#PtolemyI

[whencyclopedia]

Ptolemaic Egypt

Ptolemaic Egypt existed between 323 and 30 BCE when Egypt was ruled by the Macedonian Ptolemaic dynasty. During the Ptolemaic period, Egyptian society changed as Greek immigrants introduced a new language, religious pantheon, and way of life to Egypt. The Ptolemaic capital Alexandria became the premier city of the Hellenistic world, known for its Great Library and the Pharos lighthouse.

From Persian Rule to Alexander

In 525 BCE, Egypt was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire, beginning a period of harsh foreign rule and cultural repression. Egypt briefly regained its independence from 404 BCE until 342 BCE before it was reconquered. Discontent with the Persian government resulted in the Egyptians welcoming Alexander the Great as a liberator when he invaded in 332 BCE. Alexander had already broken the Persian army at the Battle of Issus (333 BCE), and Mazakes, the satrap of Egypt, surrendered without a fight.

Alexander demonstrated a deep respect for Egyptian culture, choosing to be crowned pharaoh according to traditional custom. He offered sacrifices to the Egyptian gods in Heliopolis and Memphis and hosted Greek athletic games to celebrate his reign. Next, he traveled south to the Oracle of Amun, whom the Greeks equated with Zeus, in the Siwa Oasis. Alexander believed himself to be the son of Zeus, which the oracle seemingly confirmed for him. The idea had precedent in Egyptian royal ideology in which kings were considered living gods, the offspring of deities like Ra or Amun. It was an unusually grandiose claim for Greek rulers, but Alexander's reputation was great enough for the Greeks to accept him as a demigod.

Alexander's grand design will slowly have come to encompass the idea that all peoples were to be subjugated for the formation of a new world order; for this purpose, the Egyptian pharaonic system presented a very suitable ideology that was well established and has been accepted for millennia.

(Hölbl, 9)

In 331 BCE, Alexander visited the fishing village of Rhakotis where he planned the foundation of a new city, Alexandria. He intended for Alexandria to be the capital of his empire, a link between Egypt and the Mediterranean. Before leaving to continue his conquests, Alexander appointed two governors, Doloaspis and Peteisis, and named Cleomenes of Naukratis, a Greek Egyptian, as his satrap. He also left a small army to occupy and defend Egypt.

Statue of Alexander the Great as Pharaoh

Carole Raddato (CC BY-SA)

After the death of Alexander the Great in Babylon in 323 BCE, his general Ptolemy I became satrap of Egypt. He was nominally the servant of Alexander's successors Philip Arrhidaeus and Alexander IV of Macedon, but in reality, he ruled on his own initiative. Ptolemy I quickly executed Cleomenes, whose exorbitant taxation was unpopular, and began establishing royal policies to modernize the country. By 310 BCE, the last of Alexander's heirs had died, and during the Wars of the Diadochi, Alexander's generals claimed pieces of his empire. Ptolemy I was crowned king of Egypt in 306 BCE, establishing the Ptolemaic dynasty.

Continue reading...

[whencyclopedia]

The Pharos Lighthouse In Alexandria: Second Sun and Seventh Wonder of Antiquity

"The Pharos Lighthouse in Alexandria: Second Sun and Seventh Wonder of Antiquity" is a complete history of one of the most famous lighthouses in history. The book details the lighthouse’s creation, its historical significance, and its eventual destruction.

The book is divided into twelve chapters, each dealing with a different aspect of the Pharos, better known as the Lighthouse of Alexandria. It begins with the conception and construction of the lighthouse during the reign of Ptolemy I (366-282 BCE). The perilous coast surrounding Alexandria shipwrecked many vessels that attempted to navigate its reefs and shoals. This threatened the maritime trade that the Ptolemaic dynasty hoped to encourage, so plans were made to create a landmark that sailors could navigate by. Sostratus of Cnidus led the development of this landmark, which became the great lighthouse. Standing at around 120 meters tall, the Pharos and its flaming light was an awe-inspiring sight that symbolized the power and wealth of Ptolemaic Egypt.

The author reconstructs the form and function of the ancient Pharos, drawing from ancient and Medieval descriptions as well as recently uncovered archaeological evidence. Diagrams, charts, and tables help to illustrate these explanations of the lighthouse’s construction and function. These modern assessments are juxtaposed with ancient and Medieval artworks that depict the lighthouse, such as coins, mosaics, and drawings. The author has a background in science and engineering, which informs the book’s reconstruction of the lighthouse’s technical features. The reach of the Pharos’ light, the material used in its construction, and its dimensions are estimated based on the available data, although many long-standing questions can not be definitively answered.

In 795 CE, a massive earthquake rocked Alexandria and caused the lighthouse’s peak to crumble and fall. Subsequent earthquakes in the 10th century CE further cracked the lighthouse. Despite some attempts at restoration, the Pharos became increasingly damaged until the 15th century CE, when only the base remained. Numerous archaeological expeditions have searched the ocean surrounding Alexandria, and their findings are incorporated into the book.

In addition to the practical history of the lighthouse, the book also examines its impact on culture through its representations in both historically grounded and fantastical literature. From the time of its creation, the lighthouse has been cloaked in legend. In ancient times, it was described as a second Sun that illuminated the harbour. Today, it is one of the most iconic monuments of antiquity. The final three chapters deal with modern attempts to reconstruct the lighthouse. Chapter Ten presents the available evidence for the lighthouse’s form, while Chapter Eleven sets out the author’s future goal of creating a three-dimensional digital recreation of the lighthouse for research and educational purposes.

At the time of this review, the Pharos lighthouse is relatively understudied in comparison to other well-known monuments like the Great Pyramids of Giza. This volume helps to fill that gap and will be useful to students of the Hellenistic period. It is deeply researched, referencing a multitude of ancient and modern sources which are organized in the book’s bibliographies. A set of appendices at the end of the book concisely summarizes the basic timeline and facts relating to the lighthouse, as conveyed through historical sources.

The author Andrew Michael Chugg is a historian who has authored books on the Hellenistic period including The Lost Tomb of Alexander the Great (2004). Chugg graduated with honours from Trinity College, University of Cambridge. He is an Executive Technical Expert in EMC & Radiation Physics at MBDA.

Continue reading...

[whencyclopedia]

Ptolemaic Army

The army of Ptolemaic Egypt was a well-organized fighting force trained in Hellenistic warfare. The Ptolemaic dynasty used their considerable wealth to maintain a large standing army of professional soldiers. Some troops were paid in money, and others were given farmland in exchange for service. In wartime, military expenditure could represent more than three-quarters of national spending.

The Ptolemaic army's earliest members were mostly foreigners who immigrated to Egypt to serve the Ptolemaic dynasty. These soldiers and their descendants established Greek, Persian, Thracian, and Jewish communities in Egypt. Over time, their numbers were replenished by Egyptian conscripts trained in Greek tactics.

Origin, Recruitment & Ethnic Composition

Alexander the Great (r. 336-323 BCE) conquered Egypt in 332 BCE as part of his conquest of the Achaemenid Empire. After the death of Alexander the Great, his general Ptolemy I made himself king of Egypt. Other parts of Alexander's empire were divided between the rest of his generals in the Wars of the Diadochi. The army of Ptolemy I was originally composed of 4,000 soldiers left in Egypt by Alexander, along with thousands of mercenaries.

In Asia, of those who had shared in the division of the satrapies, Ptolemy took over Egypt without difficulty and was treating the inhabitants with kindness. Finding eight thousand talents in the treasury, he began to collect mercenaries and to form an army. A multitude of friends also gathered about him on account of his fairness.

(Diodorus Siculus, 18.14.1)

The core of Ptolemy I's original army was Macedonian. Persian and Egyptian troops left over from before Alexander's conquest were absorbed into this army. As the Hellenistic kingdoms waged perennial territorial wars with each other, they replenished their armies with large numbers of soldiers and mercenaries. Seasoned, professional soldiers had an advantage over new conscripts, and could command high wages.

In terms of bargaining power, soldiers were in a strong position vis-a-vis the rulers, since the latter were in a harsh competition for resources and territory in the decades following Alexander's conquest. Each ruler needed both to hire well-trained soldiers and to prevent his rivals from hiring them.

(Fischer-Bovet, 167)

Ptolemaic recruiting officers (xenologoi) traveled throughout the eastern Mediterranean to enlist mercenaries, and captured enemy troops were also sometimes conscripted. After the Battle of Gaza in 312 BCE, 8,000 prisoners of war were sent back to Egypt and given plots of land in exchange for service. However, the surviving evidence indicates that most recruits traveled to Egypt on their own initiative, either by themselves or in small groups. These people were drawn by Egypt's wealth and the possibility of becoming landowners or ranking officials in the Ptolemaic government. From the 3rd century BCE onwards, new recruits were increasingly conscripted from within Ptolemaic territory. These troops were raised in Greece, Cyrene, Egypt, Cyprus and Syria.

Most recruits in the early Ptolemaic army were from Macedon and mainland Greece. Significant numbers of Thracians, Carians, Persians, and Jews served as well, particularly in the cavalry. The descendants of these troops typically continued to serve as soldiers. Egyptians were another major component of the Ptolemaic army, especially in later periods when they were conscripted en masse. The exact ethnic composition of the Ptolemaic army is unknown because ethnic names were sometimes used to denote rank or language instead of ancestral origin. Galatians and Nubians also served in more limited numbers.

Continue reading...

[whencyclopedia]

Library of Alexandria

The Library of Alexandria was established under the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt (323-30 BCE) and flourished under the patronage of the early kings to become the most famous library of the ancient world, attracting scholars from around the Mediterranean, and making Alexandria the preeminent intellectual center of its time until its decline after 145 BCE.

Continue reading...

[whencyclopedia]

Hellenistic Kingdoms c. 301 BCE, after the death of Alexander the Great

A map illustrating the Hellenistic World and kingdoms of the Diadochi (Alexander the Great's successors) c. 301 BCE