#Paulinus Press | Explore Tumblr posts and blogs

troybeecham · 3 years ago

Text

Today, the Church remembers Gregory of Nazianzus (c. 329– 25 January 390), also known as Gregory the Theologian, who was was a 4th-century Archbishop of Constantinople, and theologian. He is widely considered the most accomplished rhetorical stylist of the patristic age. As a classically trained orator and philosopher, he infused Hellenism into the early church, establishing the paradigm of Byzantine theologians and church officials.

Ora pro nobis.

Gregory made a significant impact on the shape of Trinitarian theology among both Greek- and Latin-speaking theologians, and he is remembered as the “Trinitarian Theologian”. Much of his theological work continues to influence modern theologians, especially in regard to the relationship among the three Persons of the Triune God. Along with the brothers Basil the Great and Gregory of Nyssa, he is known as one of the Cappadocian Fathers.

Gregory is a saint in both Eastern and Western Christianity. In the Roman Catholic Church he is numbered among the Doctors of the Church; in the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches he is revered as one of the Three Holy Hierarchs, along with Basil the Great and John Chrysostom.

He is also one of only three men in the life of the Orthodox Church who have been officially designated “Theologian”, the other two being the Apostle St. John (the Evangelist), and St. Symeon the New Theologian.

After his baptism at age 30, Gregory gladly accepted his friend Basil’s invitation to join him in a newly founded monastery. The solitude was broken when Gregory’s father, a bishop, needed help in his diocese and estate. It seems that Gregory was ordained a priest practically by force, and only reluctantly accepted the responsibility. He skillfully avoided a schism that threatened when his own father made compromises with Arianism. At 41, Gregory was chosen suffragan bishop of Caesarea and at once came into conflict with Valens, the emperor, who supported the Arians.

An unfortunate by-product of the battle was the cooling of the friendship of two saints. Basil, his archbishop, sent him to a miserable and unhealthy town on the border of unjustly created divisions in his diocese. Basil reproached Gregory for not going to his see.

When protection for Arianism ended with the death of Valens, Gregory was called to rebuild the faith in the great see of Constantinople, which had been under Arian teachers for three decades. Retiring and sensitive, he dreaded being drawn into the whirlpool of corruption and violence. He first stayed at a friend’s home, which became the only orthodox church in the city. In such surroundings, he began giving the great sermons on the Trinity for which he is famous. In time, Gregory did rebuild the faith in the city, but at the cost of great suffering, slander, insults, and even personal violence. An interloper even tried to take over his bishopric.

Theodosius wanted to further unify the entire empire behind the orthodox position and decided to convene a church council to resolve matters of faith and discipline. Gregory was of similar mind in wishing to unify Christianity. In the spring of 381 they convened the Second Ecumenical Council in Constantinople, which was attended by 150 Eastern bishops. After the death of the presiding bishop, Meletius of Antioch, Gregory was selected to lead the Council. Hoping to reconcile the West with the East, he offered to recognize Paulinus as Patriarch of Antioch. The Egyptian and Macedonian bishops who had supported Maximus’s ordination arrived late for the Council. Once there, they refused to recognise Gregory’s position as head of the church of Constantinople, arguing that his transfer from the See of Sasima was canonically illegitimate.

Gregory was physically exhausted and worried that he was losing the confidence of the bishops and the emperor. Rather than press his case and risk further division, he decided to resign his office: “Let me be as the Prophet Jonah! I was responsible for the storm, but I would sacrifice myself for the salvation of the ship. Seize me and throw me … I was not happy when I ascended the throne, and gladly would I descend it.” He shocked the Council with his surprise resignation and then delivered a dramatic speech to Theodosius asking to be released from his offices. The emperor, moved by his words, applauded, commended his labor and granted his resignation. The Council asked him to appear once more for a farewell ritual and celebratory orations. Gregory used this occasion to deliver a final address and then departed.

His last days were spent in solitude and austerity. He wrote religious poetry, some of it autobiographical, of great depth and beauty. He was acclaimed simply as “the Theologian.”

Throughout his life Gregory faced stark choices. Should he pursue studies as a rhetor or philosopher? Would a monastic life be more appropriate than public ministry? Was it better to blaze his own path or follow the course mapped for him by his father and Basil? Gregory’s writings illuminate the conflicts which both tormented and motivated him. Biographers suggest that it was this dialectic which defined him, forged his character and inspired his search for meaning and truth.

For those who, like you, seek the truth of God’s love above all things, even at great personal cost; for those called to the service of the Holy Church, but who do not truly find their rest within the machinations of institutions that are so often lead by those who seek personal glory; for sensitive souls like you who are placed in positions of authority, but are often misunderstood or ineffectual for lack of desire to rule over others, but rather desire to lead through teaching and preaching the wondrous mystery of God, by the pursuit of humility, by example of holiness of life, devotion to worship, prayer, and learning, and love for the God who is Love.

Amen.

#father troy beecham #christianity #troy beecham episcopal #jesus #father troy beecham episcopal #saints #god #salvation #peace #faith #early church #theology

4 notes · View notes

autodidact-adventures · 5 years ago

Text

English History (Part 6): Roman Britain

While the Romans didn't like the sea, they were greatly attracted to England for its wealth and surplus of corn. Caesar's invasion of 55 BC was more of a scouting mission; he said that he wanted to acquaint himself with “the lie of the land”. Britain was already a trading partner of Rome, and was rumoured to be rich in metal and wheat. Some of the British tribes were already allied with the northern Gauls, whom Caesar was fighting.

Several of the tribal leaders sent emissaries to him, as they were informed in advance of his preparations. Caesar sent an envoy in return, who urged the tribal leaders to collaborate with him.

The Romans set sail with two legions (each with about 5000 men) in 80 ships. They landed near Deal (Kent), where the English were watching them. There was a skirmish on the beach, which the Romans won, and the tribal leaders sued for peace.

But a storm arose, made worse by a high tide at the full moon. The Romans weren't aware of this phenomenon, and all their ships were damaged.

The English took the opportunity to attack, breaking the peace agreement. A number of skirmishes took place in the immediate vicinity of Deal. Caesar was hard-pressed, and knew that he had to retreat back across the water. He managed to get the ships repaired, and sought material aid from Gaul. He left, with many hostages from the English, vowing to return.

He returned the next year, this time with 800 ships, 25,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry. This was a proper invasion, and the English tribes, instead of warring among each other, were now united in the face of this threat. They chose Cassivellaunus, who was king of territory north of the Thames, as their war leader.

The English fought the Romans as they usually fought each other. There were warriors in chariots, on horseback and on foot, with each attacking & withdrawing at appropriate moments. Cassivellaunus had an army of 4000 chariots, and they had a specific strategy – the chariot-driver would drive to the front line, let the warrior jump out, and then retire and wait for him to return. According to Caesar, by steady practice the English “attain such proficiency that even on a steep incline they are able to control the horses at full gallop, and to check and turn them in a moment.”

But the discipline of the Roman army was enough to withstand all this. There were a number of battles, and then the English were forced to retreat into the woods. Caesar followed them, and destroyed Cassivellaunus' stronghold. The chieftains sought peace, and Cassivellaunus capitulated in the end. Caesar took hostages and tribute, and returned to Rome.

There wasn't another invasion for 90yrs, but the Romans had left their mark. Southern Britain was gradually Romanized, with tribal leaders beginning to import wine and luxury goods from Rome. The elites' dwellings began to change shape from round to rectilinear – strong evidence of cultural transition. The southern tribal leaders would have wanted to imitate the victors.

Some of them changed their allegiance and became the client kings of Rome. Strabo states that they sent embassies and paid court to Augustus (first Emperor of the Roman Empire), in order to gain his friendship. They exported grain, iron and slaves; and they imported glass vessels, amberware and other goods. Of course, they had to pay duty to the Roman state on these goods – an excellent way of binding them to Rome.

In the early 40s AD, the Atrebates (a Belgic tribe) were conquered, and their king Verica fled to Rome, appealing for help. Emperor Claudius was new to his position, and was yet to prove himself in the field. He now had the excuse he needed for the proper invasion of Britain, which came in 43 AD.

Four legions of about 20,000 men, under the leadership of Aulus Plautius, landed at two separate locations so as to confuse any English counterattack. The tribes dispersed, but rallied for a major battle by the River Medway, in south-east England. There the fighting lasted for two days, with the English (under the leadership of Caratacus) were being defeated. The exact location of the battle is not known.

Plautius sent for Claudius, who arrived two months later with 28 elephants. He stormed the native capital of Camulodunum, and Caratacus fled westwards. Eleven kings surrendered to Claudius, and he was celebrated for it when he returned to Rome. The Roman conquest of Britain had begun, but it would take nearly 40yrs for it to finish.

Camulodunum became the first Roman capital of Colchester. They built a great fort on the site of the native earthworks, as a token of dominion. The army then spread outwards in three directions – north, west and north-west.

Vespasian, leader of the western army, drove towards Wales and England's south-west peninsula, fighting 33 battles along the way. On the banks of Maiden Castle (a hill fort in Dorset), the body of a man with a Roman crossbow bolt in his spine has been found. By 49 AD, Roman soldiers were supervising mining operations in Somerset.

The other two armies proceeded slowly along already-existing roads such as Ermine Street. They built forts in areas they conquered, so that each tribal zone was dominated by at least one military settlement. By 51 AD, Cartimandua (queen of the Brigantes in the north) had become a client queen. She was receiving Roman wine in Roman vessels, and also building tiles.

Although Roman historians describe a smooth process of colonization, it is unlikely that it was as simple as that. They did advance steadily, but they were beset by tribal rebellions, and occasionally army mutinies. Ambushes, raids and battles were common. South of the Fosse Way (running from Exeter to Lincoln), all the land was under Roman control, but in the north it was more treacherous. Some tribes had divided allegiances, and some fought against each other.

The Fosse Way.

The Iceni, a tribe living deep within East Anglia (a pacified zone) revolted in 47 AD over the right to bear arms. It was put down easily.

King Prasutagus of the Iceni died in 60 AD, and the agents of the Roman provincial government tried to appropriate Iceni wealth. Boudicca, Prasutagus' widow, was flogged and her two daughters were raped. Boudicca rose up and led a rebellion against the Romans.

She gathered other English tribes into a confederacy and led her army southwards, burning and pillaging any evidence of Romanization, or the beginnings of it. They destroyed villas and killed inhabitants by the sword. The object of their advance was the capital of Colchester, which harboured hundreds of military veterans who had taken control of adjacent land. The English set the city on fire and destroyed it, and looted the shops.

The veterans sheltered in the central temple, but two days later they were overwhelmed and hacked to pieces. The English beheaded a great statue of Claudius and threw it into the river, and destroyed the temple itself.

They then moved further southwards, towards London. On the way, they sacked Chelmsford and St. Albans, and killed an entire legion.

Suetonius Paulinus was the Roman military governor at that time, and he had been campaigning in Wales. Well aware of the threat to his regime, he marched quickly back, but he didn't save London when he arrived there. He needed to focus on saving the whole imperial province, and to do that he had to pick the time & place for the battle.

Many London inhabitants hastily left the city, going further south to safety with pro-Roman tribes. Those who remained were killed – Tacitus states that 70,000 peoplle were killed in the attack. London was razed by fire, leaving a red level of oxidized iron that is still beneath the streets of modern London. 48 human skulls have been found embedded in the track of the Walbrook river.

Boudicca now went after Suetonius Paulinus, but the site of the battle is not known for certain. There were 10,000 Roman troops, and 100,000 English. The Roman legionnaires had a forest behind them, and a plain in front of them. The English ran across the plain towards them, but many were killed by javelins. Then the Romans began to move forward with shields and shortswords. It was their discipline that held them together, and slowly the tide began to turn against the English. 80,000 of them died during the battle, but only about 400 Romans. It was one of the worst massacres on English soil.

It is not know what happened to Boudicca after that. Some say she poisoned herself so the Romans wouldn't capture her; some say that she fell sick and died. There is a monument to her on Westminster Bridge.

The monument Boudicca and Her Daughters on the Westminster Bridge.

Now the Romans had to deal with the Druids, who had retreated steadily westwards, harried and pursued all the while. Their last stand was on the island of Anglesey (off the north-west coast of Wales). According to Tacitus, the troops crossed from the mainland, and were confronted by a “dense line of armed warriors along the foreshore, while women were rushing about between the ranks garbed in black like the Furies, holding up lighted torches.” The Druids stood close to the women, offering sacrifices, holding their arms in the air and screeching terrible curses. But they were killed, and their sanctuaries were burned down.

Once the east and south of England were pacified, Julius Agricola (the next Roman governor of England) focused on the north and west. He conquered Wales in 78 AD. In 79 AD he sent legions to the north-east (through Corbridge) and north-west (through Carlisle). He divided the enemy, and had a network of forts built so that he could supervise the tribes that had surrendered. These northern tribes were more hostile than the southern ones, and according to Tacitus, there were “many battles, some not unbloody”. The goal of the Romans was to create & control a northern frontier. To do this, troops were sent northwards to deal with modern-day southern Scotland.

York and Chester had permanent fortresses, with a legion each. Manchester and Newcastle were built around the site of Roman forts. Manchester's original name was Mamucio (after the Latin word for a hill shaped like a breast), and this was misread as Mancunio, and eventually became Manchester.

A series of nearly-straight roads were built to link the forts together. The Romans built garrison towns at Lincoln and Gloucester, in which retired legionnaires lived. A network of forts, encampments, defensive walls and defensive walls emphasized the Roman colonial presence. Posting stations (or staging posts) were set up on the main roads, and they eventually became villages.

According to Tacitus, one tribal chief complained that “our goods and money are consumed by taxation; our land is stripped of its harvest to fill their granaries; our hands and limbs are crippled by building roads through forests and swamps under the lash of our oppressors.”

The military zone (which included Wales and northern England) required a standing force of 125,000 men, But the legionnaires were not only Roman – during the first 100yrs of occupation, 40,000 soldiers were recruited from Gaul, Spain and Germany; and English soldiers also joined. The troops mixed with the native population, and within 2-3 generations, it had become a native army.

After the Emperor Hadrian's visit to Britain in 122 AD, Hadrian's Wall was built on his orders. It separated Roman England from the tribes of Scotland. Then in 142, the Antonine Wall was built north of Hadrian's Wall, separating south and north Scotland.

The Antonine Wall is in modern-day northern England.

The Romans had no intentions of advancing into the Scottish highlands. They had also dropped any plans for the invasion of Ireland. Now they focused on protecting their borders so they could enjoy peace. The land south of the wall was intensely cultivated, and a great agricultural regime was established on the Cumbrian Plain. England was once again as rich and productive as it had been during the Iron Age.

Romanization was gradual and local. In the countryside, people mostly stuck to the old ways, and Iron Age conditions prevailed. The towns was where things were different.

The administrative elite of English leaders worked in the towns. These men had welcomed (or exploited) the Romanization of the country, and the rising of Roman officials within it. With the advice of the Roman officials, they began to build temples, public buildings and public squares; they learned the Latin language; they began wearing togas. The children of leading English families were educated in the “civilized arts”, and some were even sent to Rome.

Bathing establishments and assembly rooms were built, and according to Tacitus, the English began to attend “smart dinner parties”. There were many more plates, dishes, bowls and drinking vessels than during the Iron Age. The English imported amphorae (storage vessels), which contained wine, olive oil, olives and fish sauce. Tacitus wrote that “they called it civilization when in fact it was part of their servitude”.

Fragment of an amphora found underneath a Roman road in Devon.

The old hierarchies still existed, now with Roman trappings. The landowners had coloni (tenants who were tied to the land). The trival leaders who owned extensive land and property were at the top; the large community of slaves at the bottom. The word servus (“slave”) eventually became the word “serf”. The social patterns of the Bronze & Iron Ages were still entrenched, now strengthened and deepened by the rule of a strong central power.

The Romans turned the old tribal regions into civitates (government districts). Each district had a central town, often the old tribal capital or oppidum, re-dressed in stone instead of wood. The centre of the town was represented by a forum complex of civic buildings.

Roman architectural forms were imposed, with monumental arches, sculptures, bath-houses and altars (for example). Many of these public buildings were constructed as part of a state initiative that continued well into the 100s AD. There would be a forum, temple, basilica and amphitheatre rising above the smaller buildings – closely-packed houses, workshops and shops, still mostly built out of wood and clay, and with earthen floors. Many of the houses were single-room lodgings; other buildings consisted of a shop at the front, a workshop behind it, and a room for living in at the back. Many wells & hearths have been found in the areas of settlement. Beyond the streets were the kilns, quarries, livestock enclosures and cemeteries.

A curia (council) of the larger landowners controlled the town's government, and they had many clerks and other officials. Kinship and tribal ties slowly transformed into group relations on an economic basis.

The larger towns were independent and self-governing. Magistrates & councillors dealt with things such as drainage, sanitation, and road re-paving. The most common Roman artifact found in England is the writing tablet.

The native elites began to build Roman-style villas in the countryside. The earliest of them (such as the one at Fishbourne, Sussex) were of very high status, probably for Romanized tribal leaders or great officials of the empire. They spread to other native leaders, with more modest villas being built in south-eastern England – appropriate for a wealthy landowner, or the most important family of an agricultural community.

Dolphin mosaic from the Fishbourne villa.

The villas had stone walls and expensive mosaics; there was also underfloor heating and window glass. Their roofs may have been made of ceramic tiles instead of thatch and wattle. Some (most?) of the smaller houses were plastered and decorated with wall paintings (plaster was used as external protection from the elements).

However, hill forts were still important, especially for England's leading families who had stayed closer to their social & cultural traditions.

At the beginning of the 100s AD, in Keston (Kent), an Iron Age farm was still being used. By the middle of the 100s a new wooden farmhouse was built, with painted walls. At the beginning of the 200s a stone house was built, with a Roman-style bath-house. There were wooden barns in the farmhouse, one of which was later rebuilt in stone. Ovens were used for malting or corn-drying, and the owner/s of the villa probably employed potters, blacksmiths and bronze-workers. There was an early Roman cremation cemetery, and a circular mausoleum from a later date. Romanization was gradual.

Bronze & Iron Age practices were kept on in the farming of the soil itself. In some regions (such as the south-west) old practices continued without any change. There is only evidence of change in the south-east, and only among the leaders. The Romans brought in cherries, figs and mulberries (all previously unknown); peas, cabbages and turnips first appeared during the Roman era. Even in the Romanized regions, the natives still preferred beef to pork.

Overall, most people were still living in the Iron Age, and would continue to do so for several centuries.

By imperial decree, the fens of East Anglia were drained, and reclaimed soil was made productive. Hundreds of villages and farms were established in a pre-ordained manner. The region became an imperial estate, with taxes for the central government. The prosperous Salisbury Plain also became an imperial estate.

Taxation included land tax and a poll tax, and it was the key of Roman exploitation. With the northern invaders, the cost of maintaining the army increased, so taxation increased as a result. The old tribal economy was changing to a monetary economy, and the Romans hastened this process. Imperial coinage replaced the old tribal coinage.

The Romans levied taxes on goods that were traded. Industrial centres (e.g. the potteries at the village of Castor in Cambridgeshire) altered parts of the landscape. Ironworks were established in all areas of England, and lead mines were in continuous use during the Roman era. Coal was used for working iron, heating the bath-houses, and the sacred fire at Minerva's temple in Bath.

There were two native woollen products in demand by the English people – the birrus Britannicus (a type of waterproof cloak & hood), and the tapete Britannicum (a woollen rug). The men wore cattle-hide jackets and leather breeches.

Also traded were bears and bulldogs for the Roman arena. It was said that Caesar had invaded England so he could get some exxcellent oysters.

In the early 200s AD, England was divided into two provinces. Brittania Superior's capital was London, and Brittania Inferior had York as its centre. (These were geographical terms, not implying that the former was better than the latter). These two provinces were later subdivided into four provinces, and then into five. The country was being closely administered and exploited.

Provinces in the 200s and 300s AD.

England's role changed as it became a settled part of the empire. The armies of occupation became armies of defence; they became naturalized, and had specific local/regional identities. Over 1/10 of the Roman imperial army was stationed in England, meaning that its forces had a lot of power over events in Rome. Mutinies and uprisings weren't uncommon.

In 268, Carausius (the governor of England) proclaimed himself Emperor, and took his forces to the continent. While he was away, the towns and cities of England took measures to defend themselves against potential reprises from Rome.

A century later, another Roman commander seized the province of England and declared it to be independent. A battle somewhere in central England dealt with this.

England had a lot of significance in imperial calculations, and it was worth a fight. Its taxes, ports and metals helped to sustain Roman commerce. Its agriculture, however, was what made England so wealthy and productive.

In 359 AD, the Emperor Julian organized a fleet of 600 ships to transport English corn to the warzones of the Rhine. England was now one of the “bread baskets” of Europe, and by the 300s AD it had never been so prosperous. The villas became larger and more luxurious, but social stratification increased as well. The Roman English controlled the Iron Age English.

The Scots and Picts were always pressing against the northern borders, but England's other frontiers also developed problems. The Saxon Shore is an alignment of forts in southern England whose purpose is not entirely certain. They may have defended the coast against Saxon invaders from north-west Europe; or they may have harboured Saxon fighters and traders – i.e. designed to protect the seaways between England and Europe.

The Saxon Shore (it had fortifications & military commands on both sides of the Channel).

Christianity was introduced to England in the 100s AD, but it was still a minority religion. The Roman English were now used to the Roman gods, and the Iron Age English probably still worshipped their old gods. Christian vessels & plaques from the 200s have been found in Huntingdonshire, near the River Nene, and are evidence of a local shrine (and the earliest examples of such vessels in Roman Britain). A Christian cemetery, around the same date, was found at Poundbury (Dorset). By the 300s AD, Christianity had spread as far north as Carlisle (in north-west England).

Constantine converted in 312 AD. He had been appointed Emperor at York in 306, and later seems to have considered England to be one of the spiritual centres of his rule. York was refashioned in honour of his elevation, and he visited England three more times. He styled himself on Britannicus Maximus (“The great victor in England”), and London was possibly renamed Augusta in his honour for a while.

Christianity was a monotheistic faith, and the emperor aspired to single rule. It had a uniform set of values & beliefs. It helped to support the legislative & bureaucratic forces of the central power, and the religion's followers were drawn from the governing class. The Romanized English were quick to embrace Christianity, and so Christianity became associated with the culture of the villas. It was also the religion of the administrative elite in the towns and cities, where there would be a bishop to care for the town-dwelling Christians.

In 314, three English bishops, a priest, and a deacon attended an ecclesiastical council in Arles (southern France). The bishops were from York, London and Lincoln, and the priest & deacon were from Cirencester.

At Tower Hill (London), remains of what may have been a Christian cathedral have been found. The building had marble and painted walls, and a holy well in the centre of the nave. This may have been the diocesan centre for Bishop Restitutus of London.

Evidence for a church has been found as Silchester as well, but there is little evidene for other churches during the 200s and 330s. The earliest churches lie beneath more recent ones.

Rome's frontiers were being threatened, and in many places they were overwhelmed. The Franks had entered northern Gaul, and the Visigoths were to settle in Aquitania. The pressure of the Scots & Picts was growing, and they had tribal allies among the Franks and Saxons. In 367, a northern force overcame Hadrian's Wall and moved southwards in dispersed bands to ravage the country. The commander of the Saxon Shore forts was murdered, and the provincial leader known as Dux Britanniarum was captured. Roman intervention and rebuilding helped, including the re-fortification of key posts. But it was a notable defeat for the English, and then the northern tribes came back 40yrs later.

At the beginning of the 400s, England was effectively stripped of its military forces, as they had gone off in search of glory – various pretenders were making bids for imperial power in Rome, weakening Roman rule. Rome's administrative machinery was beginning to break apart.

In England, the northern tribes attacked again in 408, and the Roman English had to defend themselves without the Romans. Zosimus, a contemporary historian, records that they “took up arms and, braving danger for their own independence, freed their cities from the barbarians threatening them.”

Not only that, but according to Zosimus, the English expelled their Roman governors and established their own administration.

Some Roman English would have wanted to retain the Roman administration, as it benefitted them greatly. Others would have wanted to get rid of it, because of taxation and coercion from the central government. In 410, one section of the English asked the Roman Emperor for arms and soldiers (it's unknown whether it was for fighting an external Saxon army, or another group of English). Honorius replied that the English must now fend for themselves – this was the end of Roman England.

Procopius of Caesarea (another historian) records that after the Roman officials disappeared, the cities and regions were taken over by “tyrants” or “usurpers”. They were probably the familiar English leaders, descended from tribal chiefs or large landowning families (but would have seemed like usurpers to Rome).

The English tribes and polities reacted to the end of Roman England in several ways. The Romanized English (in the towns and cities, with dependent estates all around them) probably formed themselves into self-governing administrative units, with the leaders of these small states still known as “magistrates”.

In the east and south-east of England (the civil zone), small kingdoms developed, defended by mercenaries. Those in eastern England had to use Germanic soldiers, which would cause problems for them later on.

In the more distant regions of England, where Romanization had never properly taken hold, the people returned to pre-Roman forms of social organization. The detachments that remained of the northern armies were grouped under a commander who became their chieftain. One of the first Roman leaders of the north was Coelius or Coel Hen, who became “Old King Cole” of the nursery rhyme.

There were general changes overall as well. Rome's taxation system was dismantled, and the countryside was now controlled by an aristocracy of landowners. The circulation of coinage decreased quickly because of the lack of imperial taxation. By 410, the large centres of pottery manufacturing had gone out of business, as the demand no longer existed. Brick-making disappeared, and wouldn't return to England until the 1400s. Villas were neglected or abandoned, and later settlers would use them.

The cities didn't decline, though – they merely changed their function. They were still administrative centres for the immediate area, and the local leader & bishop lived there. However, they didn't need the imperial façades of the 200s. The Silchester basilica was converted into a metal-working centre. There is evidence of rebuilding at York & Gloucester during the 400s. In the second half of the 400s, a new water supply with wooden pipes was introduced to Verulamium. So a civic organization was still in operation.

The Roman city of Wroxeter has been excavated in the fields of Shropshire, and it wasn't abandoned after the Romans left. The basilica was destroyed, and a large wooden hall built in its place – this hall became the centre for a complex of wooden buildings based on Roman models. Well into a medieval period, a prosperous and busy life continued on.

In the archaeologial strata of the 400s is a deposit, called “dark earth”, spread over many towns and cities. This is the residue of wattle-and-daub dwelling. The towns & cities during this century may have still been heavily populated, continuing on a commercial life.

Barter and local trading allowed for self-sufficiency. There was hand-made pottery, and quantities of clay have been found that may have been used for building walls. The farmers' and labourers' lives weren't changed at all by the change in leadership.

St. Patrick was taken by Saxon slavers at the end of the 300s AD, and his Confession of Saint Patrick shows that the affluent lives of villa-owners continued into the early decades of the 400s. He returned to England 6yrs later, and his father urged him to enter public service – for example, local rhetoricians were employed to guide the populace. There was some kind of a working polity based upon a Roman original.

Bishop Germanus of Gaul visited England in 429, and he was greeted by the leading men of Verulamium in a gesture of civic unity. These men were probably members of the diocesan or provincial council who had taken over the city's administration. According to Germanus, they were “conspicuous for their wealth, fashionable in their dress, and surrounded by an adoring multitude of people.”

One of the reasons for Germanus' visit was to help the English in their fight against the Picts and Saxons. However, many Saxons were already living in England, and had been doing so since the 200s AD. The urban & tribal elites needed Saxon warriors to defend their property, and many of these warriors married native women and settled down with their families. The Roman army in the north still had Germanic soldiers in it. There were Saxon traders in the towns and cities; and Saxon workers cultivated the land in Kent in exchange for occasional military service.

From the Iron Age onwards, the native English have been called “Britons”. However, that term is really only correct for the Atlantic English of the western coasts – these are the Britons who would migrate to Gaul and establish the province of Brittany; they spoke Celtic and Gaelic. There were also many Britons in the north, as a remainder of old tribal groupings.

Native English also lived in central, south and east England. However, they lived in the areas that the Saxon settlers would eventually dominate (sometimes peacefully, and sometimes by violent means). The name of England would come from one of these groups of settlers, the Angles. “Engla land” was the Viking description.

8 notes · View notes

latestupdates2022 · 3 years ago

Text

FG begins clampdown on illegal colleges of education across country

FG begins clampdown on illegal colleges of education across country The federal government on Tuesday, said it has begun clampdown on illegal colleges of education across the country. The Executive Secretary of National Commission for Colleges of Education, Prof. Paulinus Okwelle, who said this at a pre-press conference on a two-day national summit on the future of NCE programme in…

View On WordPress

0 notes

newshubnaija · 3 years ago

Text

Presidency 2023: Wike’s card gets clearer

Whether or not Governor Nyesom Wike of Rivers State would want to bid for the presidency in 2023 is becoming clearer. c The press statement from the Government House portal was issued by Amieyeofori Ibim, the special assistant (media) to the Commissioner for Information and Communications, Paulinus Nsirim. The statement announced that a political pressure group in Rivers State, the Akpor…

View On WordPress

0 notes

sageglobalresponse · 4 years ago

Text

Our recovery from Covid-19 pandemic fallouts must be innovative, says Osinbajo

Similar to what is going on in developed societies, how Nigeria harnesses and deploys technology and innovation to address emerging challenges will be crucial to the country’s recovery from the disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, according to Vice President Yemi Osinbajo, SAN.

Prof. Osinbajo stated this on Monday at the virtual conference of the Centre for Lion Gadgets & Technologies (University of Nigeria, Nsukka) themed “Technological Innovation for Holistic Sustainable Development”. The event also featured a virtual interaction between the Vice President and students both from the university and the secondary school in the UNN campus.

Speaking about the importance of technology and innovation in resolving society’s numerous problems, the Vice President said “we must creatively imagine and pioneer our way out.”

According to him, “we are in one of the worst health and economic crises in living memory and our recovery must be innovative – we must employ never-before-seen methods to fight the never-before-seen plethora of issues before us. Whether we are discussing the delivery of social services to vulnerable communities and promoting financial inclusion or we are talking about boosting agricultural productivity and promoting the security of our communities, how we harness technology is crucial.

“The future will be decided in groups such as yours, where young Nigerians are actively thinking about how to deploy technology in creative ways for problem-solving.”

The Vice President however noted that such innovative ideas must be deployed in a manner that is inclusive and accessible to all Nigerians including the poor and vulnerable.

“…in thinking about solutions to our developmental issues, we are expected to be both creative, relevant and ingenious, which is what innovation is all about. But we must also be faithful stewards of our environment, we must be inclusive, innovation must be accessible to all especially the poor and vulnerable.

“So, innovating for sustainable development involves creating environmentally friendly low cost and contextually relevant technological solutions to our most pressing challenges,” Prof. Osinbajo added.

In his words, “recently the Nigeria Climate Innovation Center concluded its Climate LaunchPad, and some very innovative ideas were unveiled. One of the innovator companies, New Digits, generates power from water, the product uses water and conformed solar cells to generate energy for electricity and cooking. It actually works by collecting water automatically from any piping channel in the house, breaks down the water into Hydrogen which is used to cook and to power the entire house without the need for batteries of any kind.”

He gave another example: “PowerStove Energy, founded by three young Nigerians, Okey, Abdulaezze and Glory. What they did was that they produced a low-cost, clean smokeless cookstove. PowerStove Energy is the first clean cookstove to be fitted with self-powered Internet of Things (IoT) cloud system to monitor in real-time, every day that cooking is done, the amount of Co2 that is used and biomass saved, black carbon prevented and total electricity generated. All of that is monitored in real-time every day.”

Continuing, the Vice President said “…everyone is turning to technology in search of new ways to solve age-old problems. So, we have health tech firms like 54Gene who are using technology to harness African genomic data and transform how we are able to study and diagnose diseases. This is so that you can grow up in a society where healthcare research can serve you better, an illustrative example of how technological innovation can be used for sustainable development.

“In education too, Covid-19 has showed us just how adaptive we can be and there are a number of ed-tech firms such as uLesson, where students can take lessons and tests on an app. If scaled, this could revolutionize how we approach challenges with access to education.”

Acknowledging that the relationship between industry and the Universities can be better, the Vice President pledged the support of the Federal Government to universities especially in enhancing their capacity for research and innovation.

He said “Government is prepared but the university needs to do more by being proactive in the links with industry. Industry, as you know, is interested in commerce. If it will make profit and money, industry is interested. I think that a lot of the innovations we are seeing are certainly profitable and can be lucrative. But where government can come in is where there are needs for additional support to make the research easier or cheaper for the public to access. So, I certainly look forward to the cooperation between the Federal Government and the University of Nigeria.”

Interacting with Nigerian Students drawn from both the University and the campus secondary school in the South-Eastern part of the country at the event, Prof. Osinbajo spoke about specific innovation project especially among young people across the country.

“We started the Students Innovation Challenge for all universities in Nigeria. We came as far as the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. There is a hub called the Genesis Hub where the competition took place for the South East. Three winners emerged from the University of Nsukka. And each of them got N1 million, and there were 25 of them that emerged winners at the competition. The Innovation Challenge is our commitment. We are committed to ensuring that innovation is done on a continuous basis,” the Vice President stated

Earlier in his remark, the Vice Chancellor of the University of Nigeria Nsukka, Prof. Charles Igwe, said the university has, over the years, prioritized the deployment of technology in achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Other participants at the conference include former Governor of Anambra State, Mr Peter Obi; Catholic Bishop of Awka Diocese, the Most Rev. Paulinus Eze Okafor, among others.

Laolu Akande

Senior Special Assistant to the President on Media & Publicity

Office of the Vice President

#osinbajo #vp osinbajo #nigerian

0 notes

jamesgraybooksellerworld · 5 years ago

Text

I’ve decided to list them chronologically,

[not by size or language or (God forgive me, Importance) or Price, or where they are on my shelf….while slightly arbitrary, it has some sense to it, I hope.]

Please enjoy.

James

1)- 355J Bible Saint Jerome, Biblia cum summariis concordantiis 1500

2) The (Catholic) New Testament Rhemes 1582

3) The 1611 King James ‘HE’ bible

4) 1774 Pocket King James Bible .

355J Bible Saint Jerome, Biblia cum summariis concordantiis 1500

The 1611 King James ‘HE’bible

1774 King James Bible .

#1 355J Bible Saint Jerome, Gabriello Bruno (active 1480-1514.);

Biblia cum summariis concordantiis : diuisionibus: quattuor repertoriis p[ro]positis: numeriq[ue] foliorum distinctione: terse et fidelit[er] imp[re]ssa.

[Lyons]: Jean Pivard, 29 Jan. 1500 & 1. $ 11,500.

Folio 10 1/2 x 7 3/4 inches inches, &8 ç8 , a8 [a1 blank and present] b6, c-z8 A-Z8 Aa8 Bb8; aa-cc8 dd10 [dd10 blank and lacking] . Bound in original full calf over wooden boards with 10 brass bosses. with many scribbled out ownership markings (frustratingly unidentified)

This Bible also includes the “Tabula alphabetica” of Gabriel Bruno, and notes on “translatores … Biblie”, and “modi intelligendi … scripturam”; at the end, “Interpretationes nominum hebraycorum”; with marginal references.

&1r [Title-page.] &1v [Pivard, Jean: Introductory letter addressed to the reader.] Incipit: ‘Ne nesciens et ob id ingratus sacrosanctam diuini verbi . . .’&1v ‘Pulchra et vtilis diuisio totius Biblie’. &1v ‘In tabulam primam de ordine librorum ad lectorem disticon’. Incipit: ‘Perspice nunc, lector, quis debitus ordo librorum’; 1 distich.

&1v ‘Prima quattuor tabulorum’. &2v ‘Tabula secunda continens libros Biblie per ordinem alphabeti’. &2v [Alexander de Villa Dei pseudo-]: ‘Tertia tabula’. Pref. no. 58. ,[con]1r Brunus, Gabriel: ‘Quarta tabula’.

ç 8r [Explanatory note about translators of the Bible and commentators.]

ç 8v ‘Modi intelligendi sacram scripturam’. a2r Hieronymus: [Letter addressed to] Paulinus [ep. 53]. ‘Prologus in Bibliam’.. On this edition see also Hillard, ‘Les éditions de la Bible’, 72-3.

Goff B604; ISTC: ib00604000; GW 4281; Pell (Lyon) 137; Copinger, Incunabula Biblica, 120; Darlow–Moule 6090; HC 3128; Proctor: 8670;Sheppard 6736; Pell; 2341.

FIVE US COPIES

1)Boston Public Library, 2)General Theological Seminary, 3) Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 4)Library of Congress, Rare Book Division, 5) Southern Methodist Univ., Bridwell Library (418 ff)

*§*

*§* *§*

The First English Catholic New Testament in English, printed at the seminarie at Rhemes

#2. 226J The Nevv Testament.

The Nevv Testament of Iesus Christ, translated faithfully into English, out of the authentical Latin, according to the best corrected copies of the same, diligently conferred vvith the Greeke and other editions in diuers languages; vvith arguments of bookes and chapters, annotations, and other necessarie helpes, for the better vnderstanding of the text, and specially for the discouerie of the corruptions of diuers late translations, and for cleering the controversies in religion, of these daies: in the English College of Rhemes.

Printed at Rhemes : By Iohn Fogny, 1582. $45,000

Quarto 218 x 165 mm a-c4, d2, A-Z4, Aa-Zz4, Aaa-Zzz4, Aaaa-Zzzz4, Aaaaa-Ddddd4, Eeeeee2. The First English Catholic New Testament in English This copy is bound in seventeenth-century calf, sympathetically rebacked, with an attractive gold-tooled floral motif to the board edges. Internally, this copy is in very good condition with clean leaves. There is a little foxing to the first two leaves and a few trivial marginal tears. The upper margin is cut a bit close but the text is never affected.

The title page is set within a decorative border; the text is adorned with ornamental woodcut initials throughout. The text is beautifully printed in Roman with printed annotations, marginal notes, arguments and chapter summaries in italic. “The ‘editio princeps’ of the Roman Catholic version of the New Testament in English. Translated from the Vulgate by Gregory Martin, under the supervision of William Allen and Richard Bristow. According to the “Douai Diaries”, Martin began the translation in October1578 and completed it in March 1582.

“The translation adheres very closely to the Latin, though it shows traces of careful comparison with the Greek. But its groundwork was practically supplied by the existing English versions, from which Martin did not hesitate t borrow freely. In particular there are very many striking resemblances between Martin’s renderings and those in Coverdale’s diglot of 1538. Martin’s own style is often disfigured by Latinisms.

“This Rheims New Testament exerted a very considerable influence on the King James version of 1611, transmitting to it not only an extensive vocabulary, but also numerous distinctive phrases and turns of expression. (See J.G. Carleton’s exhaustive analysis, The Part of Rheims in the Making of the English Bible. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1902.)

“Since the English Protestants used their vernacular translations not only as the

foundation of their own faith but as siege artillery in the assault on Rome, a Catholic translation became more and more necessary in order that the faithful could answer, text for text, against the ‘intolerable ignorance and importunity of the heretics of this time.’ The chief translator was Gregory Martin… Technical words were transliterated rather than translated. Thus many new words came to birth… Not only was [Martin] steeped in the Vulgate, he was, every day, involved in the immortal liturgical Latin of his church. The resulting Latinisms added a majesty to his English prose, and many a dignified or felicitous phrase was silently lifted by the editors of the King James Version and thus passed into the language” (Great Books and Book Collectors, 108).

Not only did Douay-Rheims influence Catholics, but also it had a substantive influence on the later creation of the King James Bible. (see below) The Authorized Version is distinguished from previous English Protestant versions by a greater tendency to employ Latinate vocabulary, and the translators were able to find many such terms (for example: emulation Romans 11:14) in the Rheims New Testament. Consequently, a number of the latinisms of the Douay–Rheims, through their use in the King James Bible, have entered standard literary English. Douay-Rheims would go on through several reprintings on both sides of the continent.

The translators of the Rheims New Testament appended a list of neologisms in their work, including many latinate terms that have since become assimilated into standard English. Examples include “acquisition”, “adulterate”, “advent”, “allegory”, “verity”, “calumniate”, “character”, “cooperate”, “prescience”, “resuscitate”, “victim”, and “evangelise”.

While such English may have been generated through independent creation, nevertheless the totality demonstrates a lasting influence on the development of English vocabulary. In addition the editors chose to transliterate rather than translate a number of technical Greek or Hebrew terms, such as “azymes” for unleavened bread, and “pasch” for Passover. Few of these have been assimilated into standard English. One that has is “holocaust” for burnt offering.

Pforzheimer, 68; Darlow & Moule 231; STC (2nd ed.), 2884; Herbert 177; Pierpont Morgan Library, The Bible 115; The Bible 100 Landmarks, 66; Bible in the Lilly Library 40.

∞/\∞

∞\/∞

#3. 210J KJV

The 1611 King James “The Great He Bible.”

FIRST EDITION OF THE AUTHORIZED VERSION

Arguably the most important book ever published in English.

KNOWN AS THE GREAT “HE” BIBLE, with the reading in Ruth III:15:

“he [referring to Boaz] measured sixe measures of barley and laide it on her; and he went into the citie.”

Title Page from 1611 King James Bible

The second pronoun “he” actually refers to Ruth, so it should read “and she went into the citie.” Because of this error, this first edition is often referred to as “The Great He Bible.” (after the Hebrew text), rather than “and she went” (after the Latin Vulgate) in the second edition. Also with all other first edition readings.

210J KJV

The Holy Bible, : conteyning the Old Testament, and the New: newly translated out of the originall tongues: & with the former translations diligently compared and reuised, by His Maiesties speciall com[m]andement. Appointed to be read in churches.

Imprinted at London : By Robert Barker, printer to the Kings most Excellent Maiestie. 1611 $230,000

Large Folio, 15 ¼ x 10 ½ inches : 732 leaves A6 B2 C6 D4 A-5C6; A-2A6}. complete

see below

DEscriptive positioning and condition of the signatures.

A-C⁶D²; (O.T. and Apocrypha) A-Ccccc⁶; (N.T.) A-Aa⁶unpaginated or foliated. The General title mounted and with c. 18 small holes, mostly from old attempts to ink out a prior ownership inscription; the next several leaves have rust-like marks resulting from the damage to the title just mentioned; the double page map is a facsimile. There is a strip is torn from the blank outer margin of X6 (Hebrews 12/3); a small piece is torn from the top of Aa5, removing most of a word of text and a word of the headline, recto & verso; Aa6 (the final leaf) was missing and is replaced in facsimile; the final leaves of the NT are increasingly worn and lack the crisp, clean nature of the bulk of the text. Generally the text is crisp and clean, BUT at both front and rear the top margin is shaved, especially in Exodus & Numbers & to the beginning of Deuteronomy (and again at the end of the NT) touching the rule and occasionally the top of the headlines (elsewhere the top margins are small); there is a dampstain at the top from mid-I Kings, retreating to the inner corner in the Prophets, but persisting there to the Gospels: there is a bit more general staining at the end of the NT; the bottom outer corner is a bit creased and dog-eared pretty much throughout, evidencing the use such a Bible received in its early days as a lectern Bible; the outer edge of the leaves is slightly abraded at a few points.

This copy is bound in full modern calf in an appropriate style, as you can see in the following Images.

Called “the only literary masterpiece ever to have been produced by a committee,”the King James Bible was the work of nearly 50 translators, organized in 6 groups. G.M. “The editors who passed the book through the press were Miles Smith … and Thomas Bilson …”, see Herbert.

Trevelyan stated “for every Englishman who had read Sidney or Spenser, or had seen Shakespeare acted at the Globe, there were hundreds who had read or heard the Bible with close attention as the words of God. The effect of the continual domestic study of the book upon the national character, imagination and intelligence for nearly three centuries to come, was greater than that of any literary movement in our annals, or any religious movement since the coming of St. Augustine.”

Brake-Hellstern Cencus (BHC) of He Bibles 2017 # BHC-119; Carl H. Pforzheimer Library 61; English Short Title Catalogue,; S122347; Pollard, A.W. Short-title catalogue of books printed in England, Scotland, & Ireland and of English books printed abroad, 1475-1640 (2nd ed.),; 2216; Herbert, A.S. Historical catalogue of printed editions of the English Bible, 1525-1961,; 309 Printing and the Mind of Man 114. ;Rumball-Petre, Rare Bibles, 122.

))0((

#4 King James version 1774

The Holy Bible, containing the Old Testament and the New: .

Oxford: printed by T. Wright and W. Gill: and sold by S. Crowder, London; and by W. Jackson, Oxford 1774 $2,000

This copy is housed in a a very nice probably original sheep skin covering. The book is neatly bound in full calf that was once read but has faded. The binding is nicely tooled .

There is an ownership bark on the verso of the fly leaf of J

James McClymont, January 24 1776.

Copies – N.America

American Bible Society LinkJohns Hopkins University, John Work Garrett LinkUniversity of Toronto, Library LinkZion Research Library, Brookline

A few interesting Bibles 1500-1774 I've decided to list them chronologically, Please enjoy. James 1)- 355J Bible Saint Jerome, Biblia cum summariis concordantiis 1500…

#1776 #Bibles #Fine Binding #First Catholic English New Testament #First King James Bible #Incunabula #King James Bible #KJV

0 notes

thisdaynews · 5 years ago

Text

Buhari’s resignation comment: Igbo group disowns Abaribe, asks him to apologies to Buhari or Resign as Senator.

New Post has been published on https://thebiafrastar.com/buharis-resignation-comment-igbo-group-disowns-abaribe-asks-him-to-apologies-to-buhari-or-resign-as-senator/

Buhari’s resignation comment: Igbo group disowns Abaribe, asks him to apologies to Buhari or Resign as Senator.