#Ebro River

[wgm-beautiful-world]

Z A R A G O Z A

[rabbitcruiser]

Puente de Briñas, Spain (No. 2)

The property is 1.2 km from Haro Town and 1.8 km from Briñas. Next to it is a much newer iron bridge, over which runs the N-124 road.

For centuries it was very important, since it was one of the few bridges over the Ebro and was part of the Camino de Santiago Vasco del Interior.

It was a widely used step for trade with Álava and Navarre, being important the transit of goods for which it is known that in the fifteenth century during the time of the Catholic Monarchs tolls were charged to be able to pass them over it.

Source: Wikipedia

[foxesandfairlies]

After leaving the tunnel the rest of the day was spent following the River Ebro on the excellent GR 85 path. Proper mountain bike style riding, meandering in and around wooded limestone gorges and along the top of towering escarpments with some steep, tight and rocky switchbacks adding a bit of spice.

Again the night was surprisingly cold, dipping below zero. 

[useless-catalanfacts]

Video by carlesrgm on Instagram. Song: "vull petar-ho" by Oques Grasses.

Every year, the towns around the Segre river in Western Catalonia (Ponent) celebrate the transsegre: a non-competitive race down the river using home-made boats.

Fotos by Transsegre Balaguer on Flickr.

The event, which this year is in its 39th edition, has become a very popular festivity for local people. It lasts for 2 days: on Saturday, the boats start the race in Camarasa and sail down the calm waters until Sant Llorenç de Montgai. That evening, there is a party and free concerts until early morning. Sunday at noon, the sailors who managed to arrive the previous day leave on their boats again, starting in Gerb to reach Balaguer. Meanwhile, people gather to watch the boats, eat appetizers and watch street performers.

[eopederson3]

El Rió Ebro y la Ciudad de Logroño, 2012.

[whatpandorasaw]

The spires of the Basilica del Pilar next to the Ebro River as it passes through Zaragoza, Spain

[alisonbunny]

acrylic, canvas 60*50 cm «Valley of the Ebro River». As I brush the final strokes of color onto the canvas, I find myself deeply moved by the splendor of the Ebro River Valley-a place where nature unfolds in layers of breathtaking beauty and historical significance.

This painting is not just a depiction of the valley; it is an ode to its timeless serenity, where flamingos grace the wetlands, and the sky meets the water in a symphony of blues and greens.

The Ebro River, Spain's longest, carves its way through the northeastern landscape, shaping the very soul of the regions it touches. From the fertile plains that have nurtured civilizations for millennia to the majestic delta that breathes life into one of Europe's most vital wetlands, the river is a lifeline-a muse that has inspired countless artists, including myself.

In this artwork, I sought to capture the delicate balance of life that thrives here, where the flamingos wade gracefully through the marshes, unaware of the ancient history that surrounds them. The river's waters, flowing from the Cantabrian Mountains to the Mediterranean Sea, carry stories of ancient Roman bridges, medieval towns, and the ever-present struggle between nature and human endeavor.

The Ebro Delta, a unique mosaic of wetlands, salt marshes, and sandy beaches, stands as a testament to the river's resilience and the diverse ecosystems it sustains. This region, so rich in biodiversity, offers a paradise for bird watchers and nature lovers alike, reminding us of the fragile beauty that needs our protection.

May this painting bring a piece of the Ebro's magic into your lives, just as the valley has filled mine with endless memories inspiration

[thepastisalreadywritten]

The first Marian apparition in history appeared to Saint James the Apostle, the brother of Saint John the Evangelist, on the bank of the river Ebro in Saragossa, Spain.

Unlike every other recorded apparition, this one took place during the earthly life of the Mother of God.

According to tradition, she had promised Saint James that when he needed it most in his difficult mission to the pagans in today's Spain, she would appear to him to encourage him.

In the year 40 A.D., while praying one night, the Virgin appeared with the Child Jesus standing on a pillar.

The Virgin asked Saint James and his eight disciples to build a church on the site, promising that “it will stand from that moment until the end of time in order that God may work miracles and wonders through my intercession for all those who place themselves under my patronage.”

The Church of Our Lady of the Pillar in Zaragoza is the first church dedicated to Mary in history.

It remains standing to this day, having survived invasions and wars.

During the Spanish Civil War of 1936-1939, three bombs were dropped on the church and none of them exploded.

Our Lady is also said to have given the small wooden statue of the apparition to Saint James, which now stands on a pillar in the church.

Nuestra Señora del Pilar is the patron of Spain and all Hispanic peoples.

12 October 1492: The Feast of the Virgin of the Pillar is the day Christopher Columbus first sighted American land and when the first Mass in the Americas was celebrated.

[cincinnatusvirtue]

Countries that are no more: Ancient Carthage (814BC-146BC)

The state discussed in this post is one of the most famous and important in antiquity. Yet, it remains one of the most elusive and mysterious civilizations in world history because its own written records have been virtually erased with all contemporary written records coming from foreign sources that both praised and reviled its existence. However, it was influential for its model of government, its expansion of Mediterranean trade, its influence on models of economic production, naval exploration and for its military leaders whose tactical and strategic prowess influence warfare to the modern day and for its rivalry with the other emerging Mediterranean superpower of antiquity: Rome. A rivalry that is characterized as the quintessential clash of civilizations. This is Carthage.

Name: In its native language, the Phoenician dialect known in Latin as Punic, it was 𐤒𐤓𐤕𐤟𐤇𐤃𐤔𐤕, or annunciated as qrt-ḥdšt or Qart-Hardasht. This translates into English as "New City". In Latin it was known as Carthago or Karthago, the modern English pronunciation of Carthage comes by way of French.

Language: Carthage as a city-state and its empire more broadly held a cosmopolitan mixture of peoples and languages. However, the founders of Carthage and its ruling elite spoke Punic, a dialect of Phoenician associated with the city of Carthage which was founded by Phoenician colonists from the Levant. Punic was Phoenician in origin and became a distinct local dialect of Phoenician speakers in Carthage and other cities. These settlers founded colonies throughout North Africa and the Western Mediterranean. The Phoenician language and its dialects were from the Semitic language family native to the Middle East. It originated as a distinct dialect of the Canaanite peoples from who the Phoenicians and subsequently the Carthaginians descend from. The Canaanites also gave rise to the other Semitic speaking peoples such as the Israelites, Moabites and Ammonites among others. Modern Hebrew is said to be the extant language most similar to ancient Punic. In Carthage's empire there were also local varieties of Berber (Amazigh) languages spoken by the native Berbers who settled in North Africa. There were also local languages in Iberia (Spain and Portugal) from the Iberian and Celtic tribes settled there and the languages of native Sardinian and Balearic peoples as well. Additionally, ancient Greek was spoken by Greek colonists, mercenaries and traders who also settled within Carthage's empire and sphere of influence.

Territory: The city of Carthage is located in the environs of modern Tunis, capital of the modern state of Tunisia in North Africa. It was from this centrally located city founded by Phoenician colonists that their subsequent empire grew. The established contact and control with other Phoenician colonies in the area such as nearby Utica and eventually grew to control all of coastal North Africa from modern Morocco to western Libya. The modern states of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya were its core territory, with Tunisia being its heartland. It also included Malta, the western half of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica's coastal regions, the Balearic Islands of Spain and the southeastern portions of Iberia, particularly the coastal areas with influence into parts of the interior and south of the Ebro River.

Symbols & Mottos: The symbols associated with the state of Carthage are often in reference to their pantheon of gods which were quite extensive but centered mostly around the Phoenician gods but also included Berber, Iberian and Greek influences within their pantheon as well. A military standard associated with Carthage includes a staff with a sun disc and topped with a crescent moon. Also, the sign of Tanit, a Phoenician goddess's whose symbol was found on Carthaginian ruins along with Phoenician ruins found back in the Phoenician colonists' homeland in the Levant (Lebanon, Israel and Syria). The sign of Tanit appears in many varieties but is usually found as a schematic like sketch of a person with a triangular base with a disc on top with horizontal lines then pointing upwards like raised arms.

Religion: With Phoenician settlers being the originators of Carthage its ruling elite, the primary state religion was their variety of the ancient Phoenician religion which was polytheistic and included many notable gods and goddesses from Tanit to Baal Hammon, Melqart and Astarte among others. Many of these gods found companions with the Greeks and indeed due to the interfacing with Greeks both through trade and war, some Greek gods would also be incorporated into the Carthaginian pantheon, though it remained distinctly Punic at its core. There also appears to be Berber (Libyan and Numidian) influences along with Sardinian and Iberian interfacing that both saw the spread of worship of the Punic/Phoenician deities with local influences likewise being adopted by the Carthaginians. Even some ancient Egyptian gods appear to be included in Carthaginian worship. This syncretism and tolerance reflect the cosmopolitan outlook and composition the Carthaginians had within their realm.

There were priests who maintained the temples and sanctuaries devoted to particular deities. Likewise, Carthaginians practiced everything from ritual banquets to funerary rites such as those in the Levant like disposing of the remains of the dead, feasts for the dead, ancestor worship and goods in the tombs of the dead, indicating belief in life after death. Cemeteries were often built outside the walls of Punic settlements and included stelae with inscriptions serving as grave markers. Carthaginians practiced both burial and cremation.

There does appear to be cases of animal sacrifice to appease the gods in Carthaginian society as well. This tended to follow very specific regulations and rules.

The most controversial topic of the Punic religion however appears to be the practice of child sacrifice. The sources for this we must bear in mind come from Greco-Roman writers that weren't known to actually witness the practice and from civilizations that had biases toward Carthage more broadly. Yet both Greek and Roman sources cite the Carthaginians as practicing child sacrifice in their religion. These sources sometimes do contradict one another in their specifics. Modern historians debate the extent of this practice and what are the contents found at the sites known as Tophet in urns with ashes that may come from human infants. The Greco-Roman sources state children were specifically killed for ritual purposes and killed in various manners and burned as offerings. Based on archaeological findings some historians take the position that the practice may have occurred but may have been relegated to the ritual cremation of infants who died of natural causes. Others uphold the Greco-Roman sources and other deny the practice at all, chalking it up as pure invention of biased sources from Greece and Rome. Because Carthage was destroyed by Rome in 146 BC and virtually all extant written sources on Carthage come from Roman and Greek sources, there doesn't appear to be any definitive answer to this practice's purported extent or even its existence. Modern archaeology can lend more nuance to the topic but a clear answer like much of what we know about Carthage and its society remains a mystery.

Currency: The basic coinage of Carthage was called the shekel which derived from its Phoenician antecedents. There were gold, silver and bronze coins found throughout Carthage's empire. Mints were found not only in North Africa but Sicily and Iberia. Coins depicted everything from date palm trees to famous soldiers and politicians both Carthaginian in origin like the Barcid family of Hannibal Barca and even Greek rulers such as Alexander the Great.

Population: At its peak the empire had probably 3.7-4.3 million people. The city of Carthage proper at its peak was anywhere 250,000-500,000 people.

Government: The basis of our understanding of Carthage's governance is limited and largely based on ancient Greek and Roman sources. Some of which write of it in disparaging terms and others praise it for its complexity and nuance.

The basic understand is that during the first few centuries of Carthage's existence it was probably a monarchy. However, the extent to which the kings ruled over Carthage is debated. The Phoenician city states from which Carthage descended, namely Tyre had nominal monarchs but who deferred to a council of advisors who helped craft policy and administer the law. It seems reasonable that Carthage followed this political model in its earliest stages with nominal monarchs who likewise consulted a council of advisors made up Carthaginian nobility to craft and administer policy. The degree to which kings of Carthage held power probably fluctuated.

Following the First Sicilian War against the Greek colonists on Sicily in 480 BC, the nature of Carthage's government changed gradually with a weakening of the monarchy. By the 300s BC Carthage was at its peak and best characterized as an oligarchic republic. It was noted to have numerous checks and balances on the branches of government, a vast and complex administrative state, high levels of public accountability and participation in civic duty. Aristotle the famed Greek philosopher wrote on Carthage in his treatise "Politics" as the only non-Greek polity to be represented in the work.

Carthage as a republic became ruled nominally by two simultaneously elected non-hereditary magistrates called sufetes or shophets. This position's title translates as "judges" and they are said to handle a mix of judicial and executive powers. How they were elected and who was eligible for this head of state position is not known. What is known is they were always from the oligarchic ruling class of Carthage and that they held annual terms. The Roman writer Livy states this was comparable to the Roman republican practice of electing two consuls for annual terms. They are said to have ruled jointly and likewise handled matters of state through the convening and presiding over the supreme consultative council known as Adirim (similar to the Roman Senate), submitting legislation to the popular assembly and adjudicating trials. The sufetes interestingly did not hold any military power as this was separated and reserved for military commanders with the generals reporting to the Carthaginian assembly in the Adirim.

The Adirim held about 30 members on the council and like senators in Rome were elected from the wealthy elite merchant families of Carthage. They administered the treasury, conducted foreign affairs and providing some control over military affairs. It is said matters of state required unanimous decision making to go into effect.

Carthage also had judicial assembly called the One-Hundred and Four. These judges provided oversight of the military and other politicians and bureaucrats within Carthage. As an example of Carthage's political checks and balances, the One-Hundred and Four had the power administer monetary fines or even the death penalty, sometimes by crucifixion on military or government officials found to have engaged in unbecoming behavior that went against the interest of the public. It also formed small committees to provide oversight on political matters.

Separate from these bodies also came numerous junior bureaucratic positions to held administer everything from tax collection, public works and the state treasury.

Carthage also contained at local levels trade unions, a popular assembly and town meetings. In matters where the sufetes and Adirim could not decide law in a unanimous manner a popular assembly was consulted to make a final determination. Whether this was a formal institution or ad hoc solution has never been determined.

Aristotle singled out the Carthaginian government as more meritocratic than its contemporary Greek counterparts. He also praised its complex balance of monarchical, aristocratic and democratic elements. Some other Greek writers went so far as to say it was the best form of government in existence at that time only equaled in the Greek world by Sparta. Meanwhile, Aristotle himself stated that Carthage had some form of constitution and found it superior to Sparta's.

The Greek historian Polybius writing for a Greco-Roman audience in his commentary on the Punic Wars between Rome and Carthage stated that Carthage had more democratic elements than Rome did and that the common people were on average given more say than Romans at the time. However, Polybius saw this as a detriment to Carthage during the Punic Wars, in his estimate too much bickering and infighting to gain a unanimous decision led to paralysis and indecision. Whereas he favored the Roman Senate's rules which were less democratic overall and therefore more decisive in determining important decisions at crucial moments such as in war.

Carthage's republican government appears to have been replicated in the colonies and territories throughout its empire with sufetes found at local colonial levels. There appears to be cooperation between Punic colonial officials and the local population under Carthaginian rule.

Carthage was primarily mercantile in its outlook. The control of trade commodities and goods throughout the Mediterranean was the basis for its economic development and always of primary concern. Hence the merchant class-oligarchy's vested interest in maintaining power.

Military: Carthage was a classic example of a maritime power. Its navy was its most important military branch in many ways. The navy was used to ensure control over the network of trade routes between the various parts of the Western and Central Mediterranean. It would win naval victories over its Greek and Roman rivals though it would ultimately face defeat by the Romans.

The navy was large in size for antiquity and benefitted from the Phoenician advent of serial production, the ancient equivalent of assembly line production which produced ships of good quality but in an efficient manner. They could maintain hundreds of ships at one time, even after their power dimmed with the rise of Rome.

The ethnic composition of the navy's sailors, oarsman, navigators and marine force was almost exclusively Phoenician. Given the Phoenicians long association with seafaring trade and navigation, the Carthaginians merely upheld this tradition including in warfare.

The army of Carthage, its land based military branch was also crucial in achieving its geopolitical goals. From the subjugation of rebellious tribes in North Africa and Iberia to battling the Greeks and Romans in foreign wars. In conjunction with the navy the ultimate goal was maintaining Carthage's control of trade routes and upholding its sphere of influence to maintain favorable conditions for said trade.

Due to the limited population of Phoenician colonists spread throughout the Carthaginian empire and given their traditional naval prowess, much of the army was not of ethnic Phoenician/Punic background. Instead, they relied on a multinational mix of auxiliaries and mercenaries to fill the armies ranks. There might be Phoenician officers and generals such as the famed Hannibal Barca and his relatives including his father Hamilcar and brothers Mago and Hasdrubal, but many other officers could be Greeks among others. The rank and file including Greek mercenaries fighting in the hoplite style, many Greek colonists from Sicily and Southern Italy, Berber infantry and cavalry, particular the light cavalry of Numidia famed for its fast-moving skirmishers armed with javelins and the Libyan infantry. Iberian infantry and cavalry of mixed Celtic and Iberian backgrounds. The famed light skirmisher infantry from the Balearic Islands who slung stones at their enemies were likewise part of the army. Also included in the army were Gallic (Celtic) infantry and cavalry from France and Italy, Sardinians (Nuragic) and Italic peoples such as Samnites, Lucanians, Etruscans and even some Latin peoples including Roman defectors could be found among Carthage's land army. The Phoenician rank and file in the army were usually colonists from other Punic settlements and not Carthage proper. The exception being the famed 3,000 strong Sacred Band of Carthage which were derived from the strongest and healthiest of Carthage's wealthiest families to fight as an elite special unit of the army. Armed and trained int the Greek hoplite style and phalanx formation.

The army also utilized African Forest elephants as a mobile force similar to a wrecking ball. These elephants provided a fearsome complement to the army and was famously used by Hannibal Barca in his crossing of the Alps to invade Roman Italy during the Second Punic War.

The major conflicts Carthage fought in its history were its colonial wars in North Africa against Berber tribes and kingdoms, Iberia and in Sicily first against the Greeks and later against its archrival Rome. The three Punic Wars fought between Carthage and Rome have been characterized by some historians as the ultimate and perhaps most important clash of civilizations in the ancient world and perhaps of all time. Ultimately, they would all end in Rome's favor and eventual destruction and razing of Carthage by Rome, ending Rome's biggest rival and leading to Roman supremacy over the Mediterranean basin for the next several centuries.

Economy: Economic concerns were of chief importance to the Carthaginians. Their empire was essentially a commercial one or rather an expansive and complex trade network with the state trying to aggressively uphold and expand its scope. Its origins lie with the Carthage's Phoenician roots. The Phoenicians based in the Levantine coast (mainly modern Lebanon, Israel and Syria) weren't one united people but rather a series of city states, with the most powerful being based on the coast. These included the cities of Byblos, Sidon and Tyre among the leading polities and all with an outward maritime trade orientation. The Phoenicians produced many goods and economic models that would be both enriching and influential on trade throughout the ancient world. This included purple dye for fabric, uncolored glass, wine production and Lebanese cedar for timber production and the serial production economic model.

Carthage was founded in modern Tunisia by Phoenician colonists from the city of Tyre (Lebanon) in the 9th century BC. They were not the first Phoenician colony in North Africa but they eventually rose to become the most aggressive and successful. In part this was due to its secure and strategic location. It soon became the leading trade center on the Western and Central Mediterranean. They controlled trade routes at sea and rose to prominence and domination among all the other Phoenician colonies setup in North Africa, Sicily, Malta, Sardinia and Iberia.

Mining for metals silver, lead, copper and tin were of crucial importance for the wealth of Carthage, in particular this motivated their expansion into Iberia. Additionally, the temperate and fertile climate of the Western Mediterranean lead to much wine production. They also traded in amber, timber, grains an food preservatives.

While mostly a maritime trade power, Carthage also had overland caravans to secure goods from the African interior and even the Middle East. Continual exploration for new and expanding trade routes and goods was also important for Carthage. Famed Carthaginian explorers of Punic origin included Himilco the Explorer who lived in the 6th and 5th centuries BC. He is said to have been the first Mediterranean sailor to have explored the Atlantic routes to Northwest Europe, visiting Portugal, France and the British Isles. Britain in particular was important to the ancient tin trade which was necessary in bronze production. Britain was known in the ancient world to the Carthaginians and Greeks as the Tin Isles.

Hanno the Navigator was said to have explore trade routes to western Africa. Reaching as far as modern Senegal and Cameroon,

Lifespan: Carthage was said to have been founded by Phoenician colonists from the city of Tyre circa the 9th century BC. A foundation legend raised from its founding. Namely the legend of Princess Dido from Tyre leading her fellow Phoenicians not as colonists looking for commercial benefits but political refuge from her dictator brother. According to legend Dido and her retinue arrived at Tunisia and tricked the local Berber king into grating them a sizable tract of land from which the core of what became the city of Carthage was founded.

The city was given the name by its settlers of Qart-Hadasht, which in the Phoenician language meant "New City". The year 814 BC is often cited as the approximate date of its founding.

Quickly Carthage made an association with and eventual domination of fellow Phoenician colonies in the area including Utica. Its favorable climate, arable land and strategic location were all crucial to Carthage's rapid growth and dominance of over other Phoenician colonies. It would expand to conquer lands ranging from the whole of North Africa from Morocco to Libya, the islands of Malta, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica and the Balearics and parts of the Iberian Peninsula over the coming centuries found themselves either under direct Carthaginian rule or favorable treaties incorporating the lands into its sphere of influence hence creating a trade network and empire, a classic example of a thalassocracy.

Initially, the Carthaginians paid a tribute and maintained contact to its mother city of Tyre back in Lebanon. However, this became an irregular occurrence due to Carthage's increasing independence due to its great distance from the Levant and the assertive character to its own local citizenry. Carthage began to see a mix of Phoenicians and local Berbers creating a unique Punic culture that synthesized the two cultures and ethnicities over time with the Phoenician dialect and culture remaining dominant but adaptable for its ability to incorporate other cultures. This was true as its sphere of influences expanded in the Mediterranean.

Carthage's independence was not only due to its relative distance from Tyre but due to the events back in Phoenicia. Various sieges from Babylonia and eventually later the Persian Achaemenid Empire conquered Phoenicia including Tyre circa 530-522BC. The subjugation of these lands reduced contact between the Carthaginian settlers and their Tyrian origins which had until that date sent a steady flow of colonists. While some flow of other Phoenicians would continue, the population would be buttressed by local native populaces and other Phoenician colonies rather than direct Tyrian migration.

The city of Carthage itself expanded over the centuries and created several distinct districts and architecture. At its peak in the 4th century BC, it contained a population between a quarter and half a million people. making it one of the world's largest and most prosperous cities at the time. The city had a mix of wealthy villas, apartment blocks six stories high, had warehouse and commercial districts, goods markets, a Greek style agora or public space, elaborate gardens. temples to various gods, various government buildings and a unique double harbor known as the cothon, which became the physical feature along with the Byrsa hill most associated with Carthage. The cothon featured an outer commercial harbor and military inner harbor with ship warehouses on a man-made island from which ship repairs, construction and maintenance could be addressed through its serial production. The Byrsa hill was the central district of Carthage which contained important temples, it had stair way avenues which were relatively wide for traffic, whereas most of the city's routes had narrow winding paths to navigate. The city was said to have triple walls for defenses, a shorter outer wall made of either stone or wood, followed by a ditch, a second taller stone wall 5 meters thick, a second ditch and a third stone wall 10 meters thick and with armed towers able to hold a force of over 20,000 troops.

In 509 BC it signed its first treaty with Rome, its eventual rival which at the time was the inferior power still clamoring for power on the Italian peninsula. The treaty was meant to demarcate their respective spheres of influence. From 580-265 BC, the Carthaginians found themselves in a series of wars with the Greek colonies of Sicily and Southern Italy. Namely, the city state of Syracuse which was the principal Greek settlement on Sicily.

These wars were back and forth in nature, marked by victory and defeat on land and sea for both sides. Eventually Carthage would retain control over the western half of Sicily until its loss of control in the Punic Wars with Rome. The Sicilian Wars also saw the gradual weakening of the kings of Carthage and its transition to an oligarchic republic (see government section).

The Punic Wars (264-146 BC) began almost by accident with neither Rome nor Carthage initially planning a direct confrontation with the other. The city of Messana (Messina) in Sicily found itself in the 260s BC under the control of a group of Italian mercenaries who had previously served the tyrant (king) of Syracuse who had died in 280 BC. These independent mercenaries were a threat to both Carthage and Syracuse's interests on Sicily. These mercenaries named the Mamertimes (Sons of Mars) divided into two factions, over the issue of the new Syracuse tyrant Hiero II's planned retaking of Messana. One faction advocating a Carthaginian intervention to take charge of the city's security and the other advocating for Roman intervention from the Italian peninsula. Carthage arrived first with a land garrison and naval fleet in the harbor. The Roman Senate was reluctant to assist the mercenaries but recognized the potential threat a permanent presence of Carthaginians in Messana and its location on the narrow Straits of Messina between Sicily and Italian mainland could pose on Roman trade and security. It advocated sending an expeditionary force to retake Messana to eject the Carthaginians. The attack triggered the first Punic War between the two powers. It turned into a quarter century struggle that was marked by intense fighting mostly on Sicily.

The First Punic War was ultimately a Roman victory that ended Carthage's presence on Sicily. It also saw Roman advances in naval technology such as the corvus to help board Carthaginian ships. Hitherto the Romans had little naval strength relative to Carthage but its innovations in naval warfare proved crucial in undermining Carthage's longstanding naval superiority. Meanwhile on land, despite the back-and-forth nature of the battles, the Roman army's tactical flexibility often proved superior to Carthage which after 23 exhausting years agreed to peace. It gave up control of Sicily to Rome (aside from Syracuse) and paid a tribute over the course of 10 years.

Rome also after the war used Carthage's distraction against a Libyan rebellion in the Truceless War to take control of Sardinia and Corsica in 238 BC.

To compensate for the loss of territory on Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, the Carthaginians under Hamilcar Barca tried to expand its territory in Iberia against Celtic and Iberian tribes especially to profit from increased mining production. They also gained new manpower and agricultural production to boost their economy and military again. They also had a standing agreement with Rome to not intrude north or south of the Ebro River respectively. However, an Iberian city of Saguntum south of the Ebro had an agreement with the Romans. This upset the balance of power established with Carthage in Iberia. Hamilcar Barca's son Hannibal now in charge of the Carthaginian army in Iberia an avowed enemy of Rome, besieged Saguntum which he took in 8 months. This is turn led to Rome's declaration of war, starting the Second Punic War which lasted for the next 17 years.

In one of the most famous military campaigns of all time, Hannibal and his army complemented by Carthaginians, Numidians, Celts, Iberians crossed the Alps and invaded Italy, taking the war to Rome's home territory. Hannibal showing his tactical prowess would defeat Roman armies repeatedly on their own territory most notably at the Battle of Cannae in 216 BC. Many Italian cities that had been incorporated into Roman rule over the previous centuries rose up to join Hannibal against Rome. However, Hannibal never had sufficient strength to directly besiege Rome. Rome was constantly tested by Hannibal's victories over the next 13 years in Italy, but they refused to surrender and adopted an attritional strategy, and this wore down Hannibal by gradually retaking Italian cities allied to him if not able to defeat him directly. Likewise, they repelled Carthage's attempts to reinforce him in Italy. They also faced mixed success gradually conquering Iberia from the Carthaginians. Finally, an invasion of Tunisia forced Carthage to recall Hannibal back to North Africa to defend the capital from a Roman assault. He met the Romans in the Battle of Zama in 202 BC which resulted in a Roman victory over Hannibal himself at once.

Hannibal advocated for the government of Carthage to negotiate a treaty with Rome which it did. Its terms were harsh. A stripping of all overseas possessions of Carthage in Iberia and elsewhere including some African territories. A large punitive indemnity to paid to Rome over 50 years. A reduction of Carthage's navy ten warships, a ban on Carthage's use of war elephants. A prohibition on Carthage being able to fight war outside of Africa and any war it wages in Africa must require Rome's express permission.

Hannibal eventually became a sufete in Carthage and worked to reform the government of Carthage and stamp out corruption so as to ensure its ability to pay Rome its due from the treaty and rebuild its economy. Indeed, Hannibal was somewhat successful in his regards and Carthage's economy was somewhat rebounding but facing pressure from Rome and enemies in the local government, he went into voluntary exile in service to Greek states opposed to Roman expansion in the east. He died in exile under murky circumstances variously described as a suicide or murder.

The Third Punic War 149-146BC began will Carthage went to war in Africa with Berbers who were raiding its territory and without Rome's permission, this was used a pretext to attack Carthage itself by Rome for violating its treaty from the previous war. The third and final Punic War was characterized by a three-year siege of Carthage. Ultimately, the Romans after much pressure on both sides broke through its triple walls and assaulted Carthage in street-by-street fighting. The city was razed to the ground, much of its population killed by angered Roman troops. 50,000 Carthaginians were enslaved and sent elsewhere through the Roman Republic's empire. Carthage was no more as an independent political entity after 146 BC. A century later, Rome rebuilt the city on its ruins as part of its empire and it remained an important city within the Roman Empire until the fall of the Western half of the empire where it fell to the Germanic barbarians the Vandals who had their capital in Carthage, it was reclaimed by the Easter Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) by the forces of Belisarius in service to Justinian I. Carthage would face a final destruction as a Roman city when the Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate destroyed the city in the year 698 AD. It never rose as a city again, instead its ruins remain part of the suburbs or the modern city of Tunis, capital of Tunisia.

Carthage despite its being steeped in legend and mystery remains worthy of study as one of the undeniably great civilizations of antiquity. A fact recognized by its contemporaries whether they wrote of it a complimentary fashion or with contempt, its power, wealth and influence was immense enough to engender scholarly study and reflection at the time. It is for these contemporary recognitions whether positive or negative and absence of surviving self-records that many continue its study into the modern age. Particularly its opposition to Rome and the perception by Rome that it was a worthy rival that needed complete annihilation, especially given Carthage's ability to stand up to Rome in a way no other power really could at its peak.

The more Carthage is analyzed both by its contemporary foreign commentators with the surviving archaeological and fragmentary historical record, the more nuance can be shed on the complexity of the civilization and influence it had on world history. Its opposition to Rome might be its most noted aspect but it shouldn't overshadow how else Carthage influenced the world. From its complex style of government and network of commercial imperialism that presaged future thalassocracies such as the Italian republics of the Middle Ages like Venice and Genoa and how it produced economic production models which influenced Rome and Greece and subsequently other areas of the world, they carried that influence on to. Likewise, another legacy of Carthage was how it helped build an ancient iteration of a globalized economy, shrinking the gap between the long distances of the ancient Mediterranean world by linking disparate geographies and peoples under a common commercial interest. In this commercial pursuit it also revealed itself to have both a distinct dominant culture but one that was not intolerant or unable to accommodate and absorb other cultural influences. In many ways ancient Carthage by way of its influence on Greece and Rome and their own influences give us glimpses into how its existence served as a precursor to the modern world we inhabit.

[noneedtofearorhope]

July 30, 2023

BARCELONA, Spain (AP) — Spanish government researchers said Sunday they had identified 357 foreign fighters who went missing during the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), the conflict that foreshadowed World War II.

Researchers confirmed the names of 212 fighters from Germany, Austria and the Netherlands, according to a statement from the government Sunday. Some 102 are of German origin, 70 Austrian and 40 Dutch. It gave no information on how many people of other nationalities had been identified.

The identified combatants fought within the International Brigades, military units set up by the Communist International to fight against General Francisco Franco’s fascist forces. Some 40,000 foreign men and women joined up as volunteers, fighting alongside the forces of the democratic Second Spanish Republic and against the rise of fascism in Europe in late 1930s.

The findings are based on a year of research in records held in documentary archives in Spain and Russia. Researchers combed through the daily lists of casualties and missing soldiers compiled by officers in the International Brigades.

The names of private soldiers were frequently omitted from the lists, making the research process more difficult. These lists are held in the Russian State Archive of Socio-Political History, in Moscow. Researchers also dipped into the main archives on the Spanish Civil War located in Spain.

By cross-referencing documents, researchers were also able to identify the likely area where the soldiers died or were badly wounded. It is an important step toward locating their remains inside mass graves scattered across the country.

This research provides “very valuable information that gives us the opportunity to contact the families of the missing combatants and, in the future, to intervene in the mass graves that have been located,” said Alfons Aragoneses, head of the project.

All those identified were part of the Thälmann Brigade, a Communist unit made up largely of anti-Nazi Germans. The battalion was active on the Ebro River front in northeastern Spain between March and September 1938, the site of the longest and deadliest battle of the war.

The research is ongoing and it is funded by Catalan regional government, with the aim of contributing to the country’s historical memory. The second phase of the project will try to identify missing militiamen from Great Britain, Ireland, Canada and the United States. The final step would require opening the graves in search of bodies.

Historians estimate nearly 10,000 foreign volunteers died in combat on Spanish soil during the war. How many are still unidentified, buried inside graves, remains unknown.

The Spanish Civil War served as a testing ground for Hitler’s Germany and Mussolini’s Italy prior to World War II. This triggered an international outcry to try to save the Republic’s democratic government, which eventually succumbed to Franco in 1939.

[rabbitcruiser]

Sástago, Spain (No. 2)

The Ebro is a river of the north and northeast of the Iberian Peninsula, in Spain. It rises in Cantabria and flows 930 kilometres (580 mi), almost entirely in an east-southeast direction. It flows into the Mediterranean Sea forming a delta in the Province of Tarragona, in southern Catalonia. In the Iberian peninsula, it ranks second in length after the Tagus and second in discharge volume, and drainage basin, after the Douro. It is the longest river entirely within Spain; the other two mentioned flow into Portugal. It is also the second-longest river in the Mediterranean basin, after the Nile.

Source: Wikipedia

[jackredfieldwasmyjacob]

hello once again, your friendly neighborhood spaniard is here once again to comment on the references to spanish culture i'm seeing while playing scarlet and violet!

here's my previous post on this! and i wanted to tell you that as per this post, i've officially seen all the cities and towns in paldea which means there's not really much else to explore, these posts are coming to an end :(

anyways, let's start

if montenevera is based on the pyreenees, it makes sense that the area around the fairy squad camp is modeled around another part of northern spain, in this case asturias and more precisely the picos de europa national park, arguably the prettiest part of the country (i've never been there but everyone that has been says asturias is the prettiest so who am i to disagree). just like in the game, it's a beautiful prairie place next to big scary mountains and right by the sea! however, there are no marshy areas in asturias; the three largest ones in the country are the ebro delta [pic 6], the valència albufera [pic 7], and doñana national park [pic 8]. i would say the in-game one is probably referencing the ebro delta, only based on location, as the other two are more south.

another fun thing about this area is that if you go swimming in the north coast you'll be able to find the tynamo evolution family, based on lampreys! lampreys have been fished in galicia as early as the roman times, with unique rock constructions built in the rivers called pesqueiras used to specifically catch them. they are part of the traditional galician (and portuguese!) cuisine, and they are similar to anchovies, one of the most popular dishes in another northern iberian area, cantabria.

finally, there's the last town of the game that i had yet to see, alfornada! one fun fact about me is that my favourite architectural style is mudéjar, so i was absolutely stoked to see a whole town built in that style!!! for everyone who doesn't know what mudéjar is, or why arabic-inspired music sounds all throughout the town, i'm gonna summarize 700 years of story really quick: after the western roman empire fell, the visigoths took over the peninsula, and things were chill for a bit until 711, when the moors invaded the peninsula. by 722 all but asturias was now part of the umayyad caliphate (we call moorish iberia al-andalus for short), but the asturians defeated the moors in the battle of covadonga and from there on the reconquista started, a centuries old war between christians and muslims in iberia that lasted until 1492, when the last remnants of al-andalus were defeated. as you could imagine this conjured up a very complex social landscape and a unique cultural makeup that still lasts till this day. within all of that, there were three groups we had to study in class and were a pain in the ass to differenciate (i had to search what each one were for this post): muladíes (local iberians that converted to islam and lived in al-ándalus), mozárabes (christians and jews that lived in al-ándalus), and mudéjares (muslims living in the iberian christian kingdoms). mozárabes and mudéjares had to pay extra taxes and live in special quarters of the cities, but apart from that they all lived peacefully which is neat. both groups had their own art styles, but the mudéjar art and architecture was the most prominent of the two, and even experienced a renaissance in the 19th and 20th centuries with the neo-mudéjar style. it basically mixes muslim and christian styles and it's so good i love it with all my heart.

also, alfornada is known for its pottery, and ceramics are one of the traditional spanish arts, there are still a lot of ceramic workshops in rural areas where you can find handmade ceramic. and the plates displayed in alfornada are also very popular in the country, every grandma has at least one set very similar to the ones in the game lol. one particular place associated with this type of ceramic is talavera de la reina, in toledo. as our ex-president once said 'the talavera pottery is a big thing, in other words, it is not' a small thing' (it doesn't make sense in spanish either <3)

you thought i was done with this town huh? surely there isn't any more references right??? right??? well, we're just getting started. another interesting feature of alfornada is all the fountains in the streets, which, alongside with the music and the mudéjar style, made me realise what was the biggest inspiration behind this town: the alhambra, the palace complex of the kings of the nasrid kingdom of granada, the last stronghold of al-andalus and imo the most incredible human construction ever (it's a unesco world heritage site as well). even the setting of alfornada corroborates this; the alhambra sits on the top of a mountain, right by the sierra nevada mountain range, one of the tallest of the country (in fact, the highest peak in iberia, the mulhacén, is located there). one of the main defining features of the alhambra was the usage of water, with tons of canalization through the complex and lots of gorgeous fountains.

we're almost done, hold up (this is the first post where i had to cut some images cause i had reached the 30 pic limit oops). just north to alfornada, if you continue to climb up the mountain, you'll reach a ruins area. there are tons of these in paldea, and it makes sense, there's a ton of ruins everywhere in spain as well, but these are special due to its location, its context, and the arch and colums that can clearly be seen. i'm pretty sure this is a direct reference to medina azahara, the palace complex of the caliphate of córdoba, that now lies in ruins (another world heritage site). i visibly gasped when i got here, it shows how much thought the pokemon company put into this game :)

and that was all! i hope you liked it :)

here's next post !!!

[docpiplup]

Banu Qasi triology: Locations (+ Maps extracted from the book and modern reconstruction of plans of some cities of that period of time I found on Internet)

(* Some towns and cities that already existed are not in this maps, but probably were not included in the maps because maybe they're not relevant for the story, X, X, X )

Zaragoza (×) (although this one represents the Zaragoza from 11th century, due to the presence of the Palace of Aljaferia (×), although a watchtower existed since 9-10th centuries in that place, the Troubadour's Tower, that currently forms part of the palace)

Tudela, but here's a video of Pamplona/Iruña

Córdoba (Here's a video with the current-day Alcázar and the Caliphal baths)

Toledo

Alaba: Álava

Al Bayda, Albayda: Albelda

Al Burj: Borja

Al Busherat: Las Alpujarras

Al Faru: Alfaro

Al Garb: 'the west', Algarve

Al Hamma: Alhama

Al Hamma: site that corresponds to the current Baños de Fitero

Al Hamra: 'the red', the Alhambra of Granada

Al Lura: Álora

Al Maghrib: current Maghreb area, Morocco, Algeria and Mauritania

Al Mahdiyya: capital of the Fatimid Caliphate founded by Al Mahdi

Al Mariya: Almería

Al Mahsan: Almazán

Al Mudawar: Almudévar

Al Munastir: Almonacid

Al Qala't: Alcalá de Henares

Al Qāhira: Cairo

Al Qastil: Carcastillo or Murillo el Fruto

Al Qila: Castile

Al Qulaiya: Alcolea

Al Qubba: Talavera

Al Rawda: one of the interior gardens of the alcazar of Córdoba, where most of the emirs were buried

Al Sarqiyya: Axarquía, in Granada

Al Xaraf: Aljarafe

Al Jazira: Algeciras

Almunya de Aisha: Muniesa

Al Sajra: Azagra

Antaqira: Antequera

Arnit: Arnedo

Aryiduna: Archidona

Askaniya: Cascante

Asturqa: Astorga

Asnad:Cenes

Astīban: fortress located in the current-day Alhambra

Aura: Fortress next to Barcelona, ​​possibly in present-day Valldaura

Aybar: Aibar

Bab al Qantara: the Bridge Gate, in Córdoba, also known as Bab as-Sudda or the Azud Gate

Baghdad: capital of the Abbasid emirate

Bagúh: Priego

Bahr Algarbí: Atlantic Ocean

Bahr Arrum: Mediterranean sea

Balaga: Balager

Balma: place located on the left bank of the Ebro river next to Calahorra, it may correspond to the town of San Adrián

Balansiya: Valencia

Balterra: Valtierra

Bambaluna: Pampiluna, Pamplona

Banu Basir: Benameji

Baquira: Viguera

Barbitaniya: región of Sobrarbe, that included Jaca, Barbastro and Boltaña

Barsaluna: Barcelona

Baskunsa: place name that would correspond to the fortress of Rocaforte, which after the Reconquest, it would give to the current Sangüesa, located at the foot of this valley

Batalyus: Badajoz

Barbastur: Barbastro

Bayanna: Baena

Bayāna: Pechina, important trading city of the Mediterranean sea, replaced by the port of Almería

Basta: Baza

Bilad al Ándalus: Hispania

Bulāy: Poley, Aguilar de la Frontera

Burbaster: Bobastro, Umar ibn Hafsún's shelter

Cantabria: mountain range that borders river Ebro by the north, next to Logroño

Castro Muros: San Esteban de Gormaz

Dar al Islam: the lands of Islam

Dar al Rahn: the House of Hostages, in Córdoba

Daniya: Denia

Daruqa: Daroca

Deio: Monjardín

Dus Amantis: the Rock of the Lovers

Falah'san: Falces

Fās: Fez, capital of the Idrisi emirate

Finyāna: Fiñans

Galaskiya: Land of the galaskiyun, the gascons

Galipenzo: Gallipienzo

Garnata: Granada

Girunda: Girona

Hardaris: Ardales

Hisn Asar: Iznájar

Hisn Qámara: castle of uncertain location, near Colmenar and Casabermeja, in the province of Málaga

Hisn Qastuluna: the ancient Roman city Cástulo, in Jaén

Iacca: Jaca

Ifriqiya: Tunisia

Ilbira: Elvira, next to Granada, capital of the distrit with the same name.

Isbāniyā: Christian chroniclers called the peninsula as a whole Hispania. For the Arabs, Al Ándalus is only the land dominated by Islam. They call the Christian land by the name of their kingdoms, and the term Isbāniyā is reserved for the entire peninsula, although it is rarely used.

Ishbiliya: Sevilla

Istiba: Estepa

Istiya: Écija

Kabbaruso: Caparroso

Kara: Santacara

Larida: Lleida

Ledena: Liédena

Leqant: Fuente de Cantos

Liyun: León

Lizarrara: Estella-Lizarra

Madinat Selim: Medinaceli

Madinat al Faray: Guadalajara

Malaqa: Málaga

Mārida: Mérida

Martus: Martos

Milīla: Melilla

Millas: Mijas

Muish: Muez

Munt Sun: Monzón

Munt Liyūn: Monteleón

Mursiya: Murcia, also known as Tudmir (this name comes from the Visigothic count Teodomiro, who ruled it by the time the Muslims arrived to the Peninsula)

Nasira: Nájera

Niebla: District that corresponds to the current-day province of Huelva

Orreaga: mountains of Ibañeta or Roncesvalles

Ossa: Huesa del Común

Qabra: Cabra

Qabtil: Isla Menor (Sevilla)

Qadis: Cádiz

Qala't al Hajar/Qalahurra: Calahorra

Qala't al Hans: Alange

Qala't Gazuan: Alcalá de Guadaira

Qala't Ayub: Calatayud

Qala't Musa: Calamocha

Qala't Rabah: Calatrava

Qarmuna: Carmona

Qarqar: Cárcar

Qasida: Cáseda

Qarcastil: Carcastillo

Qasr Bunayra: Casarabonela

Qayrawán: Kairuán, capital of Ifriqiya, current-day Tunis

Quluniya: Clunia

Qumaris: Comares

Quriya: Coria del Río

Qurtuba: Córdoba

Qustantaniyeh: Constantinople

Qutanda: Cutanda

Raya: district that corresponds to the province of Málaga

Rasif: A promenade in Córdoba that ran along the right bank of the Guadalquivir river

Resa: fortress located on the banks of the Ebro, near the mouth of the river Arga

River Eiroca: River Iregua

River Iberus*: River Ebro

*the Iberian peninsula takes its name from the river Iberus/Ibero, the river Ebro

Rumiya: Rome

Sabta: Ceuta

Salubāniya: Salobreña

Santabariyya: Santaver, Muslim district that corresponds to the province of Cuenca

Saqunda: village in the suburb of Córdoba, on the left bank of the Guadalquivir river

Sajra Qays: Qays rock, fortress located near the current-day town of Huarte Araquil, in the Rock of Echauri, northwest of Pamplona

Saraqusta: Zaragoza

Seqontiya: Sigüenza

Siduna: Medina Sidonia

Sirtaniya: La Cerretania, in the Aragonese area of ​​the Pyrenees, around the valleys of the Gállego and Cinca rivers. This denomination disappears from the sources from the 10th century, when the County of Aragon appears

Siya: Ejea de los Caballeros

Suhayl: Fuengirola

Sumuntān: Somontín

Tahert: city in the north of Africa, in Algeria

Tahust: Tauste

Takurunna: one of the corias of Al Andalus, with capital in Ronda

Tarraquna: Tarragona

Talyayra: fortress located below Bobastro, over the Guadalhorce river.

Tarasuna: Tarazona

Tāy^ula: Tíjola

Tulaytula: Toledo

Turtusa: Tortosa

Tutila: Tudela

Uādi al Hamma: River Alhama

Uādi al Hiyara: Guadalajara. At first, the name of rhe city was Madinat al Faray, but later it adopted the old name of the river Henares

Uādi al Jurs: River Guadalhorce

Uādi al Kabir: River Guadalquivir, 'the big river'

Uādi al Walid: Valladolid

Uādi Anna: River Guadiana

Uādi Aragun: River Aragon

Uādi Aruad: River Arga

Uādi Cinqa: River Cinca

Uādi Duwiro: River Duero

Uādi Eyroqa: River Iregua

Uādi Ibru: river Ebro, and by extension, the Ebro valley. (Also known as Uādi Abro or Uādi Ibro)

Uādi 'Ís: Guádix

Uādi Nahar: River Henares

Uādi Qalash: River Queiles

Uādi Salit: River Guadacelete

Uādi Salún: River Jalón

Uādi Sanyil: River Genil

Uādi Tadjo: River Tajo

Uādi Uarba: River Huerva

Uādi Urbiqo: River Órbigo

Uādi Yallaq: River Gállego

Uādi Zidaq: River Cidacos

Uakhshama: Osma

Uasqa: Huesca

Ubbada: Úbeda

Uksunuba: Faro (Portugal)

Ulit: Olite

Uriyuwala: Orihuela

Ushbuna: Lisboa

Vareia: Varea

Welba: Huelva

Yabal al Bardi: Las Bardenas Reales, in Navarra

Yabal Sulayr: the mountains of the Sun, Sierra Nevada

Yabal Tariq: 'the mountain of Tariq', Gibraltar

Yayán: Jaén

Yilliqiya: Asturias (and by extension, Galicia). It's also writen as Illiqiya or Gilliqiya.

Yussana: Lucena

Etymology II Characters

[useless-catalanfacts]

A new record: temperatures are so high, that yesterday Gavarda (a town in the Valencian Country) registered the highest temperature ever recorded in Europe in January: 30.7°C (87.26°F). This would usually be the expected temperature in early May. The previous record was set in 2021 (29.8°C in Alacant). We are record after record, and it's not good.

This adds on the drought that the Catalan Countries have been suffering for 3 years. We have water use restrictions and many farmers have lost the harvests for months because they're not allowed to water the fields. And there's no prospect for generous rain any time soon. Experts have been warning that for every degree Celsius that temperatures rise in the Mediterranean region, annual rain will reduce by 4%, and since we're a region that is already naturally prone to summer droughts, this will mean 20% less water resources.

The Mediterranean region is one of the places in the Earth that heats the most because of climate change. There will be 40% more days with extreme heat (days with temperatures higher than 35°C=95°F), which will have effects on health, particularly on open-air workers, and will suppose a 17% decrease in agriculture produce. That is, without counting rising sea levels.

The Mediterranean region is inhabited by 400-500 million people, out of which 150 million live on the coast. Experts calculate that the sea will have risen 1 meter (it's not out of the question that it might have risen even more if polluting emissions aren't reduced) by the end of the century. Considering that 37% Mediterranean coast is very low, on sea level, this means that this rise of the Mediterranean sea will put about 42 million people in extreme danger. One of the first victims will be (and is already suffering the early effects) the Delta of the Ebro river, a mostly-agricultural area in the South of Catalonia which is also a Biosphere reserve due to its great biodiversity.

And some people still say climate change isn't real 🤦

[iberiantraveler]

Wine Touring In Rioja's Valle del Tirón

Valle del Tirón, La Rioja Alta West of Haro, in the Valley of Tirón, you will find several small villages, some with castles and all with a long history of wine making; Anguciana, Ternero (Castile-León) Sajazarra, Fonzaleche, Cuzcurrita de Río Tirón and Tirgo. The Río Tirón joins the Río Oja near Cihuri, before flowing into the Ebro River near Haro. The Río Oja Valley, one of the seven valleys…

[dailyanarchistposts]

Where Water Does Not Flow

All over the world irrigation (especially for cash crops) has reached the point of diminishing returns, where mineral salts increase the salinity of water and decrease output: in 1990 30– 40% of the world’s irrigated cropland was estimated to be waterlogged or suffering from excessive salinisation. 63% of water used in 1991 was for irrigation, a figure projected to decline to 55% by 2000. It is now generally recognised that irrigation projects are most likely to succeed when fallow periods are observed and when managed by local communities. The reliance on large-scale irrigation has spread from luxury export crops in dry climates to the production of ordinary crops for supermarkets that account for most of British retail trade. Big farmers are encouraged by the National Rivers Authority (NRA) and the Ministry of Agriculture to build their own reservoirs and are licensed to take water from rivers, despite the impacts on other users.

Because it is fixed and stable, land can be divided by hedges or walls and turned into private property, personal wealth and inheritance. But water should be a communal asset, because it will not stay still. For thousands of years legal and informal systems have accepted and insisted that there can be no ownership of running water. There is a long history of human societies that have developed elaborate systems to ensure fair access for all to water: the water communities on the Genil, Segura and Ebro rivers are examples of solidarity and social co-operation created by the Spanish on the foundations laid by the Phoenicians, the Roman Empire and the Moors. The modern technology of pipes, pumps and motive power makes such schemes easier. For irrigation, local control of water is all-important and can be achieved in many ways. In a centuries old system in Bali, all farmers taking water from the same stream or river are members of a sebak organisation, meeting every 35 days, with its own systems of law. It plans planting days, distributes water equitably and fines cheats. In the smallscale irrigation systems of eastern Spain under the Moors, water belonged to the community and was sold with the land. Continual disputes about its use in times of scarcity were regulated by a communal organisation, the huerta in places such as Aragon. Here water belongs to farmers and growers through whose land it passes, each water user belongs to a comunidad de regantes (association) that elects a sindico, the combination of sindicos from each zone constitutes the Water Tribunal. These meet to judge rations during scarcity; no lawyers or state laws are involved, fines are sometimes imposed and always paid.