather more than 10%). Instead, the attacks against the communists within the labor movement intensified. In 1948, the social democratic prime minister, Tage Erlander, said that "the workplaces are a battlefield against communism".

In 1941, the Swedish Trade Union Confederation (LO) was centralized, which meant that the decisions concerning strikes had to be taken by the central leadership. This gathered the power of the union in the hands of the leading social democrats, who at the same time were building a powerful organization of tens of thousands of union representatives, which after the war were used against the communists.

In 1945, a big survey was commissioned by the union leadership (social democrats) in order to map the balance of power between the communists and the social democrats within the union movement. The survey showed that one in ten of the representative bodies of the unions (FCO – these were later abolished) were in the hands of the communists, which enabled them to lead the Metal Workers’ Strike in 1945 (see below). The mapping of the communists was also done in cooperation with the secret police, and in other forms continued at least into the 70’s. All in all, hundreds of thousands of communists, peace activists, labour organizers and others were registered by the secret police, in cooperation with the Social Democrats.

On the basis of the survey, it was possible to effectivize the attacks against the communists. The elected union representatives connected to the Social Democrats received education in combating the communists. Hired agitators were sent to districts dominated by communists and similiar actions were taken.

In this way, it was possible for the social democrats to slowly undermine the support that the communists had within the labor movement.

Apart from the repression, other factors influenced the ideological developments. One bourgeois commentator formulates it as follows:

Both the programme and the commentaries [from the central committee] were formed under the impression of the contemporary events in Europe [...] The progress of the Red Army, the collapse of the old states, the resistance in the still occupied countries and the radicalization of the continental Social Democracy together with the psychological situation in Sweden gave room to significant optimism.

To these factors, we must add both the ideological heritage stemming from the seventh congress of the Comintern and the appeals to form united workers’ parties, as well as to work in a popular and united fronts, as well as the repression suffered by the communists, who "in defence of the legality of their press and the party increasingly were driven onto the road of principal democracy." It is important to note that the intention of the party was never class-collaborationist or reformist, but its aim was socialism – in hindsight, we can be critical of the outcome and their analysis, but we must acknowledge that their intentions were honest.

Against this background of both optimism and caution (it is wrong to call it fear, especially after what the communists had endured), the shifts in the road to socialism must be seen. Some key factors, which the party had identified, led them to support the idea of a peaceful transition.

The most important factors were these:

In general, power had been shifted to the benefit of the working class, and anticipation was big that it would continue, because this shift had gone further in the rest of Europe. This power was built on the fact that "[t]he working class had been able to achieve some positions within the state apparatus."

The power of the working class took the following expressions: a strong and united Trade Union Conferederation (LO), there was a workers’ majority in parliament, in some regional assemblies and in a large number of municipal assemblies.

The size of the working class had grown and now encompassed more than 60% of the people, while the bourgeoisie was both economically and politically divided.

Especially inspiring was the growth of the peoples’ democracies in Eastern Europe. This topic was given a lot of room in the theoretical discussions of the party, and the establishment of a peoples’ democracy in Sweden was seen as feasable.

Within the framework of the peaceful transition to socialism, there are three main ideological shifts, all of them occuring simultaneously and fuelling each other.

On one level, the peaceful transition is built upon a change in focus. Whereas traditional marxismleninism builds upon the scientific identification of the basic contradiction between capital and labor, the basic contradiction within the framework of the peaceful transition builds upon the contradiction between democracy and reaction. Connected to this is also the weakening of democratic centralism and the transition to a mass party.

The shift in contradiction is at the same time fuelled by the shift in the analysis of Social Democracy: if the basic contradiction is that between democracy and reaction, it follows that all democratic forces are allies in the struggle against reaction – this includes the Social Democrats, who in the context of the contradiction between capital and labor were seen as enemies, as they guaranteed stability to capitalism.

Connected to both these tendencies, the view of the bourgeois state changed. The defence of the party against attacks made the keeping and deepening of bourgeois democracy, in combination with the "objective factors" in support of the peaceful transition that the party had identified, let a revision in terms of how the bourgeois state was analyzed. Instead of fighting to establish soviets, the party had to ”conquer and place in the service of the working class the old, historically developed, national organs for peoples’ power: the city and municipal assemblies, and the national parliament."

In the following, we will paint a picture of the each of these basic tendencies, as they are central to the understanding of the peaceful transition to socialism, as it was developed by the Communist Party of Sweden during this time.

A shift in focus: from "capital-labor" to "democracy-reaction"

The basic contradiction within capitalist and imperialist society is that between capital and labor. One class exploits the other, and appropriates the surplus value created by the other class. This contradiction is to be found in the economic basis of capitalist society: it is the pillar, on which it is built.

During this time, it is possible to see a shift from this view to a view where the main contradiction is seen as that between democracy and reaction. This means that focus has been shifted from the scientific analysis of the material basis of capitalism to the different political expressions that capitalism takes – the focus thus shifted from the basis to the superstructure.

In his speech on the 13th party congress in 1946, Linderot gave this expression a more programmatic expression. He claimed that the "front of struggle is found between democracy and reaction." This was not only the case in Sweden, but in the entire world. His speech was accepted by the party congress as directive for the party line. The most immediate consequence is that the difference between proletarian and bourgeois democracy is made unclear and the differentiation between the two kinds of democracy is hard to distinguish.

The formal shift occured in 1946, but this did not keep the party tactics from being formed by it before. On the tactial level, the shift in focus led to the adoption of the slogan of a "Democratic Bloc", which was meant to gather all bourgeois democratic and progressive forces in the country in the struggle against reaction. This new Bloc replaced the slogan of a "Left Government" and was supposed to be built upon the expansion of the Post-War Programme. This expansion of the PostWar Programme was to be done by the Social Democrats, the LO and the SKP – the idea was that it would constitute a democratic platform, which would draw a clear line against reaction.

As a further consequence, democratic centralism became more and more of an obstacle. If the objective was to gather as much people as possible in the struggle for democracy, it was counterproductive to keep strict rules and regulation as to who could become a member. Gunnar Öhman, representing the Central Committee, asked the following question:

But what benefits our party the most? The small elite of 100 percent clear communists, isolated from the masses or the big commune, with less clear members but with solid connections to the working class?

He answered it as follows:

Our party is not and cannot be a society for mutual admiration or some kind of sacred society, instead our party is a fighting workers’ organization, whose doors are open to all of our class comrades and for everyone who wants to place his or hers powers at the disposal of the working class. The ideal that we must strive for when it comes to the construciton of our party is not the elite of the 100 percent clear communists, but the big mass organization of concious communist fighters.

On another occasion, Öhman also accused those he called ”secterians” (essentially, those who did not approve of the mass line) for not wanting to take the least developed workers into account. When this line of reasoning is turned around, its implications are obvious: the ”secterians” take into account the most concious workers, but do not want to shift their focus to the mass of unconcious workers. As opposed to this, Öhman, who spoke on behalf of the Central Committee, wanted to shift focus to the least concious workers.

As a consequence, the congresses of 1944 and of 1946 eased the demands put on new members, making membership easier to obtain.

As mentioned earlier, Hagberg declared that it was important to adopt the somewhat revised social democratic programme of 1920 because it was seen as directive by hundreds of thousands of workers. This puts the relationship between the party and the masses on its head, and instead of leading the workers, the party follows it: what the workers see as directive, becomes directive to the party as well.

Of course, this tendency weakened the vanguard character of the party, forming a mass party instead of a vanguard party. It goes hand in hand with the shift in focus to democracy-reaction and in the new policy of unity of the party.

Connected to this is the analysis of Social Democracy, to which we will now move on.

The role and function of Social Democracy

Central to the SKP was the political unity of the working class, to be achieved through the unity with Social Democracy. This was the logical conclusion, if one was to see the main line of conflict as that between democracy and fascism.

In accordance with the new analysis and shift in focus, the SKPs short term objective became to strengthen the left within the Social Democrats, as this would make unity easier. Already in 1942, Linderot had, somewhat exaggerated, identified two opposing factions within the social democratic party: the left and the right. He also claimed that the party would sooner or later split along these lines, thereby exaggerating the control the right-wing had in the party, accentuating the need for a strong and fighting left-wing. Through the adoption of the Post-War Programme, the same goal was achieved: through adopting it, the communists would make it harder for the Social Democrats to abandon it, which would strengthen the left-wing character of the party.

The activity of the party during these years was focused on achieving a constructive communication with the Social Democrats, with the hope of entering into a popular front-government. During the metal workers’ strike in 1945, Linderot said that ”[i]f one or two industries are striking this winter, it means that they will call from the offices of the Social Democrats and ask if we can’t come over for a talk.”

As mentioned above, the goal was the construction of a "Democratic Bloc" together with the Social Democrats. If this Bloc could be set up, it would mean that the majority of the workers’ parties in parliament and other assemblies could have taken significant steps towards first democracy, and then socialism. To further this cause, Hagberg, declared the party to be "benevolently cautious" towards the Social Democrats, and the party decleared itself to no longer be in opposition, because the Post-War Programme was the common programme of the entire workers movement.

To this end, the Social Democrats were allies in the struggle for socialism, marking a total shift from the rethorics of the party just a decade earlier.

The last major shift that this text will touch upon is the view of the bourgeois state, as it plays a vital role in the peaceful transition to socialism – in the theoretical journal of the party, one could read that the Swedish road to socialism "builds upon the Swedish democracy."

The state: transform it or smash it?

In the analyses of the Swedish communist during this time, it is clear that the state becomes more and more detached from capitalism and its material basis: the state seizes to be a tool in the hands of the ruling class, intimately connected to it, and instead becomes an almost neutral tool that has been commandeered by the ruling class. This means that it is also possible for the working class to break the domination of the capitalists over it and to use it for their own purposes.

Carl-Henrik Hermansson, member of the Central Committee explained that even though the working class had advanced its positions within the state appraratus, it was still "mainly an organ for the exercise of power for the bourgeoisie." In connection with this, he specified the immediate objects of the communist party:

To conquer such position within the state apparatus for the communist party and the workers’ movement that a real exercise of power in society becomes possible for the communist party.

This perspective reveals a number of things, but most importantly, it establishes that the power of the bourgeoisie over the state apparatus is temporary and can be broken, while at the same time connecting the wielding of power with the influence over the state – the more influence, the more power can be exercised. In turn, this signifies the start of a shift from non-parliamentary actions to parliamentary politics.

In an attempt to anticipate a critique from the left, Hermansson adds that this approach cannot be compared to that of the Social Democrats. While they officially adhere to the theory of gradual and slow evolution into socialism, which entails passivity from the side of the working class, the strengthening of the communist party in the state apparatus presupposes an increase in the activity of the working class. Of course, in hindsight, it is easy to see that the policy of the communists passified the working class as well.

Hagberg, in his speech on the congress of 1944, claimed that in order for state power to pass into the hands of the working class, a political majority was not enough. For this to happen:

[a]ll significant state organs need to pass into the hands of the working class. Through the seizure of these organs of power, and through directing the legislative and executive branches of government against the old capitalist order of production, the seizure of the means of production by society could be ensured.

Not only Hagberg and Linderot expressed themselves in this vein, but also Nils Holmberg, who we quoted earlier, saying that the struggle for soviets was inadvisable, and that the task of the communist party was to put the old, bourgeois organs for power into the service of the working class. To this, he added that ”[y]ou need to transform them, give them another content and other authorities.”

The view that the bourgeois state was not the inevitable tool of the bourgeois was thus firmly established within the party, and it was seen as possible for the communists and the workers to utilize its power to establish socialism.

Within the context of democracy-reaction, the main obstacle to the democratization of the state apparatus was the reactionary parties and the control over the police, military, courts and prisons. Thanks to this, they could

[s]low down the tempo of the parliamentary efforts at reform in an oftentimes ludicrous way, which in turn, which in term foments a lack of respect amongst the masses for the national parliament, giving rise to a tendency to view the national parliament as non-independent and weak.

Logically, the new view of the bourgeois state also entailed a different approach to it. Earlier, during the era of the Comintern, the programme explicitly called for the destruction of the bourgeois state, Linderot himself viewed the national, regional and municipal assemblies as arenas for agitation. Now, the communists worked to restore the confidence of the workers in the bourgeois parliament, making a sharp turn from their earlier view of the parliamentary instutitions under capitalism.

Conclusions

With this text, we have tried to analyze the development of the Communist Party of Sweden during and after World War II, as well as the role of the Social Democrats, critically. What we have found is this:

The programme and ideology of the communist party must remain revolutionary, regardless of whether or not the situation is revolutionary. The misinterpretation of the leadership of the SKP that non-revolutionary times needed a non-revolutionary programme had serious consequences for the communist movement in Sweden and affects us to this day. The objective of the communists remains revolution, in both revolutionary and nonrevolutionary times. Even though the weight of existing socialism in 1945 seemed overwhelming, which produced ideas of a peaceful road to socialism, we now know that this possibility does not exist – the peaceful road to socialism means adapting to capitalism.

Revisionism and opportunism do not occur in giant leaps, but through small changes, which in themselves can seem harmless. It would have been impossible for the SKP in 1945 to transform into the Left Party Communists of the 1960’s in one go – the reaction would have been too strong. Instead, this transformation occured through small steps, where each step produced a new ideological and political outlook, enabling further steps to be taken. The abandonment of the dictatorship of the proletariat gives us a clear example. When the SKP abandoned it in 1943, it was not replaced immediately with something concrete, but was simply removed, which opened up different possibilities to interpret the transition to socialism, eventually opening the door to the peaceful transition. One step leaders to another, which highlights the importance of never taking that first step.

It is not possible to change the class character of the bourgeois state – even though it can be forced to concessions, it remains integrated in the bourgeois class. The struggle to transform the state from within and to win a certain amount of power in it shifted focus from the building of workers’ power within the workers’ own organization to the strengthening of the parties parliamentary positions. This led to the weakening of the union work and the revolutionary potential of the party. We have shown the material basis of this belief, but we must be clear: the bourgeois state cannot be transformed or used in socialist construction – it remains the task of the communists to break the confidence of the masses in the state and to reveal its class character. This means that we cannot be fooled by the fact that the bourgeois state has provided a certain measure of welfare to the working class and other exploiter strata of the Swedish population. The provision of this welfare was a by-product of what the Swedish monopolies needed at this certain period of time, but at the same time, the militancy of the workers pushed through other aspects of this welfare, not necessarily connected to the increase in productivity of the monopolies. This served to effectivize the reproduction of the workforce, providing a stable material basis for the expansion of Swedish monopoly capital. The construction of the Swedish welfare state was carried out by monopoly capital on the orders of the state. The building of public housing, to take one example, enabled a significant expansion for the construction companies, laying the foundation for their expansion throughout the world.

The united and popular fronts laid the foundations to the conciliatory attitudes towards Social Democracy. When Dimitrov in 1935 laid out the plans for the united and popular fronts, it meant a shift in the attitude towards Social Democracy. This new view was expanded upon by the Swedish communists and eventually led them to make significant accomodations in relation to the Social Democrats, removing key parts of Marxism Leninism in favor of a gradualistic, reformist point of view. The united and popular front introduced another set of contradictions, fascism-democracy, which was further developed by the respective communist parties. In Sweden, the contradiction fascism-democracy was replaced by the contradiction reaction-democracy after the Second World War, which led the party even further away from a scientific analysis of the economic system of capitalism. This shift has affected the communist movement in Sweden until this day, leading many communists to see the struggle against ”right-wing politics” or the Sweden Democrats as the top priority. This tendency necessarily means a whitewashing of ”left-wing politics” within the framework of capitalism, disregarding the fact that the politics of the Left Party is just as capitalist as that of the right-wing parties.

Social Democracy remains an enemy of the working class in the struggle for socialism. As mentioned above, the popular and united fronts opened the door for a conciliatory stance towards Social Democracy, seeing them as allies in the struggle for socialism. This view of Social Democracy is a key element in the theory of the peaceful transition to socialism and disregards the fact that the function and role of Social Democracy is to keep the workers within the framework of capitalism, channeling their discontent and anger in such a way that the system itself is not threatened. It is no coincidence that the Social Democrats unleashed the most furious attacks against the communists and together with the secret police spent decades monitoring the activity of the communists. The task of communists in relation to Social Democrats is to break their influence over the workers, exposing the role of Social Democracy in maintaining the capitalist system.