#Indian Treaties

[todaysdocument]

Treaty Between the United States and the Quapaw Indians Signed at St. Louis, August 24, 1818.

Record Group 11: General Records of the United States Government

Series: Indian Treaties

File Unit: Ratified Indian Treaty 96: Quapaw - St. Louis, August 24, 1818

Image description: Detailed map of the area of Arkansas River and Mississippi River, with boundaries of red and blue;  with an eagle on top left carrying olive branch in its beak; a Native American with a peace pipe on the left, presumably of the Quapaw tribe, pointing to the inscription:

Map of the Territorial Limits of the Quapaw cession

Compiled & Laid down by Rene Paul

August. 1818

Transcription:

[image: Detailed map of the area of Arkansas River and Mississippi River, with boundaries of red and blue;  with an eagle on top left carrying olive branch in its beak; a Native American with a peace pipe on the left, presumably of the Quapaw tribe, pointing to the inscription:

Map of the Territorial Limits of the Quapaw cession

Compiled & Laid down by Rene Paul

August. 1818]

A treaty of Friendship, Cession and Limits made and entered into this twenty fourth day of August Eighteen hundred & Eighteen, by and be-

tween  [between] William Clark and Auguste Chouteau, Commissioners on the part and behalf of the United States of the one part, and the Undersigned Chiefs,

and Warriors of the Quawpaw Tribe or Nation, on the part and behalf of this said Tribe or Nation of the other part. -

 Art: I: The Undersigned Chiefs and Warriors for themselves and their s'd [said] Tribe or Nation do hereby acknowledge themselves to be under the protection of the United States, and

of no other State, Power, or Sovereignty whatsoever.

 Art: II: The Undersigned chiefs and Warriors, for themselves and their said Tribe or Nation do hereby, for an in consideration of the promises and stipulations herein after named, Cede

and relinquish to the United States forever, all the Lands within the following boundaries, viz: Beginning at the mouth of the Arkansas River, thence extending up the Arkan-

saw  [Arkansaw] to the Canadian fork and up the Canadian fork [to its source, thence south to Big Red river and down] that river to the Big raft, Thence a direct line so as

to strike the Mississippi River, thirty Leagues in a straight line below the mouth of Arkansaw, together with all their claims to land East of the Mississippi, and north of the Ar-

kansaw river, included within the couloured lines, 1, 2, and 3 on the above map: - with the exception and reservation following: that is to say, the tract of country bounded as follows;

Beginning at a point on the Arkansaw river opposite the present post of Arkansaw, and running thence a due South West course to the Washita river, thence up that river to the

[in pencil, faint] mouth of the Saline [/] Saline fork, and up the Saline fork to a point from whence a due North East course would strike the Arkansaw river [insert] at the little rock [/] and thence down the right bank of the Arkan-

[in margin, circled] 2-9 [/] saw to the place of beginning, which S'd [said] tract of land, last above designated and reserved, shall be surveyed and marked off, at the Expense of the United States, as

any State or Nation, without the approbation of the United States, first had and obtained.

 Art III; It is agreed between the United States, and the said Tribe, or Nation, that the individuals of the S'd [said]Tribe or Nation shall be at liberty to hunt within the Territory by them

ceded to the United States, without hindrance or molestation so long as they demean themselves peacefully and offer no injury or annoyance to any of the citizens of the United

States, and until the S'd [said] United States may think proper to assign the Same, or any same or any portion thereof, as hunting grounds to other friendly indians.

 Art IV; No Citizen of the United States, or any other person shall be permitted to settle on any of the lands hereby allotted to and reserved for the S'd [said] Quawpaw Tribe, or Nation, to live and

hunt on; Yet, it is expressly understood and agreed on by and between the parties aforesaid, that at all times the citizens of the United States, shall have the right to travel

and pass freely without toll or exaction through the Quawpaw reservation, by such roads or routes as now are, or hereafter may be, established.

 Art V; In consideration of the cession and stipulations aforesaid the United States do hereby promise, and bind themselves to pay and deliver to the s'd [said] Quawpaw Tribe, or Nation, immediately

upon the execution of this Treaty, Goods and Merchandise to the value of Four Thousand Dollars, and to deliver, or cause to be delivered to them yearly, and every year, Goods and Mer-

chandise [merchandise] to the value of One Thousand Dollars to be estimated in the city, or place in the United States, where the same are procured, or purchased.

 Art VI; Least the friendship which now exists between the United States, and the Said Tribe, or Nation should be interrupted by the misconduct of individuals, it is hereby agreed, that

for injuries done by individuals, no private  revenge, or retaliation shall take place, but instead thereof, complaints shall be made by the party injured to the other. - By the Tribe, or

nation aforesaid, to the Governor, Superintendant of Indian Affairs, or some other person, authorized or appointed for that purpose, and by the Governor, Superintendent, or other person authorized

to the [crossed out] said [/] Chiefs of the S'd [said] Tribe, or Nation. And it shall be the duty of the Said Tribe or Nation, upon complaint being made as aforesaid, to deliver up the person or persons against whom the complaint is made, to the end that he or they may be punished agreeably to the Laws of the State or Territory where thee offence may have been committed; And in like manner, if any robbery,

violence, or murder, shall be committed on any indian, or Indians belonging to the Said Tribe, or Nation, the person, or persons so offending shall be tried, and if found guilty,

punished in like manner as if the injury had been done to a white man._ And it is further agreed that the chiefs of the said Tribe or Nation shall to the utmost of their power

exert themselves to recover horses or other property which may be Stolen from any citizen or citizens of the United States, by any individual or individuals of the Said Tribe, or

Nation, and the property  so recovered shall be forthwith delivered to the Governor, Superintendent, or other person authorized to receive the same, that it may be restored

to the proper owner. And in cases where the exertions of the Chiefs shall be ineffectual in recovering the property stolen, as aforesaid, if sufficient proof can be obtain-

ed [obtained], that such property was actually stolen by an indian, or indians belonging to the Said Tribe, or Nation, a sum equal to the value of the property which has been stolen, may

be deducted by the United States from the Annuity of S'd [said] Tribe or Nation. And the United States hereby guarantee to the individuals of the Said Tribe, or Nation

a full indemnification for any horse, or horses, or other property which may be taken from [insert] them [/] by any of their citizens; Provided, the property so stolen cannot be recovered, and

that sufficient proof is produced that it may actually stolen by a citizen or citizens of the United States.

 Art VII; This Treaty shall take effect and be obligatory on the contracting parties, as soon as the same shall have been ratified by the President of the United States,

by and with the advice and consent of the Senate.

[left column]

Done at St Louis in the presence of

[signed] R. Wash   Secretary to the Commission

[signed] R. Paul  Col. M. M.

    C. I.

[signed] Jn Ruland  Sub Agent & c

[signed] R Graham Ind Agt

[signed] M  Lewis Clark

[signed] J. T. Honore   Ind Intpr

[signed] Joseph Bonne   Interpreter

[signed] Julius Pescay

[signed] Stephen Julian, U.S. indn interpt.

[signed] James Loper

[signed] William P Clark

[middle column]

[signed] Wm Clark

[signed] Aug. Chouteau [seal]

Kra-ka-ton, or  }

the dry man  }  his + mark [seal]

Hra-da-paa, or   }

the Eagles Bill }  his + mark [seal]

Ma-hra-ka,          }

or Buck Wheat   }  his + mark [seal]

Hon-ka-daq-ni   his + mark [seal]

Wa-gon-ka-datton   his + mark [seal]

Hra-das-ka-mon-mini, }

or the Pipe Bird              }  his + mark [seal]

Pa  tonq  di, or the         }

approaching Summer  }  his + mark [seal]

Te hon ka, or the   }

 Tame Buffaloe   }  his + mark [seal]

[right column]

Ha-mon-mini              }

or the night walker   }  his + mark [seal]

Washing-tete-ton       }

or mocking bird bill  }  his + mark [seal]

Hon-te-ka-ni   his + mark [seal]

Ta-ta-on-sa  or          }

the whistling wind  }  his + mark [seal]

Mozate te   }  his + mark [seal]

[decolonize-the-everything]

Have you heard of the American Indian Movement? Did you know natives had a movement/group in the 70's-80's dedicated to native liberation?

No? It's a part of history they don't teach you in school, but come close and look so I can show you.

Watch this, it's not long I promise. This is Russel Means, a prominent native activists and one of the leaders of AIM. AIM sought to help natives with things like tribal sovereignty, housing, healthcare, and food security.

Here he is testifying to the US government.

The transcript ^

A little excerpt of the end:

"The American Indian people’s right to self-determination is recognized and will be implemented through the following policies:

The American Indian individual shall have the right to choose his or her citizenship and the American Indian nations have the right to choose their level of citizenship and autonomy up to absolute independence;

The American Indian will have their just property rights restored which include rights of easement, access, hunting, fishing, prayer, and water;

The BIA will be abolished with the American Indian tribal members deciding the extent and nature of their governments, if any;

Negotiations will be undertaken to exchange otherwise unclaimed and un-owned federal property for any and all government obligations to the American Indian nations, and to fully -- and to hold fully liable those responsible for any and all damages which have resulted from the resource development on or near our reservation lands including the -- including damages done by careless and inexcusable disposal of uranium mill tailings and other mineral and toxic wastes.

I want to thank you, gentlemen, for inviting me here. It's been a high honor, especially since I'm the only one invited here today to testify that doesn't receive money from the federal government. Also, I want to make -- I was introduced as a former founder and leader of American Indian movement to the tribal chairwoman that you have here, a former associates for the American Indian Movement back in the days when we were gross militants and so I just wanted to let you in on that, that the American Indian Movement is a very proud continuing part of American Indian Society.

Thank you."

"The American Indian Movement remains based in Minneapolis with several branches nationwide. The organization prides itself on fighting for the rights of Native peoples outlined in treaties and helping to preserve indigenous traditions and spiritual practices. The organization also has fought for the interests of aboriginal peoples in Canada, Latin America and worldwide. “At the heart of AIM is deep spirituality and a belief in the connectedness of all Indian people,” the group states on its website."

[neechees]

My mom saw this White looking lady selling stuff like beadwork I think on facebook & when my mom asked her if she was Native, this lady was like "I'm a status Indian under treaty 13!"

[clove-pinks]

After a lot of driving back and forth on Anthony Wayne Trail—named for General "Mad" Anthony Wayne himself, Revolutionary War hero and apparently a Founding Father—we made it to the Fallen Timbers Battlefield and monument.

Our first stop (by accident) was the actual battlefield site, which has a plaque, a few nature trails, and a visitor's center that wasn't open.

I know this is the battlefield site, because it's right next to a mall called "The Shops at Fallen Timbers." Yeah, they built a shopping center adjacent to/basically on top of one of the most important sites commemorating the Northwest Indian War (1785-1795), which saw the United States defeating a confederacy of Indigenous peoples and their British allies, opening a huge territory to US settlers.

It prefigures the War of 1812, which involved the same Chippewa, Lenape, Ottawa, Potawatomi, Miami, Shawnee, Wyandot, United States, and British belligerents. The 1795 Treaty of Greenville, which followed Fallen Timbers, set aside large tracts of northwest Ohio for Indigenous use.

It was edifying to read the 1795 Treaty of Greenville, which names the Indigenous nations I've included from a list on a monument at the site as well as "Eel Rivers, Weas, Kickapoos, Piankeshaws, and Kaskaskias." (Make of the spelling what you will, because the Treaty even spells European names wrong e.g. Fort Lawrence instead of Fort Laurens). The Treaty carves out a number of exceptions for land in the territory ceded to U.S. forts, and a guarantee of free passage between the forts.

Obviously this is very significant in the War of 1812, which mostly took place in a region of Ohio that was granted to Indigenous people not even a generation earlier. William Henry Harrison, military leader and politician, was known for his manipulative and deceptive agreements that kept putting lands into U.S. hands without honoring past treaties. It's a lot of interconnected conflicts between opponents who are already familiar with each other (Harrison, Tecumseh, and Procter come to mind, but it goes even deeper).

I feel a lot of sympathy for the settlers and even the U.S. military personnel engaged in these conflicts; but this park is a rather one-sided presentation of a complicated history. There is an attempt at including more of the Indigenous perspectives, which is something that I think needs a lot more attention in Western War of 1812 history. They wouldn't make a monument like the 1929 Anthony Wayne memorial again.

Fallen Timbers Battlefield is confusing to locate because the historic site with the 1929 monument is also in the wrong place. Only in 1995 did researchers uncover the real location of the battle (near the present-day shopping center).

The GPS took me on some unnecessary adventures, but as you can see, people have been getting this wrong for over 200 years.

We didn't go walking on the trails (at either park), although it was a warm sunny day. I would like to do that in the future. I think you can still see some of the actual fallen timbers (trees knocked over by a tornado) on the real battlefield 230 years later!

[midnightfunk]

Meanwhile, the federal government’s intent to strip Native American tribes of their territories had only grown. In 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act authorizing President Andrew Jackson to trade unsettled western lands in exchange for Native-held lands east of the Mississippi.

Remind me, who did tfg admire so much?

[if-you-fan-a-fire]

"... the discourse of criminalization fails to capture the complexity of the relationship between the First Nations and the criminal law, because it directs our gaze only to the criminalized and away from others. As with Peaychew, many forms of engagement with the criminal law are described in this book. I have found cases in which First Nations individuals laid Informations against white men as well as men from their own communities, alleging different types of offences, such as theft and assault; cases in which Aboriginal women and girls appeared as informants and witnesses and charged white and Métis men, as well as men from their own communities, with forms of sexual interference with, or “carnal knowledge” of, them or their daughters; cases in which only a handful of First Nations women and girls appeared as accused persons, charged with or implicated in the theft of small items, such as a tea kettle from an empty house, a silver spoon from an empty schoolhouse, the clothes that First Nations children were wearing when they ran away from the industrial school, or, in the case of Betsy Horsefall and Benjamin Gordon, in the theft of a horse that Betsy said was hers.

Perhaps the strongest argument of this book concerns the form and content of law and reflects my long-standing commitment to the importance of attending to the specificity of different legal forms and the relationship between them. The book represents a sustained call for a more precise definition and use of the concept of criminalization, one in which distinctions between criminal law as a legal form and other forms of law are recognized, and that seeks to apprehend the contexts, circumstances, and sites in which actions and practices of Aboriginal peoples were prosecuted – as crimes or as regulatory or other statutory offences.

Some of the historical literature reveals a certain imprecision with respect to the definition and scope of criminal law. Many scholars adopt a wide approach to criminal law, in which all legal forms that have an air of compulsion, coercion, or sanction are coloured with a criminal law brush. Recent work examining the efforts of the Canadian state to restrict and curtail traditional forms of Aboriginal expression and activity, including dances and ceremonies, hunting, and fishing, uses the language of criminalization to characterize them. For instance, a now iconic exemplar of criminalization is said to be found in amendments to Indian Act in 1884 that prohibited particular kinds of dances and celebrations (such as the potlatch in British Columbia). For the Plains First Nations, the most expansive and relevant Indian Act restrictions were introduced in an 1895 amendment to s. 114 that prohibited dances involving giveaways and wounding or mutilation. Although historical evidence implicates the police as well as Indian Department officials in efforts to enforce the prohibitions and prosecute these offences, the historical evidence also indicates that these prohibitions were resented, resisted, and ignored as well as only occasionally and unevenly enforced (indeed, they were almost unenforceable) on the ground. In any event, these provisions fell outside the ambit of criminal law.

Admittedly, caution is in order here. Interdisciplinary scholarship in socio-legal studies argues for a broader notion of crime – one that challenges the historical preoccupation with crimes of individual wrongdoers and the historical neglect of crimes of the powerful, including the state and corporate actors and institutions, as well as the historical neglect of the experience of the environment, culture, and entire communities as victims of forms of seldom criminalized violence. If one proceeds with criminal law narrowly construed (excluding some of the coercive provisions of the Indian Act, for instance), one may risk proceeding with too narrow an understanding of crime. The importance of critical engagement with a self-referential notion of true “criminal law” cannot be denied. The content of criminal law is neither universal nor transhistorical; and, importantly, criminalization is not self-evident.

The process of criminalization occurs when people are criminally prosecuted and convicted for forms of conduct that have become defined by the state as crimes. It may encompass the extension of criminal law over formerly non-criminal behaviour, or it may involve the systemic targeting, overpolicing, and criminal prosecution of particular groups and communities for particular kinds of offences. Inevitably, it is intended to express and enforce social denunciation for socially injurious conduct. In legal scholarship, it is important to be attentive to the analytic distinction between legal and extra-legal forms of compulsion and legal coercion, between prohibition and regulation, and between committal and conviction, in order to precisely identify the nature of the law under discussion.

To insist upon specificity in the scope and definition of criminal law need not lead one to an uncritical acceptance of the legitimacy of its norms. It is important, however, to be attentive to questions of form, content, and diversity of legal instruments deployed by the state, many of which contain offences but which do not involve the denunciation and sanction normally associated with criminal law.

An important and related line of inquiry concerns the way in which legal historians have or have not addressed the specificity of the two legal regimes of the Indian Act and the criminal law, and the sites of intersection between the Canadian government’s “Indian policy” and the criminal law component of its national policy. The Indian policy of the Canadian government intensified over the last two decades of the nineteenth century with the introduction of increasingly oppressive amendments to the Indian Act.

In recent work examining the efforts of the Canadian state to restrict and curtail traditional forms of Aboriginal expression and activity, the language of criminalization has been invoked. For some scholars, the prohibition of some forms of religious ceremonies and dances, together with special practices and policies, such as the pass system, offer evidence of the nature of the Canadian state’s treatment of Aboriginal peoples. For the most part, these initiatives occurred under the legislative auspices of the Indian Act or the administrative initiatives of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs and his Indian Agents in the field. It has become commonplace in some of the literature to refer to the criminalization of Indians and Indian religious celebrations.

There are other voices in the historical literature that offer different emphases. It is significant, in my view, that one recent study expressly devoted to law, colonialism, and First Nations addresses the struggle over the right to fish and the regulatory framework, including offences, of the Fisheries Act. Nowhere in Douglas Harris’s careful study of the restriction and regulation of the Aboriginal fishers of British Columbia does he characterize the process as one of criminalization. Similarly, Katherine Pettipas’s equally rigorous study of the interference with and prosecution of First Nations ceremonies on the Prairies characterizes government policy as one of regulation.

We can also, however, find instances and forms of NWMP resistance to federal Indian policy. Pettipas’s carefully researched study of the regulation and repression of indigenous religious ceremonies on the Prairies provides irrefutable evidence of the legalized campaign of repression of forms of religious celebrations. Nevertheless, although her work demonstrates the lengths to which the government went to circumscribe and curtail these forms of religious expression, including the prosecution and imprisonment of a number of Aboriginal celebrants, she also notes that some members of the NWMP actually ignored orders to prevent dances and instead facilitated the events. Both Pettipas and John Jennings cite Stipendiary Magistrate Macleod’s refusal to convict Indians who had been arrested for performing a sun dance. Macleod, a former commissioner of the NWMP, is said to have delivered “a scathing rebuff” to the police who had made the arrests, likening their conduct to having made an arrest in a church.

In sum, Pettipas’s study of the regulation of Plains Indian religious ceremonies evinces a nuanced analysis, showing the uneven and contradictory tensions that accompanied this damaging legislative initiative. She reminds her readers that only some forms of dances and celebrations (those involving “giveaways”’ and “piercings”) were prohibited by the Indian Act; that because of its vagueness, the police often declined to enforce the infamous s. 114 of the Indian Act; and that even Indian officials were of the view that a prosecution should be undertaken only as a last resort. It is also clear that some First Nations people were prepared to “test” the strength and limits of the law.

In conclusion, the “self-evidence” of criminalization is a trap for the unwary. Criminal law becomes all law; criminalization becomes an umbrella that covers all manner of legal forms (from liquor violations, to hunting and fishing offences, to the Indian Act, and sometimes even criminal law). In critical legal historical work on criminal law, criminal law is depicted “in one dimensional terms” – criminal law “acts against” subordinate people (women, indigenous peoples, workers, and so on). This is the dominant account in the critical literature – inequalities of class, race, and gender are reinforced as the criminal law bears down on those brought before it. And yet some of the literature may also be read to offer a more relational notion of criminal law, even in a colonial context."

- Shelley A. M. Gavigan, Hunger, Horses, and Government Men: Criminal Law on the Aboriginal Plains, 1870-1905. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press for the Osgoode Society, 2012. p. 19-22

[occvltswim]

'Digging for the Red Roots' by Mahir Adal-Razzaaq El — “Native American contact with Islam began over one thousand years ago...”

[johnschneiderblog]

By any name, a beautiful day

If I didn't know any better, I would say that a beautiful Indian summer day descended, out of the blue, upon our patch of earth Tuesday.

After a string of wet days and low temperatures in the 30s, Monday's sunny 77 degrees was a balm for our rain-weary souls.

But I can't call it "Indian summer." The term is now considered offensive because originally it meant “false summer” - an implication that Native Americans were deceitful, as in “Indian giver." (How ironic, given the U.S. Government's history of broken treaties with the Natives).

The American Meteorological Society suggests that we refer to summer-like weather that comes after October’s first hard frost in northern climes as “second summer.” Depressingly bland.

Anyway, it looks like we'll get a couple of more reasonbly warm days before fall continues its march toward winter.

[psyfi]

in case you were worried about being out of touch or uninformed, dw, you're doing better than the lady who asked me at work today with no awareness whatsoever where all the native americans went when the colonies became states

[todaysdocument]

Ratified Indian Treaty 19A (first and last pages), April 11, 1793. 

This treaty with the Six Nations (Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, Mohawk, and Tuscarora) included this wax Great Seal of the State of New York. 

Record Group 11: General Records of the United States Government

Series: Indian Treaties

Image description: A circular seal, just over three inches in diameter, made of wax covered with paper. Depicted in the center is a sun with a face, rising over hills. Below the hills is “EXCELSIOR”. Around the border of the seal is “THE GREAT SEAL OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK”. There is a hole through the seal at the top. 

Image description: Reverse of the circular seal. In the center are spiky rocks jutting out of the water. There are letters at the top of the border, but it’s difficult to see what they say. At the bottom of the seal is an ink “X”. There is a hole through the seal at the top. 

Transcription: 

1)

The People of the State of New York, by the Grace of God, Free and Independent: To all to

whom these presents shall come, Greeting  Know ye that We having inspected the Records remaining in

our Secretary's Office do find there certain Indian Deeds recorded in Book of Indian Deeds commencing

in the year 1748 in the Words Characters and figures following, to wit, "To all to whom these presents

"shall come or may concern: Know ye that We Peter Ojistarare, Johan Jesry Towahangaraghkou, Rawhistoni,

"Paul Tewasgwadeghkow, John Skanondonagh of the wolf tribe, Peter Oneyanha, Joseph Kanaghsaterhon, Cornilius Okonyota, John Onontiyo, Nicholas Sagoyatokare of

"the Turtle Tribe; Lodowick Kaghsaweta, Paul Kanyatashayea and Peter Agwirontongwas of the Bear Tribe,

"Sachems and chief Warriors of the Oneyda and Tuscarara Nations, by and with the advice and consent and in

"the presence of the said Nations at a public Treaty held at Fort Herkimer in the county of the Montgomery with

"his Excellency George Clinton Esquire Governor of the State of New York and the other Commissioners of In-

"dian Affairs of the said State for the consideration of the sum of Eleven Thousand five hundred Dollars

"in Goods & Money to us in hand paid at and before [illegible] ensealing and delivery of these presents, the receipt whereof

"We do hereby acknowledge  Have Given, Granted, Bargained and Sold, and by these presents  Do fully freely and

"Absolutely Grant Bargain and Sell unto the People of the State of New York all that certain Tract of Land situate

"in the said State and on the West Side of the Line commonly called the Line of Property established at a

"Treaty held at Fort Stanwix in 1768, and on the North Side of the Pensylvania Line, Beginning at the

"Mouth of the Unadilla or Tianaderha River where the same empties into the Surquchanna River, thence up

"the said Unadilla or Tianaderha River ten Miles measured on a straight line, thence due West to the Chenen-

"go River, thence Southerly down the said Chenengo River to where it empties into the said Sasquchanna River

"& to the said Line called the Line of Property, thence along the said Line to the place of Beginning so as to comprehend

"all the Lands belonging to us the said Oneyda and Tuscarora Nations lying South of the said Line to be run from

"the said Unadilla or Teanaderha River to the Chenengo River and North of the Division Line between this State

"and the State of Pensylvania, Together with all Ways, Waters, Water courses, Rivers, Riverlets, Creeks and Streams

(of)

[page 2]

16.)                     

"Onaakaronton his x mark LS Tehoghweakaronto his x mark LS Kaghnunrayen his x mark LS Agwirontong-

"waghs his x mark LS Anonghsighraghtha his x mark LS Oniatariyoo his x mark LS Kaneyaggh his x mark

"LS Geo: Clinton LS Pierre Van Cortlandt LS Ezra L Hommedieu LS Abm Ten Broeck LS Peter Gansevoort-

"Junr. LS Richd. Varick LS Witnesses Present Sam Kirkland Missry. Interpreter John Lansing Junr. Jos.

"Brant, David Hill, John Tayler, Malachi Treat, Abm Hardenbergh, Peter Otsiequette, Aghwistonisk his x mark,

"Oneyanka his x mark, Coll. Honyery his [mark] mark, Oneida Chiefs. Onangaiekhon his x mark, Fhoghnawayen

"x Senekas. - Be it Remembered that on the Twenty fifth day of November in the year one thousand seven hundred and

"ninety one before me John Sloss Hobart one of the Justices of the Supreme Court of the State of New York came Samuel Kirkland,

"Clerk, Missionary and Interpreter to the Six Nations of Indians, who made oath that he was present and did see the Twenty

"-Eight Sachems, Chiefs and Warriors of the Onondaga Nation of Indians whose names are written opposite to their respec-

"tive Seals severally seal and deliver the within written Ratification as their Voluntary act and deed for the purposes and uses therein mentioned,

"he having previously thereto faithfully and truly interpreted the Contents of the same from the English into the Indian Language unto the said

"Sachems, Chiefs and Warriors in such a manner that it was fully understood by them and that he also saw the Commissioners on the part of the

"State of New York in the said Ratification Mentioned severally seal and deliver the same as their Voluntary act and deed for the purposes and

"uses therein mentioned, and that John Lansing Junr. and the Eleven other persons whose names are signed as Witnesses were present and did see

"the said parties Seal and deliver the said Ratification; and I having Examined the same and found no material alteration therein do al-

"low it to be recorded Jno. Sloss Hobart. The preceding Instrument refers to the Treaty recorded in pages 150 & which is dated the 12th.

"of September 1788, and is a true copy of the Original, Examined and compared therewith this 5th. day of April 1793 (the words "alias Land Car-

"rier" in page 170 being interlined) By me Robert Harpur D Secry."

                                                                     ~~~~~~~~

    All which WE have caused to be Exemplified by these Presents: In Testimony whereof

We have caused these our Letters to be made patent and the Great Seal of our said State to be hereunto affixed Witness

our Trusty and well beloved George Clinton Esquire Governor of our said State General and Commander in chief

of all the Militia and Admiral of the Navy of the same, at our City of New York; this Eleventh day of April in the year of

our Lord one thousand seven hundred and Ninety-Three, and in the Seventeenth year of our Independence.~

[kazuwhora]

way' way', x̌ast łkʷəkʷʕas (hi hi, good morning!)

just a heads up that I may be a little absent from the dash today because of the national truth and reconciliation day 🖤 today I will be taking the time to honour my family who spent time in the tk'emlúps and ka-wezauce residential schools and all the nations of turtle island who have been suffering at the hands of colonization for centuries as well as the children who never returned from their imprisonment at residential schools that has now turned into the crisis of foster care families 🧡

if you're not indigenous to turtle island, please please please educate yourself and take some time today to pay respects and learn about the struggles we face in a colonial society and the oppression of our people that still goes on today. and for my fellow indigenous followers and mutuals, please take care of yourselves.

nínwiʔs łwikn̓tsn̓ <3 (see you later)

[rabbitcruiser]

French and Indian War: The Treaty of Paris ended the war and France ceded Quebec to Great Britain on February 10, 1763.

[neechees]

The previous post describing how famfic->published pipeline kinda works/feels is how the evil book by Christo kinda felt where it's like she expected you to know the background history of the Frog Lake Massacre as the "plot"/background set of events, except instead of the actual historical event she expected you to know the fake version she completely changed & made up in her head, because there was NO build up or context set up for why stuff was happening that was happening & it even READS like fanfiction but like, fanfic for real life but not.

[kerrycoast]

On August 15, 1824...

The first HBC Governor west of the Rockies made his first tour of the forts with a note to himself in mind: the potential profit in Christian conversion of his newly acquired, autonomous Indigenous trading partners. On August 15, 1824, George Simpson, Governor of Hudson’s Bay Company “North” (mostly west), left Ottawa for the Oregon Territory.       His mission was to make the newly acquired…

[if-you-fan-a-fire]

"NEGOTIATE WITH INDIANS," Weekly British Whig (Kingston, Ont.) September 23, 1912. Page 1. ---- Commission to Secure Surrender of Aboriginal Rights. ---- Ottawa, Sept. 19. - A commission will be appointed shortly to negotiate with the Indians in the newly annexed parts of Ontario, Quebec and Manitoba for the surrender of their aboriginal rights. They will be restricted to reserves and be compensated financially for any rights they may forego.

[lionheartlr]

Discovering Bhutan: The Last Shangri-La

Nestled in the Eastern Himalayas, Bhutan, known as the “Land of the Thunder Dragon,” is a country that beckons travelers with its pristine landscapes, vibrant culture, and profound spirituality. As one of the world’s last remaining Buddhist kingdoms, Bhutan offers a unique blend of ancient traditions and modern sensibilities. In this travel guide, we’ll explore Bhutan’s history, political…