#Middle Paleolithic Period

[terryorisms]

Actually It Was This Hot 175,000 Years Ago

Published: July 21, 2023 8.28am EDT in The Conversation How I imagined life was like the last it was this warm, with the help of AI Author Darrell Kaufman, Paleoclimate Scientist, receives funding from the US National Science Foundation. As scorching heat grips large swaths of the Earth, a lot of people are trying to put the extreme temperatures into context and asking: When was it ever this…

[pumpking64]

After some (very justified) criticism to my definition of prehistoric (see tags) here’s another poll:

[howtofightwrite]

So second question. Quarterstaffs are a lot more dangerous than people realize right? Like…big long sticks with a bit more weight on one end are remarkably effective weapons. But my question is this…how risky is it to actually fight an armed opponent with one?

Because I’d imagine if you’re fighting someone say armed with a sword that the blade could slide down the staff and cut into your fingers or someone with a spear (which is essentially just a quarterstaff with a sharp pointy bit on the end) could potentially just whack yours out the way and stab you with it. That’s saying nothing about an armored opponent.

Would a metal quarterstaff be an effective weapon against armor? I seriously doubt a wooden one would be…then again if you had metal coating on one end or a little ball that probably ruin someone’s day should you whack them with it now wouldn’t it…hm.

Anyway, quarterstaffs. Good weapon or no? Also potential upsides to wood Vs metal staffs? Or potentially mixed staffs with mostly wood and metal bits…I’m rambling anyway bye

The staff is the parent of all polearms. The OG. The GOAT. Spawner of a billion martial styles in cultures and countries all over the world and remains a foundational part of many of them. It is also the parent of the sword. Many versions of the sword, especially early versions and two handed versions, share the same strike patterns and work off the same principles. If your character knows how to use a sword, they were more than likely trained to use a staff first.

For martial traditions, the staff is Baby’s first weapon. Is it a good weapon?

Oh, yes.

Is it risky to fight one?

Yes, it is risky to fight someone wielding a staff. While staves are most often overlooked by the general (mostly American) public due to their simplicity, they can be a very dangerous weapon. They can break bones, smash heads, knock loose teeth, bust internal organs, and they leave pretty deep bruises even with light or accidental training injuries. The most common staff training injury involves smashed fingers. Lots, and lots, and lots of smashed fingers. The strike pattern is also simple, easy to learn, and perfectly viable for self-defense without knowing more advanced techniques or having the luxury of devoting a lot of time to practice.

Staves (like the bow and the spear) are paleolithic weapons. Every culture on earth has their own version. The staff has combat applications that survive to this day due to their versatility and ease of use. They’re cheap(ish) to make compared to alternatives, easy to learn, ridiculously effective, and capable of holding off multiple opponents at once. (This includes people wielding swords.) Due to the lengthy period of time where they remained peak, it’s not a stretch to say staves are the most commonly used if not the most popular self-defense weapon in human history.

If you get outside American media, you’ll see staff weapons get a lot more prominent as a weapon of use because of the strong martial traditions associated with them. They’re also extremely prominent in myth. The staff really is the commoner’s weapon, which is probably the reason American fantasy tradition ignores it.

I’m not sure if you came into this question thinking quarterstaff meant all staves, or if your question specifically relates to quarterstaves. However, since you specified the quarterstaff, we’ll stick with that one. (There are other variants. They are legion.)

The quarterstaff is the English version from the Middle Ages. The name denotes a specific type of staff, usually about an inch in diameter and between six to nine feet in length. The quarter refers to “hand position” which would be about quarter up the length, and where the staff was held in this particular martial style. The quarterstaff is a short staff in medieval tradition, long staves were between eleven to twelve feet in length.

These were solid wood, usually cut from oak or yew. They’re not brittle. If that wasn’t enough, the ends were often also shod with iron. So, yeah… Yay, blunt force trauma. You could use quarterstaves against armored opponents, but there are better tools.

Staff Combat

You don’t normally swing a staff outside having a specific reason to hold it with one hand at the end to fully maximize its reach in a wide arc. You give up a ton of control to do this, and that makes it a risky move.

The staff is a weapon of leverage. You rotate it into forward strikes with your back hand, while using the front hand midway up the weapon as the guide. This allows the wielder to strike with both ends by using the back hand as a fulcrum. The basic strike pattern is an X, also across the body on either side, down on the head, up through the groin, you can thrust forward, and you can shoot the staff forward too. Shooting is basically throwing it with your back hand through your loosened grip to gain greater momentum and force when the front end strikes the opponent. It’s a controlled, short-range throw where the weapon never truly leaves your hands.

Hand position changes and adjusts on the shaft depending on how you’re using it. If you’re predominantly utilizing the front end for quicker, smaller movements and more precise strikes, the hands will be set wider apart with one in the middle and one closer to the end. If you’re planning to transition with strikes between the front and back ends, your hands will be closer together and utilize the shaft’s central balance point. This isn’t an either or, you can shift between positions and strike patterns in combat, which is part of the staff’s versatility as a weapon.

Due to the staff’s reach, the whole of your opponent’s body from their feet to their head is available as a target. Don’t discount the power of exterior strikes to the limbs, especially the joints. Most combat strategies start outward and work inward as the opponent’s defense begins to break.

The strike pattern occurs in simple strikes (tip forward or diagonal or side and back to hit again) or in a figure eight as you transition the weapon into various defensive blocks and strikes while moving it across in front of (or, more rarely, behind) your body.

Due to being able to use both ends, you can gain 360 degrees of protection without having to adjust your stance, your grip, or where you’re pointing the bladed end. This, in addition to its range, is why the staff is a better weapon than the sword for defending against multiple opponents.

Don’t swing. Rotate. Sweep. Strike. The staff doesn’t need big moves to generate force because the force of the strike is focused into the tip. Traditional staff combat maintains the same narrow focus around the body’s center that sword combat does. You can, for example, fight with a staff in a narrow corridor. It’s not ideal, but it’s doable and the staff is perfectly capable of maintaining your advantage over an opponent with a shorter weapon or no weapon at all. If you’re imagining the large, controlled spins of some Chinese martial arts, it’s important to remember that those staves are largely made from bamboo and different materials create different combat styles. Oak is, pardon the euphemism, stiff wood. It’s heavier.

The staff is also very fast because of the rotation of the back hand, deals a lot of force, and one never has to worry about maintaining an edge.

In simple terms when thinking about using a staff: block with the front end, then rotate the staff over across your body and clock your opponent across the face with the back end. Then rotate it over again and hit your opponent on the head or, don’t bother and thrust it into their face.

The Quarterstaff versus the Sword

With weapons, it’s important to remember that the concept isn’t about which does the most damage but which tool is the right or most effective tool for the job. Every weapon has situations where they shine and situations where they don’t. It’s contextual.

The staff has an advantage over the sword in one-on-one combat. Sometimes, if historical records are to be believed, in three on one combat. However, every weapon is dangerous in combat. This isn’t rock beats scissors. Disadvantages can be overcome.

For swords cutting through staves, think about it like trying to cut down a tree with a pocket knife. It’s not going to happen. Sword’s edge will nick or get stuck in the wood, so it’s not going to easily slide down to cut fingers. That’s if the sword edge can get into range to reach the fingers. Like all staves, the quarterstaff is a weapon where grip adjustment easily changes both reach and fighting style.

The medieval longsword runs between three to four feet. The quarterstaff is six to nine, and probably, most commonly, between seven to eight. If you transition to hold it at the end like one would a spear and primarily thrust, the reach advantage is maximized.

It isn’t necessary to do that, though. It’s combat where only one side has to worry about maintaining their edge, but that edge is still dangerous if they get close enough. Both are still going to be striking on the same angles and using the same circles.

Take the weapon out of the way and come back across into the strike.

The Spear vs The Quarterstaff

This is just staff combat where one has a pointy, bladed bit on the end and the other doesn’t. There’s actually not an extreme advantage here, though the wielder with the spear is probably going to prioritize their point for striking.

These two really aren’t different weapons. More likely to see smashed hands here.

Metal Staves

They exist. I don’t know if they existed in England though. They never gained popularity over the wooden ones because they’re more resource intensive and wood works better than fine anyway. Solid steel or hollow steel vibrate more than wood. One of the major considerations of staff combat is vibration. The weapon vibrates on contact which wears out your muscles and is hard on your grip. (You know, in case you thought constant movement was the only part that’d wear you out.) This is one of the side effects about not worrying over maintaining the sword edge. You can clang staves together the way you can’t with edged weapons, and that leads to a lot more vibration over a shorter period of time.

Staves with Metal Balls on the End

These also exist. They’re found on other polearm variants specifically designed to go after opponents in armor.

Every weapon has a place where it shines, and a place where it doesn’t.

So, where are staves outshone by swords and spears?

Warfare. Specifically, in military combat. They’re better at one-on-one combat and self-defense. There are just better, more specialized tools for military combat.

There is no best weapon. There’s just the right tool for the situation or circumstance. You can certainly take a staff into combat with an armored opponent (people did) and be successful, but there are better tools for the job. Spears are a better ground weapon in terms of attacking in formation, they work well when combined with a shield, and are a better defense against cavalry.

The irony about the sword is that it’s the original sidearm, it isn’t meant to be the primary weapon, and it is for close range fighting. So, it’s a great weapon when you’re packed into a tight melee, don’t have a lot of room, and need a weapon that works well without requiring a lot of space to build momentum. It’s also easy to carry around if you’re planning to sit down to dinner. It doesn’t take up a lot of space.

By reframing how you think about weapons from “does X amount of damage” like video games have trained us to do and think about them as contextually relevant, you’ll have a better understanding of how and why certain weapons were relevant and how they gained prominence throughout history.

-Michi

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[electrificata]

seeing old newspaper comic strips on the dash is weird unless its garfield or peanuts. if i journeyed deep into a cave once occupied by ancient ancestors of humanity (and only recently rediscovered because the shifting of the great plates of the earth had cut it off from surface access since the middle of the paleolithic period) and i lifted my torch and saw a garfield comic painted on the wall id just read it and chuckle. it would feel normal to me.

[noticiasarquelogicasjaponesas]

Welcome, japonistarchaeologists, to another chapter of this series in which we will move to the Yayoi period in the middle of prehistory, which would be equivalent to the Neolithic. It would be the continuation of the Jomon period but more sophisticated. - The Yayoi period takes place in the year 300 BC until 250 BC, which would be equivalent to the 4th and 3rd centuries. During this period, rice cultivation will arrive from the Korean peninsula and will arrive from the south through the Kyushu peninsula, where we can currently find one of the great archaeological sites of this period in the Saga prefecture. First of all, we have already talked about the Paleolithic in previous chapters. When I can, we will finish it to be able to cover in more depth the Jomon, Yayi, Kofun or protohistoric period until the formation of the Japanese state. - Sewerage in Neolithic Japan? Surely we think of systems such as those of Sumeria, Rome and China, but of course it was a fairly rudimentary but effective system that was used for rice irrigation, for defense and for the health of the villages. It should be noted that in the Yayoi period the clans emerged, which is why the tribal wars of the Neolithic began to emerge due to the fight for resources to see which clan had much greater power and resources. Once this is clarified, as I said before, it would be a very rudimentary technology, but very advanced for the time. Is it still in use? Yes, since from this period until today the Japanese have continued to use it and improve it with regard to the sewage system mentioned above. That is why when the Europeans arrived for the first time they were surprised by the high level of hygiene. - In future publications we will talk about this period and those already mentioned above. I will bring you archaeological news about the remains of these settlements and the location of the drainage system and what the most important sites are. All this and much more. See you in future publications on archaeology and Japanese history and geography until next time.

[inspofromancientworld]

The 'stone age' covers a vast span of time and can be loosely divided up into three general ages: The Paleolithic (the old stone age), the Mesolithic (the middle stone age), and the Neolithic (the new stone age).

The Paleolithic can be further divided into three general ages: The lower, middle, and upper Paleolithic. These cover from 3.3 million to 12,000 years ago, which also cover hominoid development from Homo habilis to Homo sapiens.

[Image text below]

Old Stone Age Chronology

01: Lower Paleolithic (3.3 million to 300,000 years ago) Pre-modern humanoids gathered into bands of hunter/gatherer societies that used knapped stone tools as well as wood and bone tools. Artistic expression begins with beads and ‘Venus’ figures. Early evidence of cooking. Evidence of rafts to cross bodies of water.

02: Middle Paleolithic (300,00 to 50,000 years ago) More control over stone tools using prepared cores, which allowed the development of weapons like spears and bows, allowing larger animals to be hunted and larger groups to be supported. Possible flute-like instruments made of bones. Clothing began being used.

03: Upper Paleolithic (50,000 to 12,000 years ago) Development of nets, bolas, spear throwers, as well as the development of pottery. Evidence of navigation as far as 60 km off-shore. Dogs domesticated to aid with hunting (perhaps as early as middle paleolithic). Earliest evidence of lunar calendars. Cave art painted.

04: Human development in this period During this time, the genus Homo developed from Homo habilis through Homo erectus, Homo neanderthalensis, and finally to Homo sapiens, which evolved approximately 300,000 years ago, though behaviorally modern humans evolved approximately 50,000 years ago.

[End image text]

[berrychanx]

TMMN Alien Society - Analysis

This is only based on little lore we know and is just my analysis and theory

Based on the landscapes,  the suken buildings, the vulcano in the background, the tropical plants etc, we can assume this was pre-modern humans Japan, Hunter-gatherers arrived in Japan in Paleolithic times,  30,000 BC but the Japanese archpelago dates back as far as 100,000 years.

Jōmon Culture ( REAL LIFE / EARTH EVENTS) Middle Jōmon (ca. 2500–1500 B.C.) This period marked the high point of the Jomon culture in terms of increased population and production of handicrafts.

Look who has lots of ceramic’s

handcrafts

The warming climate peaked in temperature during this era, causing a movement of communities into the mountain regions.

Late Jōmon (ca. 1500–1000 B.C.) As the climate began to cool, the population migrated out of the mountains and settled closer to the coast, especially along Honshū’s eastern shores. Greater reliance on seafood inspired innovations in fishing technology, such as the development of the toggle harpoon and deep-sea fishing techniques. This process brought communities into closer contact, as indicated by greater similarity among artifacts. Circular ceremonial sites comprised of assembled stones, in some cases numbering in the thousands, and larger numbers of figurines show a continued increase in the importance and enactment of rituals.

Final Jōmon (ca. 1000–300 B.C.) As the climate cooled and food became less abundant, the population declined dramatically. Because people were assembled in smaller groups, regional differences became more pronounced. As part of the transition to the Yayoi culture, it is believed that domesticated rice, grown in dry beds or swamps, was introduced into Japan at this time.

This all seems to tie perfectly with the alien race in Tokyo Mew Mew New.

Fauna: This goofy bird reminds me of a bird of terror

Phorusrhacids, colloquially known as terror birds, are an extinct family of large carnivorous flightless birds that were among the largest apex predators in South America during the Cenozoic era; their conventionally accepted temporal range covers from 53 to 0.1 million years ago. They ranged in height from 1 to 3 m.

 Aliens domesticating terror birds? BASED. But aren’t them specific to America? Yeah but this is an anime with aliens and magical girls and genetic modified humans XD so maybe terror birds could have existed in Japan in this timeline...or some regular herbivore bird simply evolved into a big BIRB. Well back to the main topic, the enviroment and climate change, like real life records show, this “region” climate began to warm so much it started raising the sea level.

But why some refuse to leave?

if we think of real life experience: wars and dramatic climate changes can lead people to find a new way to survive elsewhere or on the other side to stay and try to overcome the difficulties, ti is always been like that.

they're afraid of the unknown, what waits them out there may be worst than their fate on earth sentimental behavior,elders etc

My theory is that, they’ve sent a couple of aliens into the new world in order to build a decent new home for everyone, once their new home was established they would come back and take the rest with them.

But sadly the disaster occured too soon, before the previous team could have contact with the “aliens on earth”- Probably the human species could have develop from the previous “aliens” that survived and lost their “alien” characterisitcs or simply evolved the normal way real humans did

Source for Jomon culture

[maniculum]

Hi! This request isn’t really y’all’s area of expertise afaik but you seem like the sorts who’d either have a recommendation or a good idea of someone who might. I’m wrapping up a book I’ve been slowly making my way through (After the Ice by Steven Mithen) and I’m itching for more books on prehistoric humanity, especially late middle/early upper paleolithic but I’d be excited for a well researched and engaging book focusing on any time period leading up to the start of the Bronze Age. Would be most excited to read something highlighting one particular aspect of life or culture (without any screaming preference), as I’ve enjoyed the title I’m almost done with but it’s been kinda hard to retain much of because it’s so broad in scope 😅

Again, hoping that if you don’t have a specific title that jumps to mind you might be able to point me towards someone who would/directory of resources/general tips in finding reading material! Thx :)

After checking with Zoe, I can tell you that both of us are aware of Clan of the Cave Bear as a work in this genre but neither of us have read it so we really can’t recommend it one way or another.

And that’s… all we know.

So I’m posting this in the hope that someone out there knows more. (Either about that particular book or recommendations in general.)

[ffloorageorge]

One quill served as a reservoir for ink inside the other quill. Poverty is concentrated in rural Honduras, a pattern that is reflected throughout Latin America. Lending has likewise been encouraged by the creation of a guarantee fund, which allows banks to issue loans to eligible small- and medium-sized businesses without first requiring a large deposit or other collateral. One of the survivors of the resulting massacre is Henry, the son of a blacksmith. Ancient genomes show social and reproductive behavior of early Upper Paleolithic foragers. These appear to have been either converted Soviet or early production models, or simply cloned from these rifles. Edo first appears in the Azuma Kagami chronicles, that name for the area being probably used since the second half of the Heian period. Sri Lanka once held the highest team score in all three formats of cricket. They will not eat grain, which could be carried on the journey. When they catch up to Desther, he surrenders after a short battle. Despite making enormous progress in reducing the countrywide poverty incidence from 56 percent of the population in 1992 to 24. Street vendors in wheeled carts frequent residential areas or station on busy sidewalks near marketplaces or schools. A debt restructuring plan and the creation of a new currency in 1924 ushered in the Golden Twenties, an era of artistic innovation and liberal cultural life. After 2001, economic, political and geopolitical conditions improved greatly, and Bulgaria achieved high Human Development status in 2003. Romania was forced to cede Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to the Soviet Union on 26 June 1940, Northern Transylvania to Hungary on 30 August, and Southern Dobruja to Bulgaria in September. Prior to the coming of Oba Ewuare in the mid 15th century, the Ewu community was organized and governed by an ancient gerontocracy where a council of the oldest people called Edion administered the various communities that constituted Ewu, independently. According to figures communicated by the company in July 2018, the bikes are rented up to four times a day, representing 5,000 to 10,000 daily trips. However, the recovery from the plague led to a resurgence of cities, trade, and economy, which allowed the blossoming of Humanism and Renaissance that later spread to Europe. These enhancer regions can activate transcription of Ubx if the right combination of factors is present. In a brothel raid a year later there, a number of girls rescued from the 2003 raid were found to be involved again in sex work. The process, known as Pontypool japan, was first developed in the west by Thomas Allgood of nearby Pontypool and was taken on in Usk in 1763 by his grandsons Thomas and Edward Allgood. In 1974, the Haiti national football team were only the second Caribbean team to make the World Cup. As the existence of superheavy elements is very strongly dependent on stabilizing effects from closed shells, nuclear instability and fission will likely determine the end of the periodic table beyond these islands of stability. The main responsibility of the County Administrative Board is to co-ordinate the development of the county in line with goals set by the Riksdag and Government. Dafydd ap Gwilym is widely regarded as one of the greatest Welsh poets of all time, and amongst the leading European poets of the Middle Ages. The planned Long Thanh International Airport will have an annual service capacity of 100 million passengers once it becomes fully operational in 2025. The latest country Bhutan has established diplomatic relations with is Israel, on 12 December 2020. The latest forced disappearance involves three sisters from Abu Dhabi. These have led to widely applied advances in computer science, especially string searching algorithms, machine learning, and database theory.

[felisglacialis-stuff]

Fossil findings suggest cave lion hunting for fur in Spain, ~16.800 years ago

Here is a summary and some citations of the following paper:

Under the skin of the lion: unique evidence of upper paleolithic exploitation and use of cave lion (Panthera spelaea) from the lower gallery of La Garma (Spain).  Marián Cueto et al, 2016. PlosOne.

Links:

- The original paper - A printable PDF version - Popular scientific artible

The researchers carbon dated and analysed human caused cut marks on the distal phalanges (claws) of one cave lion individual found in Spain. The cut marks and location of the claw bones found in the archeological site, indicate the use of cave lion fur by which the claws are meant to remain attached to the pelt, although this is hard to confirm from fossil analysis. The results suggest that paleolithic humans living around 16800 BP in Spain hunted and skinned cave lions. The data are insufficient to draw conclusions about the scale in which this happened. The authors say that cave lion hunting could have been sporadic given the very few fossils found with human caused cut marks. However, they also say that by means of extrapolation from both archeological data as well as from data on modern lions, that cave lion (and generally large carnivore) hunting could have happened at larger scale which may have contributed to cave lion extinction in Europe. 

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Abstract (the author's summary) "Pleistocene skinning and exploitation of carnivore furs have been previously inferred from archaeological evidence. Nevertheless, the evidence of skinning and fur processing tends to be weak and the interpretations are not strongly sustained by the archaeological record. In the present paper, we analyze unique evidence of patterned anthropic modification and skeletal representation of fossil remains of cave lion (Panthera spelaea) from the Lower Gallery of La Garma (Cantabria, Spain). This site is one of the few that provides Pleistocene examples of lion exploitation by humans. Our archaeozoological study suggests that lion-specialized pelt exploitation and use might have been related to ritual activities during the Middle Magdalenian period (ca. 14800 cal BC). Moreover, the specimens also represent the southernmost European and the latest evidence of cave lion exploitation in Iberia. Therefore, the study seeks to provide alternative explanations for lion extinction in Eurasia and argues for a role of hunting as a factor to take into account".

Some citations from the discussion

"In Western Europe there are also cave lion fossils (e.g., (49) and references therein, (50, 51) but only a few has human modifications (52). Those remains with evidence of anthropic taphonomic damage indicate exceptional lion hunting events and exploitation related to use of the skin, tendons, and teeth as raw materials (14,27) ."

"An interesting note is that these marks are present in same zones associated with the modern veterinary operation of declawing (onychectomy surgery) of domestic felines (53). Moreover, this is also the technique used by modern hunters when skinning their prey when the aim is to keep the claws attached to the fur."

"The presence of carnivores in Pleistocene and Holocene sites is commonly associated with fur use (e.g. 54,65). The inferred exploitation patterns can be linked with large and small carnivore pelt exploitation (e.g., 15,17,19, 25, 66, 67), according to historic, ethnographic, and actualistic observations for fur procurement resulting in usable carnivore skins (68, 70), which are also applicable to the _LG_ cave lion remains."

"The hypothesis of the presence of a single lion would suggest a sporadic, isolated, and rare event of large carnivore hunting, as indicated (although other scenarios cannot be excluded, like scavenging) in ancient chronologies (15). However, the well-defined pattern inferred from the locations of the cut-marks and scraping traces permits us to infer an experienced procedure and a high knowledge of animal anatomy. Furthermore, the presence of the remains of other carnivores, such as bears (_Ursus arctos_), at the site that also show anthropic modifications, reveal the successful hunting of dangerous carnivores, as has also been observed at other Magdalenian sites (e.g., 52,67,82)."

"The potential linkage of the presence of a cave lion skin in such an archaeological context with ritual activities (35) allows us to infer a probable important role of the cave lion during the Magdalenian period among human groups."

“Although these remains are not sufficient to allow conclusive statements to be made, they sum the data to highlight the role of human activity in the extinction of carnivores, as has been suggested for other geographical areas, in addition to other factors such as climate change, prey numbers, or species replacement (e.g., 23-30)  also summarized in (31))."

"Modern case studies have demonstrated that a decrease in extant African lions can be related to direct human intervention through rapid habitat destruction, depletion of resources, and over-hunting (91,92) In this sense, we associate this well-defined lion skinning exploitation pattern from _LG_ with a previously practiced activity reached through intense hunting during the Upper Paleolithic. A tentative proposal might be to link this knowledge to an important role in human culture resulting in a key factor that should be taken into account to understand cave lion extinction."

Conclusion "In conclusion, we suggest that this outstanding evidence of specialized and patterned skinning exploitation of cave lions in the Upper Paleolithic, as inferred in _LG_, can be viewed as a complex hominin-carnivore interaction scenario. Its association with ritual activities provides key evidence for approaching behavioral issues in relation to cultural traditions and speculative alternative explanations to cave lion extinction during the Late Pleistocene, assuming a role for human hunting as a determining factor, among others. Further research will be needed to test this hypothesis, for answer to the questions addressed in order to contribute to the debate with new data, although the problem is a complex one."

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> The numbers are the references that you can find in the original paper. > I may post more summary/citation compilations like this about various topics.

[marxism-transgenderism]

The Great Lakes region—including the Ohio River valley, the area around the lakes themselves, and the Mississippi basin up to the edge of the Great Plains—was home to some of the bloodiest fighting and also some of the most aggressive and effective Indian resistance to colonization on the entire continent.

Our present mapmaking turns the lakes into a border between the United States and Canada, an upper limit, rather than the crossroads that they were. Moving from south to north, the Mississippi River and its twin tributaries—the Missouri and the Ohio, draining the west and east, respectively—point like a trident at the belly of the lakes. The lakes themselves draw water from as far west as northern Minnesota and bring it all the way to the ocean. To the north of the lakes, great rivers like the Rainy, Hayes, Severn, and Albany feed north into Hudson Bay and beyond into the Arctic. Seen this way, the Great Lakes and the land that rises on their northern and southern flanks are the confluence of a vast network of waterways. For Indians as far back as the Paleolithic they were the hub of the New World.

Migrating waterfowl, fish, and game have followed these waterways since the end of the last North American ice age twelve thousand years ago. The earliest Native peoples, who lived alongside the game on which they depended, used these waterways, too. By the beginning of the Woodland period in 500 BCE there was a vast cultural and technological network that followed the water, spreading knowledge along with the cultures that carried it. The use of the bow and arrow, pottery, plant domestication, architecture, and burial practices flowed from the Gulf of Mexico all the way up to north of Lake Ontario and back again. In the various climates found in this vast and fecund area native plants, including gourds, sumpweed, goosefoot, sunflower, knotweed, little barley, and maygrass, were cultivated long before the arrival of corn and beans. In the Middle Woodland period, what is known as the Hopewell culture (also called the Hopewell complex or Hopewell exchange network) arose. The Hopewell cultures typically made their homes in or near oxbows and floodplains that seasonally replenished rich planting grounds, aquatic food sources, and waterfowl. The villages could reach significant size and were surrounded by mounds of all shapes and sizes that were one of the hallmarks of the culture. The Hopewell Ceremonial Earthworks near Chillicothe, Ohio, for example, measures 1,254 feet long and connects thirty-eight mounds within an earthen rectangle measuring more than one hundred acres.

Most, but not all, mounds contained burials of staggering richness. (The purpose of many effigy mounds—like the Great Serpent Mound, southeast of Chillicothe, Ohio, the largest effigy mound in the world—remains unknown or, at the least, hotly debated among archaeologists.) The mounds themselves were constructed using large poles that supported a thatched roof. The deceased were placed inside the shelter and buried with an abundance of trade goods. In Ohio some mounds were found to contain thousands of freshwater pearls, mica, tortoise shells, Knife River flint (from North Dakota), and conch (from Mexico). The finds indicate that these communities were both well-off and well-connected. Around the burial structure, heaps of animal bones suggest that the dead were feasted in fine fashion by their relatives. After the feasting, the gathered goods were burned down and covered over with earth. Along with larger villages and greater economic and caloric security came an explosion in artistic expression. Hopewell Indians were expert carvers. One burial mound at the Mound City site in Ross County, Ohio, contained more than two hundred intricately carved smoking pipes.

But around 500 CE, the Hopewell exchange network, along with the large villages and the mound building, disappeared. So did the artwork. Populations seem to have gone into decline. No one knows why, exactly. Trade and commerce brought goods from all over the continent, but they might also have brought war: some villages from the end of the period were bounded by moats and wooden palisades. The climate grew colder, which may have made game grow scarce. Likewise, improvements in hunting technology may have caused a collapse in animal populations. Agriculture itself may have been a culprit: as of 900 CE, maize and beans were well established throughout the region, and the rise of agriculture could have generated a shift in social organization. Much later, the Mississippian period, from 1100 to 1541 CE, saw the advent of the bow, small projectile points, pottery, and a shift from gathering to intensive agriculture. Large villages replaced small seasonal camps. The largest Mississippian village was surely Cahokia, which was at its peak around 1050–1250 CE, situated at the confluence of the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers near present-day St. Louis, spreading over five square miles and with a population estimated to reach thirty thousand. One burial site there contained twenty thousand shell beads, another eight hundred arrowheads. That, too, went into decline and was abandoned. Whatever the cause, by the time Europeans arrived in the region in the mid–seventeenth century, Cahokia and similar settlements had been long abandoned.

While tribes in the Southeast, Southwest, and Northeast were involved in countless local struggles (and not a few large ones) with the Spanish, English, Dutch, and French, Indians west of the Appalachians had at first only fleeting contact with the newcomers. But as happened elsewhere, harbingers arrived first, in the form of trade goods and disease. Some of this arrived with waves of tribal newcomers as refugees from the coastal groups headed inland, sparking territorial conflicts well west of the Atlantic even before Europeans set foot in the contested territories. The political disruptions caused by masses of refugees were compounded by disruptions to seasonal hunting and gathering cycles brought on by disease. The time and energy it took to weave nets, knap spear and arrow points, set traps, spear fish, and weave material was lost to war, illness, and death. Native technologies had already evolved that were well suited to the worlds of the Indians who invented them, yet what was wanting were specialists to make and use that technology. European knives were no better at cutting. European axes were no better at felling. In the chaos of the times, it became expedient to trade for them rather than to make them. The increased reliance on European trade goods in turn caused more geopolitical conflict.

In times of upheaval as in times of strife and instability, the region was defined by its prehistoric routes and cultures. Jacques Cartier, exploring the Gulf of Saint Lawrence in the 1530s and early 1540s, did ship-side trading with Natives there, exchanging knives and kettles and the like for fur used in trim—unaware of the wealth waiting to be extracted from the Pays d’en Haut (Upper Country) in the form of beaver pelts. According to Cartier, the Indians he met “made frequent signs to us to come on shore, holding up to us some furs on sticks. . . . They bartered all they had to such an extent that all went back naked without anything on them; and they made signs to us that they would return on the morrow with more furs.” Basque fishermen—present since the 1490s—became deeply enmeshed in the beaver trade. Seasonal fishermen, operating on the Grand Banks as early as 1512, traded metal items for beaver furs, which would be sewn into robes to keep the sailors warm during their endeavors and then be sold back in France. It wasn’t long before beaver fur’s unique felting qualities dramatically increased European demand for it (the barbed strands clung to one another with extraordinary strength). This led to an increased focus on exploration into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, and the returning reports of a vast continent loaded with furs and Indians eager to trade drove Europeans deeper still into the interior, with a predictable increase in conflict.

The Iroquois Confederacy maintained a stranglehold on travel into the interior via the Great Lakes waterways, which meant, in the middle to late sixteenth century, control over all the trade in the region. Unlike the loosely affiliated Algonquian tribes and nonaffiliated Iroquoian tribes such as the Huron, they had access to trade goods: metal traps, kettles, axes, blankets, guns, shot, powder, and knives. Such items conferred a decided military advantage, and between the end of the sixteenth century and the full blossoming of the fur trade, the Iroquois were engaged in endless wars of advantage with their tribal neighbors to the east. They also managed to negotiate punitive trade deals with the French along the Saint Lawrence and the English down the Hudson.

The tribes to the west of the Iroquois were numerous and powerful but spread out over a vast territory. They included the Shawnee, Odawa, Potawatomi, Ojibwe, Sac, Fox, Menominee, Ho-Chunk (Winnebago), Osage, Miami, Dakota, Cree, Mandan, Arikara, Hidatsa, and Huron (to name but a few). With the exception of the Huron, who lived in large agricultural settlements on the north side of Lake Ontario and later near Georgian Bay and whose population numbered 20,000 to 40,000 or more, western Great Lakes tribes were broken into small mobile villages of around 150 to 300 people, organized by kinship ties. These were the Indians of storybook legend: plying the vast woodlands in birchbark canoes and treading the hushed forests in moccasins. They were primarily hunter-gatherers, though they, too, grew corn, beans, and squash. More westerly tribes such as the Ojibwe had also begun harvesting and cultivating naturally occurring wild rice—a swampy aquatic plant in the oat family that provided a very stable and nutrient-rich food source.

In 1608, Samuel de Champlain (the “father of New France”) pushed deeper into the Saint Lawrence and landed at the site that would become Quebec. As historian Michael McDonnell notes, Quebec was less a colony of settlement than the site of a warehouse and trading factory. Trading posts or factories—which in no way resembled factories as we know them—were combination free-trade zones, consulates, military garrisons, and settlements. European and American goods would be brought there, while Indian trade goods (usually furs and buckskin) were brought from the interior. The factory would be run by a “factor,” essentially a trader, and staffed with other traders who worked under him, along with craftsmen with needed skills, such as blacksmiths and tanners.

The hope at Quebec was to catch furs coming out of the northland and thereby bypass the British to the east and the Spanish creeping up the Mississippi from the south. The French mode of settlement was for Indians in many ways preferable to that of the British and the Spanish. Instead of following a pattern of conquest, subjugation, settlement, and displacement, the French, preferring to trade rather than to settle, were much more inclined to adapt to the new country and its inhabitants. The new outpost was deep in Indian country, and to survive it needed the help of its neighbors. The French began trading with the Huron: metal goods and guns in exchange for stores of surplus corn. The Huron maintained good trade relations with their Algonquian neighbors, the Odawa and Ojibwe, so that, while they themselves did not have access to furs, they had access to and good relations with those who did. A year after Champlain landed at Quebec, the Huron were trading with the French vigorously, then trading with the Odawa and Ojibwe in turn. It wasn’t long, however, before Champlain recognized that in order to get premium northern furs (and at a better price), he had to deal directly with the Odawa and Ojibwe.

As they say: Location, location, location. At this time the Odawa and Ojibwe (Anishinaabe) were located around Michilimackinac, which sat at the straits that separated Lake Michigan from Lake Huron, a day’s paddle from the outlet of Lake Superior and perhaps the most strategically important location in North America at that time. Control the straits and you controlled travel and trade for the majority of the continent. The location also suited the cultural prerogatives of kinship unique to the Algonquians of the region: they were principally exogamous and had a very well developed clan system. Children took the clan of their fathers and typically married out of their village into nearby villages and even other tribes. The son would move out of his family’s home and into that of his wife, bringing with him his clan and sense of relatedness. As a result, “family” became a large thing indeed and pulled populations of mobile and separate tribes into incredibly durable and mutually beneficial relationships over great distances. This well-woven network was an incredible boon in times of war and matters of trade. Moreover, Michilimackinac offered access to reliable food sources. The lakes in all directions mitigated the effects of latitude with a microclimate that allowed for corn production well north of its usual limit and supported an incredible diversity of plants and trees. Ash, oak, maple, elm, spruce, cedar, and white pine grew in profusion. The fall spawn of whitefish was said to be so intense that one could walk across the straits on the backs of the spawning fish. Villages tended to be seasonal and small—groups of usually no more than 150 relatives who lived in largely single-family wigwams, made from saplings driven into the ground and bent and tied together into a dome shape, then covered with woven reeds, cedar bark, birchbark shingles, or elm bark. These populations shifted between winter hunting grounds, spring fishing sites, sugar bush, and summer berrying locations. In summer, when insects were at their worst, villages shifted to high bluffs or rocky promontories to catch the breeze. In winter, when temperatures dropped below zero, as in the Northeast, families often consolidated into larger oblong wigwams or lodges to conserve resources and heat.

In this way the Great Lakes Indians made the most of their homelands in the heart of the heartland. They also had the benefit of timing: they were there at the beginning of the seventeenth century, when the fur trade blossomed into the first—and for centuries the most important—global industry. Their strong position allowed the allied Anishinaabe tribes (Odawa, Ojibwe, Potawatomi) to pressure the French to supply more than trade goods if they were going to be suffered to stay in the Pays d’en Haut. In 1609, they coerced the French into joining them in war parties against the Iroquois Confederacy, who were a constant threat on the southeastern flank of the Great Lakes. And so began a well-regulated pattern of trade.

By the late seventeenth century the Anishinaabe allowed the French to build forts and trading posts as far north and west as Michilimackinac itself, sustaining a seasonal cycle of trade in Indian lands. The French followed Ojibwe and Odawa trade terms and their cultural protocols for feasting and gift-giving. When they failed to comply or tried to dictate new terms, the Anishinaabe would court the British and trade with them until the French fell back in line. With such leverage, the fate of the Great Lakes Indians came to differ radically from that of Indians in tribal homelands everywhere else in North America. Even during the French and British conquest of the Great Lakes, and disease notwithstanding, the population of Algonquian tribes such as the Odawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi boomed, quadrupling between 1600 and 1800. The land base of the northern Algonquians expanded by a factor of twenty. Material culture, arts, and religion flourished. The strategic alliances and balance of power that inspired this “golden age” were nowhere more in evidence than in the attack at Pickawillany in 1752.

The French, after early successes in the seventeenth century, had been losing (globally and in North America) to the British. Piankashaw chief Memeskia, having grown dissatisfied with French trade goods and the French themselves, formed an intertribal coalition and began attacking the French. Many disaffected bands and individuals joined him. They formed a village at Pickawillany (at present-day Piqua, Ohio). They welcomed the British and allowed them to build a garrison and trading post nearby. Memeskia was becoming formidable, and his pan-Indian alliances threatened the balance among European powers so crucial to continued Indian control of the Great Lakes. If the British and French were kept wrong-footed, neither could consolidate their power and expand. With that in mind, the Anishinaabe played to their strengths and engaged in some furious diplomacy with their allies and their enemies. They warned the British that they were going to attack them in a general war. And they traveled from Michilimackinac by canoe to meet with the Onondaga Iroquois far to the east. The Iroquois Confederacy claimed the land in Ohio as their own, but they were in a tough place: they were allied with the British, and the British were trading and working with Memeskia. They gave the Algonquians their tacit blessing to remove Memeskia and his people, saying that they would “not permit any Nation to establish posts there; the Master of Life has placed us on that territory, and we alone ought to enjoy it, without anybody having the power to trouble us there.” In other words, they would not clear out the offenders, but they gave the Algonquians leave to do so.

In the winter of 1751–1752, Charles Langlade, a young mixed-race Odawa-French leader, began assembling a war party of Odawa, Potawatomi, and Ojibwe warriors who traveled by canoe south to Detroit and then upriver and over land to Pickawillany. They attacked the village in mid-morning on June 21, 1752, when the women were in the fields, and killed thirteen Miami men and captured five English traders. The survivors of the first assault fled back to a rough stockade, where Langlade and the Anishinaabe warriors fired on them for the better part of the day. Eventually the Miami, down to twenty or so warriors and low on water, tried to negotiate terms of surrender. Langlade said he wanted submission, not defeat, and said the survivors could leave if they promised to return home and if they handed over the English. The Miami failed, however, to honor the agreement, sending out only three of the five Englishmen. When they reached Langlade’s lines his men set on one of them, “stabbed him to death, scalped him, and ripped his heart out. They ate it in front of the defenders.” Then they seized Memeskia himself. They ordered the remaining defenders to stand and watch as they “killed, boiled, and ate Memeskia in front of his family and kinsmen.” Afterward, they released the Miami women they had captured and left for Detroit with the four captured Englishmen and more than $300,000 (in today’s money) of trade goods. This frontier victory against the English set off the First Anglo-Indian War, helped to ignite the French and Indian War, and was one of the sparks that began the worldwide conflagration known as the Seven Years’ War.

Whatever balance had been reestablished between the French and British in this region was lost during the Seven Years’ War, after which, for all intents and purposes, the French ceased to be a force in the New World. This left the British, who could be played off against the colonists only until the Revolutionary War, after which the Americans remained the sole colonial force in the Great Lakes region. This was the worst possible outcome for the Indians there. With the fur trade drawing to a close (by the mid-1800s the beaver was extinct east of the Mississippi), the Americans were free to force Great Lakes tribes into punitive treaties that reduced their territories, confined many to reservations, relocated others to Indian Territory (in what is now Oklahoma), and further eroded Indian influence. But while it lasted, the power of the Great Lakes tribes was immense, if underacknowledged. In part this is because these tribes, while they killed many French and English, didn’t engage in outright war with the new Americans. The cultural habit of negotiation (even from positions of relative powerlessness) persisted through the treaty period of 1830–1865. For this reason, as of 1891, Odawa, Potawatomi, Ho-Chunk, Oneida, Meskwaki, and Ojibwe tribes remained in their homelands around the Great Lakes in the same geographical range they had at the height of their power.

– David Treuer, The Heartbeat of Wounded Knee: Native America from 1890 the the Present

[rabbitcruiser]

International Sculpture Day

International Sculpture Day is observed on the last Saturday of April every year and this year, it falls on April 29. It is an internationally recognized holiday that commemorates the art of sculpture and sculpted works. Sculptures are a type of visual art that is three-dimensional. Stone sculptures have been proven to last significantly longer than other works of art made of perishable materials, and they account for the vast bulk of all surviving non-pottery art from ancient cultures to this day. Sculptures have always been a major component of religious devotion in many cultures, and enormous sculptures were commonly used to represent religion or politics until recently. The ancient Mediterranean, India, and China, as well as various cultures in Central and South America and Africa, have the most surviving sculptures.

History of International Sculpture Day

The first undisputed sculpture pieces came from the Aurignacian culture in Europe and southwest Asia, which was active at the start of the Upper Paleolithic period. This culture developed well-crafted stone tools, pendants, ivory beads, and other forms of art. They are also attributed to being the first to create cave art and three-dimensional figures.

The Löwenmensch, found in Germany’s Hohenstein-Stadel area, is an anthropomorphic figure carved from mammoth ivory. It is believed to be one of the oldest known uncontested examples of figurative art, standing at 0.9 inches tall. Most prehistoric art that has survived to this day is movable sculptures found throughout central Europe.

The Swimming Reindeer from around 13,000 years ago is one of the greatest Upper Paleolithic Magdalenian bone carvings, however, it is outnumbered by engraved pieces, which are sometimes considered sculptures. The Tuc d’Audoubert caves in France, where a talented sculptor used a spatula-like stone tool and his fingers to build a pair of large bison against a limestone rock tens of thousands of years ago, are home to two of the world’s largest prehistoric sculptures.

Much of the figurative sculpture in Europe at the beginning of the Mesolithic era has been greatly reduced. These sculptures have remained less of a common element in art other than relief decoration of practical objects until the Roman period, despite works such as the Gundestrup cauldron from the European Iron Age and the Bronze Age Trundholm sun chariot.

The Mesopotamian conquest, as well as much of its surrounding territory by the Assyrians, created a larger and wealthier state than was previously usual in the region, with particularly grandiose art in palaces and public places, clearly an attempt to match the glory of the Egyptian empire art. The Assyrians created their sculptures in great numbers using easily carved stones from Northern Iraq.

International Sculpture Day timeline

800—721 B.C The Assyrian Lamassu is Created

The Assyrian gate guardian sculpture, Lamassu, is created.

1513—1515 Michelangelo’s Moses Sculpture is Created

Michelangelo creates the sculpture of Moses sometime during these years.

1793 Crucifixion of Jesus Christ Sculpture is Created

The Spanish sculpture of the Crucifixion of Jesus Christ is made from wood and polychrome.

1998 Angel of the North Sculpture is Created

Sculptor Antony Gormley creates the sculpture of the Angel of the North.

International Sculpture Day FAQs

Which country is famous for sculpture?

The Western sculpture tradition originated in ancient Greece, and the country is well-known for producing great masterpieces during the classical period. During the Middle Ages, Gothic sculpture expressed the Christian faith’s agonies and emotions.

Does the date for International Sculpture Day change?

Yes. The date for International Sculpture Day is the last Saturday of April every year.

Where did sculptures originate?

The earliest sculpture samples belonged to the Aurignacian culture, which was in Europe and southwest Asia and was active at the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic period.

International Sculpture Day Activities

Visit a museum of sculptures

Make your own sculpture

Share on social media

International Sculpture Day is an excellent reason to visit any of the many sculpture museums and historical sites that feature beautiful sculptures. This is also a chance to learn more about the history of sculptures and their sculptors.

You can seize this opportunity and spark your creativity by building your very own sculpture using available and sustainable materials. You can create something meaningful that you can put on display in your home.

Use the hashtag #InternationalSculptureDay to share all of your activities for International Sculpture Day on social media! Take as many pictures as you can and tag your friends!

5 Interesting Facts About Sculptures

Sculpture is three-dimensional

There are various materials for sculpting

Sculptures have cultural and religious origins

There are two major types of sculptures

Stone sculptures are the most durable

A sculpture is a three-dimensional visual art, which makes it all the more “realistic.”

Unlike in the past, when sculpting materials were only limited to stone, bronze, and a few others, modernism has changed the order of things and a variety of materials can be used for sculptures.

Most prehistoric sculptures were born out of a reference to cultural, religious, and political themes.

There are two major types of sculptures which are “statues” and “relief” sculptures.

Most of the prehistoric sculptures and other art forms are stone sculptures.

Why We Love International Sculpture Day

Sculptures tell us stories

Art relaxes the mind

It is food for the soul

Most sculpture works have a story to them; either of religious, cultural, or political origin. International Sculpture Day allows us to learn about the history of sculptures and the artists who created them.

Creating art relaxes the mind. It allows people to showcase their passion by doing something they love.

Ever seen a sculpture or other work of art and felt so… filled? Exactly. Viewing beautiful art pieces is like food for the soul.

Source

[gravitasmalfunction]

"We have made the case that private property first appears as a concept in sacred contexts, as do police functions and powers of command, along with (in later times) a whole panoply of formal democratic procedures, like election and sortition, which were eventually deployed to limit such powers.

Here is where things get complicated. To say that, for most of human history, the ritual year served as a kind of compendium of social possibilities (as it did in the European Middle Ages, for instance, when hierarchical pageants alternated with rambunctious carnivals), doesn't really do the matter justice. This is because festivals are already seen as extraordinary, somewhat unreal, or at the very least as departures from the everyday order. Whereas, in fact, the evidence we have from Paleolithic times onwards suggests that many - perhaps even most - people did not merely imagine or enact different social orders at different times of year, but actually lived in them for extended periods of time. The contrast with our present situation could not be more stark. Nowadays, most of us find it increasingly difficult even to picture what an alternative economic or social order would be like. Our distant ancestors seem, by contrast, to have moved regularly back and forth between them.

If something did go terribly wrong in human history - and given the current state of the world, it's hard to deny something did - then perhaps it began to go wrong precisely when people started losing that freedom to imagine and enact other forms of social existence, to such a degree that some now feel this particular type of freedom hardly even existed, or was barely exercised, for the greater part of human history. Even those few anthropologists, such as Pierre Clastres and later Christopher Boehm, who argue that humans were always able to imagine alternative social possibilities, conclude - rather oddly - that for roughly 95 per cent of our species' history those same humans recoiled in horror from all possible social worlds but one: the small-scale society of equals. Our only dreams were nightmares: terrible visions of hierarchy, domination and the state. In fact, as we've seen, this is clearly not the case.

The example of Eastern Woodlands societies in North America, explored in our last chapter, suggests a more useful way to frame the problem. We might ask why, for example, it proved possible for their ancestors to turn their backs on the legacy of Cahokia, with its overweening lords and priests, and to reorganize themselves into free republics; yet when their French interlocutors effectively tried to follow suit and rid themselves of their own ancient hierarchies, the result seemed so disastrous. No doubt there are quite a number of reasons. But for us, the key point to remember is that we are not talking here about 'freedom' as an abstract ideal or formal principle (as in 'Liberty, Equality and Fraternity!'). Over the course of these chapters we have instead talked about basic forms of social liberty which one might actually put into practice: (1) the freedom to move away or relocate from one's surroundings; (2) the freedom to ignore or disobey commands issued by others; and (3) the freedom to shape entirely new social realities, or shift back and forth between different ones.

What we can now see is that the first two freedoms - to relocate, and to disobey commands - often acted as a kind of scaffolding for the third, more creative one. Let us clarify some of the ways in which this 'propping-up' of the third freedom actually worked. As long as the first two freedoms were taken for granted, as they were in many North American societies when Europeans first encountered them, the only kings that could exist were always, in the last resort, play kings. If they overstepped the line, their erstwhile subjects could always ignore them or move someplace else. The same would go for any other hierarchy of offices or system of authority. Similarly, a police force that operated for only three months of the year, and whose membership rotated annually, was in a certain sense a play police force - which makes it slightly less bizarre that their members were sometimes recruited directly from the ranks of ritual clowns.

It's clear that something about human societies really has changed here, and quite profoundly. The three basic freedoms have gradually receded, to the point where a majority of people living today can barely comprehend what it might be like to live in a social order based on them.

[...]

It seems to us that [the] connection - or better perhaps, confusion - between care and domination is utterly critical to the larger question of how we lost the ability freely to recreate ourselves by recreating our relations with one another. It is critical, that is, to understanding how we got stuck, and why these days we can hardly envisage our own past or future as anything other than a transition from smaller to larger cages."

-- The Dawn of Everything by David Graeber and David Wengrow

[extemporaneousmusings]

12/6/23

Pictured: a sketchy lil map I made for my class with the major Bronze Age Civilizations designated

Today I:

-spent the entire fucking day synthesizing prehistory from the Paleolithic Period --> the Bronze Age Collapse in the Middle East and Eastern Mediterranean. This is not my area of expertise, and in fact covers like 5 different distinct fields of study that I am not presently getting a PhD in. But I think my lecture is super solid and much better than the examples I was working off

-didn’t have to do anything for dinner, E took care of it entirely

-am going to wind down reading a wesper fic Jamila recced me!

[historyandmysteries1]

The Theopetra Cave is an archaeological site located in Meteora, in the central Greek region of Thessaly, Greece. Radiocarbon evidence shows for human presence at least 50,000 years ago. Excavations began in 1987 under the direction of Ν. Kyparissi-Apostolika, which were meant to answer questions about Paleolithic Thessaly, Greece. As a result of archaeological excavations that have been conducted over the years, it has been revealed that the Theopetra Cave has been occupied by human beings as early as 130000 years ago. In addition, evidence for human habitation in the Theopetra Cave can be traced without interruption from the Middle Palaeolithic to the end of the Neolithic period. This is significant, as it allows archaeologists to have a better understanding of the prehistoric period in Greece.!! https://www.instagram.com/p/CkwHFjWNVrR/?igshid=NGJjMDIxMWI=

[jordanandegypt]

Exploring Amman

September 14, 2024

Salam

Today the 8 of us under the leadership of our of fine trip leader, Nader, set out to discover Amman, a city of 5 million people that has been constantly inhabited for the last 10,000 years.  No easy task - but luckily we had all day.  So much to learn, to understand and to explore.   Of course I’m being facitious as it would take years to just study of history of this city - but we will try to get what we can with the time we have.

Amman is a city of hills - 7 to be exact.  Amman, Jordan is the world’s oldest constantly inhabited city, and if historical records are anything to go by, there have been people living in the region since 7250 BCE.  We drove around a tiny bit of this huge city and headed to the Citadel.  WOWZA!!   Most of the structures still visible at the site are from the Roman, Byzantine, and Umayyad periods.  The major remains at the site are the Temple of Hercules, a Byzantine church, and the Umayyad Palace.  

Behold the Roman Temple of Hercules.

I’m not going to lie here - I never heard of the Umayyad period - so it took some time for me to put this into my brain.

From Britannica:

Umayyad dynasty, (661–750) First great Muslim dynasty. It was founded by Muʿāwiyah I, who triumphed over the Prophet Muhammad’s son-in-law, ʿAlī, to become the fifth caliph. He moved the capital from Medina to Damascus and used the Syrian army to extend the Arab empire. The Umayyads’ greatest period was under Abd al-Malik (r. 685–705), when their empire extended from Spain to Central Asia and India. Their decline began with a defeat by the Byzantine Empire in 717

The roof is new - really new 1998!

The Byzantine church

As we have witnessed around the world, the conquering group destroys the conquered's most sacred building and rebuilds atop the ruins.  Nothing new here and we could see the different “level” in the work that is on-going on the Citadel.  Most of of the damage that we saw on The Citadel was from a major earthquake in 749 CE.

The Citadel has a wonderful very small museum and I enjoyed it greatly.  The following info is really for me - because this museum laid out by “ages.”  It was no surprise to see lots of artifacts from every “age."

These are the archaeological ages generally cited, particularly as they pertain to human history in the Middle/Near East:

Stone Age—2,000,000 to 3300 b.c.e.

Palaeolithic—2,000,000 to 10,000

Neolithic—10,000 to 5000

Chalcolithic/Copper Age—5000 to 3300

Bronze Age—3300 to 1200 b.c.e.

Early Bronze—3300 to 2200

Middle Bronze—2200 to 1550

Late Bronze—1550 to 1200

Iron Age—1200 to 586 b.c.e.

Iron i—1200 to 1000

Iron iia—1000 to 925

Iron iib—925 to 586

As I mentioned people have been in this area a VERY long time.

This little guy is from 6500 BCE!

BUT before I go on it is necessary for us to understand the following terms and how these “terms" plays into the history of Jordan.

The Lavent - literally meaning the lands east of the Mediterranean Sea - including Crypus.  Dark green in the picture below.

The Fertile Crescent

The Ottoman Empire

Colonization

OK - so what is up with the maps?  All of these maps are the land mass “Jordan” but the country of Jordan with its current day borders are new -  1946.

I lifted the info below from Wiki and I’m leaving in some of the links.  The reason I added this is to give you an idea of the long and complex history of this region.

Modern-day Jordan has been inhabited by humans since the Paleolithic period. Three kingdoms emerged in Transjordan at the end of the Bronze Age: Ammon, Moab and Edom. In the third century BC, the Arab Nabataeans established their kingdom centered in Petra. Later rulers of the Transjordan region include the Assyrian, Babylonian, Roman, Byzantine, Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, and the Ottoman empires. After the 1916 Great Arab Revolt against the Ottomans during World War I, the Greater Syria region was partitioned, leading to the establishment of the Emirate of Transjordan in 1921, which became a British protectorate. In 1946, the country gained independence and became officially known as the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan

The entire concept of “nationalism” is also new.  Prior to the establishment of “borders” - something the people in the region had little to do with - there was no such things as a “Jordanian.”  Nader told us that while his generation embraces being “Jordanian” his grandparents had no such belief.  

The Flag

The flag explained: 

Remember the official name is The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan - but the “region” that became Jordan was part of several caliphates over the years.  More maps…

The flag honors the history of the “Jordanians”. The 7 pointed star is for the 7 hills of Ammon and the 7 verses of Al-Fatah - the first chapter of the Quran.  Nad told us the verses and their meaning and it is about being a good human, humble, serving others  and asking for God’s guidance.  (Of course that is my take away and I mean no disrespect if I have left out things.)

So - on to the next thing - lunch.

We were welcomed with a small cup of coffee with cardamon  - delicious.

Then lots of bread and dips.  The hummus is out of this world!!!

We finished with barbecued lamb, chicken and kabobs.

Next we headed back to the hotel for some down time.  On the way we talked about water.  It is scare and very expensive.  All the buildings have water tanks.

The water tanks are filled by the city/region/municipalities on a certain schedule - usually one week, but where Nad lives it is every 3 weeks.  The tanks are metered and depending on the area and height of the building an additional water pump might be necessary to get the water to the tanks.  The plumbing for the water fill is internal. Water pressure remains a problem that prohibits the water from being free flowing. Water charges vary depending on usage and sometimes it is necessary to buy water from a water truck at a much higher rate.  The amount of tanks you get depends on the size of the family living in the home.  In Michigan, we take unlimited access of clean water for granted - no doubt -  and being in a region where water is so limited makes me appreciate that luxury.

Mark and I opted for naps during our downtime and then a short walk to around the hotel grounds and pool.  

At 18:00 we headed down to old town to experience the market and do a little people watching.  LOVE IT!

My conclusion:  Lots of smokers!!  Nad told us about 25% of women smoke and 50% of men.  I never saw a woman smoking during our walk.  Smoking - FYI - is allowed in restaurants!  🤮.   Variations on clothing range from supper conservative - to western ware but still quite modest.  We saw woman wearing niqab, chador and hijab head coverings - but most often it was the hijab.  

They come in lots of beautiful colors and prints.  We also saw plenty of women wearing no head covering.  

Men - just looked like men, wearing whatever they wished although we did see a few men wearing a Thobe.

All were shopping and seemingly enjoying theirselves. Again - I see we have more alike than different

We saw a Mosque that has been in use for centuries and we were lucky enough to be standing right in front of it as call to prayer was announced.

We finished the evening in a little restaurant that specialized in falafel.  Let me just say YUM - and although I can’t have any of the bread options, I am not going hungry and trying to deal with my hatred toward my fellow travelers who are mopping up all the wonderful side dishes with their wonderfully smelling bread. (Just kidding - kinda)

I’m not sure when we got home - but we were tired.  I did some research of things I had experienced during the day - then went to bed.  Our first full day in Jordan was spectacular!!

Salam.