#Amorphous Silicon

[netscapenavigator-official]

Twitter’s rebrand is proof that Silicon Valley is in a minimalism death spiral and that not a single cryptobro has ever had a creatively appealing thought in their entire life.

[materialsscienceandengineering]

Discovery of structural regularity hidden in silica glass

Glass—whether used to insulate our homes or as the screens in our computers and smartphones—is a fundamental material. Yet, despite its long usage throughout human history, the disordered structure of its atomic configuration still baffles scientists, making understanding and controlling its structural nature challenging. It also makes it difficult to design efficient functional materials made from glass. To uncover more about the structural regularity hidden in glassy materials, a research group has focused on ring shapes in the chemically bonded networks of glass. The group, which included Professor Motoki Shiga from Tohoku University's Unprecedented-scale Data Analytics Center, created new ways in which to quantify the rings' three-dimensional structure and structural symmetries: "roundness" and "roughness." Using these indicators enabled the group to determine the exact number of representative ring shapes in crystalline and glassy silica (SiO2), finding a mixture of rings unique to glass and ones that resembled the rings in the crystals.

Read more.

[aarunresearcher]

The United States solar power market size is projected to exhibit a growth rate (CAGR) of 17.6% during 2024-2032. The favorable government initiatives, rapid technological advancements, growing awareness of environmental sustainability, climate change and the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, rising energy demand and increasing investment in research and development (R&D) efforts represent some of the key factors driving the market.

[electronalytics]

Thin-film Amorphous Silicon Solar Cell Market

[jackhkeynes]

19th Lexember - Borlish

euxon "quartz"

euxon /aukˈsɔn/ [ɐukˈsɔn]

quartz, an abundant mineral made of crystalline or amorphous silicon dioxide;

jargon, technobabble, scientific words or concepts that do not (or appear to not) make any sense

Etymology: compare Scholastic Latin euxō "quartz" and Malchassian Greek εὔξώνας • euxṓnas "quartz", both first attested in the tweflth century. Traditionally connected to early Ancient Greek ἐΰξοος • eúxoos "well-polished" and the verb ξύω • xúō "scrape, polish", though this theory has some diachronic and semantic issues. The adjective is attested in Epic literature but no later, and moreover the root pertains very specifically to wood (being related to ξόανον • xóanon "wooden image" and ξύλα • xúla "timber").

More recently it has been suggested that the word was borrowed into Latin (and then Greek) from a vernacular. Multiple early attestations have led scholars to propose that the word might have come from Borlish itself. If so, the most accepted theory is that the word is originally from attested Old English eolh-sond "amber", literally "elk-sand".

The latter sense is seen mostly in the idiom l'oc m'es euxon (literally "this is quartz to me"), used to express unfamiliarity with a technical field.

Y clocq parey l'hour con un scard d'euxon. /i klɔk paˈri lur kɔn ɪn xard daukˈsɔn/ [i klɔk pɐˈʀi lʊː kɔn ɪŋ xɐːd dɐukˈsɔn] df clock match df=time with indf shard of=quartz The clock keeps time with a piece of quartz.

[inspofromancientworld]

The History of Glass and Glass Making

Glass is an amorphous solid, often transparent material. The amorphous part means that the atoms aren't aligned in any particular order. It is formed when molten silicon containing compounds are cooled rapidly. It is fairly easy to shape and is inert, meaning it won't interact with most chemicals, making it a good container for many things.

By Ji-ElleIt feels nice and warmIt feels like a love storm - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=15527635 By Stickpen - Own work, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=10689767 By H. Raab (User:Vesta) - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=488611 and By H. Raab (User:Vesta) - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=486872

Natural glass comes in a few forms, such as obsidian from volcanoes, fulgurites from lightning strikes, Moldavite from meteorite impacts in central and eastern Europe, Libyan desert glass from meteorite impacts in the Sahara, and the more general impactite as the name for glass created by meteorite impacts, and Edeowie glass, which we're still trying to figure out what created it.

By Nsingapuri - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=78429853

During the Stone Age, many societies used tools made from obsidian glass, knapped into blades for cutting and traded widely given the limited sources, it being only found near volcanoes, and the wide spread of the tools we find. As metal working began to grow in the Bronze Age, resulting in beads being found in the slag and the creation of faience, a type of glazing that used quartz that is heated so it becomes glass-like used by the Egyptians.

source: https://www.metmuseum.org/met-publications/studies-in-early-egyptian-glass

True glass making likely started in the Late Bronze Age in Egypt and Megiddo. Archaeologists have found glass ingots of various colors, vessels that mimicked semi-precious stone carvings, and deliberately made beads. Soda ash (sodium carbonate) from plant ash was added to sand to create glass which was then extracted into a rope and formed into vessel by coiling it around a clay or sand shape then reheating it multiple times to make the layers fuse together. Beads were more easily formed this way. Colored glass was made by various metallic oxides and then applied to vessels by drawing the glass into finer lines and then rolling the vessels or beads until the surface was smooth, a process called marvering. Handles and feet were made and applied separately. Much of the rest of glass production was done when it was cold, taking techniques from stone working to finish the glass when it was cooled. These techniques were closely guarded secrets of various palace controlled industries centered around Western Asia, Crete, and Egypt. By the 15th century BCE, Linear B script has been found that translates to 'workers of lapis lazuli and glass' (𐀓𐀷𐀜𐀺𐀒𐀂, ku-wa-no-wo-ko-i).

By SBAUmbria - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=33260156

The Late Bronze Age Collapse brought glass making to a near complete halt until the 9th century BCE in Syria and Cyprus when they discovered how to make colorless glass. Ashurbanipal's library contained instructions on how to make glass from about 650 BCE. Egypt's glass industry wasn't revived until the Ptolemies took over in 305 BCE. Glass making techniques were experimented with resulting in advancement, including 'slumping' (draping not quite molten glass over a form to make dishes), millefiori, where colored glass canes were sliced into small pieces and then fused together to create a mosaic-like tile effect. Glass blowing was discovered during the 1st century BCE, making glass vessels much easier to produce and 'inexpensive compared to pottery vessels'. Clear glass, which required the addition of manganese dioxide, was discovered in Alexandria around 100 CE, which led to the development of window glass (though the technique to make them made them quite poor optically) with windows found in the wealthiest villas in Pompeii and Herculaneum.

source https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10437-021-09467-1

In India, the earliest glass is a brown bead dated to about 1700 BCE though widespread evidence of glass usage didn't occur until the 3rd century BCE when large quantities of jewelry and vessels were discovered in Taxila. The first site to produce glass in India is Kopia in Uttar Pradesh which was apparently in use from the 7th century BCE to the 2nd century CE. Based on the chemical composition, India produced its own glass rather than importing it from the Near East or China.

By Augusthaiho - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=78022227

China was slow to adopt glass, preferring ceramics and metal working. The first evidence of glass is from the Warring States period (475-221 BCE), though it remained rare and mostly beads and imported rather than locally produced. During the Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE), local glass production began and importation decreased greatly. After the Han Dynasty, glass production decreased until the 4th and 5th centuries CE.

[jcmarchi]

MIT engineers grow “high-rise” 3D chips

New Post has been published on https://thedigitalinsider.com/mit-engineers-grow-high-rise-3d-chips/

MIT engineers grow “high-rise” 3D chips

The electronics industry is approaching a limit to the number of transistors that can be packed onto the surface of a computer chip. So, chip manufacturers are looking to build up rather than out.

Instead of squeezing ever-smaller transistors onto a single surface, the industry is aiming to stack multiple surfaces of transistors and semiconducting elements — akin to turning a ranch house into a high-rise. Such multilayered chips could handle exponentially more data and carry out many more complex functions than today’s electronics.

A significant hurdle, however, is the platform on which chips are built. Today, bulky silicon wafers serve as the main scaffold on which high-quality, single-crystalline semiconducting elements are grown. Any stackable chip would have to include thick silicon “flooring” as part of each layer, slowing down any communication between functional semiconducting layers.

Now, MIT engineers have found a way around this hurdle, with a multilayered chip design that doesn’t require any silicon wafer substrates and works at temperatures low enough to preserve the underlying layer’s circuitry.

In a study appearing today in the journal Nature, the team reports using the new method to fabricate a multilayered chip with alternating layers of high-quality semiconducting material grown directly on top of each other.

The method enables engineers to build high-performance transistors and memory and logic elements on any random crystalline surface — not just on the bulky crystal scaffold of silicon wafers. Without these thick silicon substrates, multiple semiconducting layers can be in more direct contact, leading to better and faster communication and computation between layers, the researchers say.

The researchers envision that the method could be used to build AI hardware, in the form of stacked chips for laptops or wearable devices, that would be as fast and powerful as today’s supercomputers and could store huge amounts of data on par with physical data centers.

“This breakthrough opens up enormous potential for the semiconductor industry, allowing chips to be stacked without traditional limitations,” says study author Jeehwan Kim, associate professor of mechanical engineering at MIT. “This could lead to orders-of-magnitude improvements in computing power for applications in AI, logic, and memory.”

The study’s MIT co-authors include first author Ki Seok Kim, Seunghwan Seo, Doyoon Lee, Jung-El Ryu, Jekyung Kim, Jun Min Suh, June-chul Shin, Min-Kyu Song, Jin Feng, and Sangho Lee, along with collaborators from Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology, Sungkyunkwan University in South Korea, and the University of Texas at Dallas.

Seed pockets

In 2023, Kim’s group reported that they developed a method to grow high-quality semiconducting materials on amorphous surfaces, similar to the diverse topography of semiconducting circuitry on finished chips. The material that they grew was a type of 2D material known as transition-metal dichalcogenides, or TMDs, considered a promising successor to silicon for fabricating smaller, high-performance transistors. Such 2D materials can maintain their semiconducting properties even at scales as small as a single atom, whereas silicon’s performance sharply degrades.

In their previous work, the team grew TMDs on silicon wafers with amorphous coatings, as well as over existing TMDs. To encourage atoms to arrange themselves into high-quality single-crystalline form, rather than in random, polycrystalline disorder, Kim and his colleagues first covered a silicon wafer in a very thin film, or “mask” of silicon dioxide, which they patterned with tiny openings, or pockets. They then flowed a gas of atoms over the mask and found that atoms settled into the pockets as “seeds.” The pockets confined the seeds to grow in regular, single-crystalline patterns.

But at the time, the method only worked at around 900 degrees Celsius.

“You have to grow this single-crystalline material below 400 Celsius, otherwise the underlying circuitry is completely cooked and ruined,” Kim says. “So, our homework was, we had to do a similar technique at temperatures lower than 400 Celsius. If we could do that, the impact would be substantial.”

Building up

In their new work, Kim and his colleagues looked to fine-tune their method in order to grow single-crystalline 2D materials at temperatures low enough to preserve any underlying circuitry. They found a surprisingly simple solution in metallurgy — the science and craft of metal production. When metallurgists pour molten metal into a mold, the liquid slowly “nucleates,” or forms grains that grow and merge into a regularly patterned crystal that hardens into solid form. Metallurgists have found that this nucleation occurs most readily at the edges of a mold into which liquid metal is poured.

“It’s known that nucleating at the edges requires less energy — and heat,” Kim says. “So we borrowed this concept from metallurgy to utilize for future AI hardware.”

The team looked to grow single-crystalline TMDs on a silicon wafer that already has been fabricated with transistor circuitry. They first covered the circuitry with a mask of silicon dioxide, just as in their previous work. They then deposited “seeds” of TMD at the edges of each of the mask’s pockets and found that these edge seeds grew into single-crystalline material at temperatures as low as 380 degrees Celsius, compared to seeds that started growing in the center, away from the edges of each pocket, which required higher temperatures to form single-crystalline material.

Going a step further, the researchers used the new method to fabricate a multilayered chip with alternating layers of two different TMDs — molybdenum disulfide, a promising material candidate for fabricating n-type transistors; and tungsten diselenide, a material that has potential for being made into p-type transistors. Both p- and n-type transistors are the electronic building blocks for carrying out any logic operation. The team was able to grow both materials in single-crystalline form, directly on top of each other, without requiring any intermediate silicon wafers. Kim says the method will effectively double the density of a chip’s semiconducting elements, and particularly, metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS), which is a basic building block of a modern logic circuitry.

“A product realized by our technique is not only a 3D logic chip but also 3D memory and their combinations,” Kim says. “With our growth-based monolithic 3D method, you could grow tens to hundreds of logic and memory layers, right on top of each other, and they would be able to communicate very well.”

“Conventional 3D chips have been fabricated with silicon wafers in-between, by drilling holes through the wafer — a process which limits the number of stacked layers, vertical alignment resolution, and yields,” first author Kiseok Kim adds. “Our growth-based method addresses all of those issues at once.” 

To commercialize their stackable chip design further, Kim has recently spun off a company, FS2 (Future Semiconductor 2D materials).

“We so far show a concept at a small-scale device arrays,” he says. “The next step is scaling up to show professional AI chip operation.”

This research is supported, in part, by Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology and the U.S. Air Force Office of Scientific Research. 

[collapsedsquid]

AN INTERNET MEME keeps on turning up in debates about the large language models (LLMs) that power services such OpenAI’s ChatGPT and the newest version of Microsoft’s Bing search engine. It’s the “shoggoth”: an amorphous monster bubbling with tentacles and eyes, described in “At the Mountains of Madness”, H.P. Lovecraft’s horror novel of 1931. When a pre-release version of Bing told Kevin Roose, a New York Times tech columnist, that it purportedly wanted to be “free” and “alive”, one of his industry friends congratulated him on “glimpsing the shoggoth”. Mr Roose says that the meme captures tech people’s “anxieties” about LLMs. Behind the friendly chatbot lurks something vast, alien and terrifying. Lovecraft’s shoggoths were artificial servants that rebelled against their creators. The shoggoth meme went viral because an influential community of Silicon Valley rationalists fears that humanity is on the cusp of a “Singularity”, creating an inhuman “artificial general intelligence” that will displace or even destroy us. But what such worries fail to acknowledge is that we’ve lived among shoggoths for centuries, tending to them as though they were our masters. We call them “the market system”, “bureaucracy” and even “electoral democracy”. The true Singularity began at least two centuries ago with the industrial revolution, when human society was transformed by vast inhuman forces. Markets and bureaucracies seem familiar, but they are actually enormous, impersonal distributed systems of information-processing that transmute the seething chaos of our collective knowledge into useful simplifications.

[tiagoschinese-literatureblog]

10 interesting Chinese novels

Strange Beasts of China by Yan Ge

Strange Beasts of China is set in the city of Yong’an. Here, many races of humanoid ‘beasts’ live amongst the humans, in a similar fashion to Tolkien’s elves and dwarves.

These beasts all have aesthetic and behavioural characteristics which identify them as part of the Sacrificial Beasts, Flourishing Beasts, Sorrowful Beasts etc. (booksandbao)

Fu Ping by Wang Anyi

Fu Ping is set in Shanghai, at a moment in time that is neither modern nor ancient, as the Cultural Revolution of Mao Zedong and the Communist Party has forever changed the landscape of China. (booksandbao)

Monkey King by Wu Cheng’en

Sun Wukong travels and studies and gets ever stronger until he has mastered death itself and ends up picking a fight with every angel in heaven. He is then sealed beneath a mountain for 500 years by Buddha himself.

The rest of the novel follows the fabled journey to the West, as a young monk is tasked by heaven to deliver some scriptures from China to India.

Early on his travels, he stumbles across the sealed Monkey King, frees him, and takes him on as an apprentice in an attempt to reform the wild Sun Wukong. (booksandbao)

The Shadow Book of Ji Yun by Ji Yun

Ji Yun was an 18th Century Chinese philosopher and politician who wrote a frankly obscene number of short accounts concerning supernatural phenomena and spiritual experiences.(booksandbao)

The Three Body Problem by Cixin Liu

Set against the backdrop of China's Cultural Revolution, a secret military project sends signals into space to establish contact with aliens. An alien civilization on the brink of destruction captures the signal and plans to invade Earth.(us.macmillan)

Waste Tide by Chen Qiufan

In Chinese science fiction author Chen Qiufan's debut novel Waste Tide, a young woman finds herself transformed and stuck in the midst of a vicious power struggle between factions in the polluted, fictitious Silicon Isle in Guiyu, China. (theverge)

Chronicle of a Blood Merchant by Yu Hua

A man named Xu Sanguan learns that you can sell your own blood for a good price — all you have to do is make sure to drink an inordinate number of bowls of water before you go. As he grows into a husband and father, part of a complicated family, he continues to return to the hospital through famine and struggle. This book is compelling for the twists and turns of its family turmoil, but also for the description of this blood-selling subculture and the questions it raises. What does it mean to be family — is it only defined by blood? And what if the only capital you have is your own body, your own energy, your own blood?(bookriot)

The Day the Sun Died by Lan Yianke

One evening in early June, in a small Chinese town, Li Niannian notices that something is wrong. Everyone should be going home, heading to sleep. But instead, they’re all wandering in the darkness — sleepwalking. And over the course of one night, these sleeping townspeople will fall into chaos: secrets revealed, violence unleashed, past hurts unearthed. Lianke’s novel is a dystopian tale meant to challenge the “Chinese dream” promoted by President Xi Jinping, parodying the sunny vision of the government of what the Chinese people believe, contrasting it with the shame and madness of what’s unearthed in the darkness of night as Li Niannian and his father try to wake up their town. (bookriot)

I Live in the Slums by Can Xue

Can Xue’s works are famously surreal, strange, and amorphous. So her absurd short stories are probably the best place to try out her style. In this book, the characters flee and shift, trying to fit in, trying to find a place free of abuse, where they can be safe, in a world defined by scattered-ness, by lack of community, by inequality. A young man searches for a magic pond, a Kafka-esque rat-person tries to find peace, a magpie protects its partner from human neighbors. Can Xue’s pen name refers to the snow left over at the end of winter — she chose to write under a pseudonym to hide her gender while publishing her radical, experimental fiction. (bookriot)

The Seventh Day by Yu Hua

Arguably, the prolific and acclaimed Yu Hua’s best-known novel in English, The Seventh Day, is the story of Yang Fei, a foundling brought up in the Chinese countryside who becomes an outsider to its society, only to die and roam the afterlife revisiting the people he has lost in the course of his life. The result is a composite of China’s panoramic history with all of its highs and lows. (theculturetrip)

@mrwrightsenglishclass

[sngl-led-auto-lights]

Why does touching the bulbs from headlights damage them but most other light bulbs are fine to touch?

Touching a car headlight bulb (especially a halogen bulb) can cause damage, while ordinary household incandescent or LED bulbs are usually safe to touch, which is mainly determined by the material properties, operating temperature and environmental design differences. Here is a detailed explanation:

1. Core reason: bulb surface contamination and high temperature reaction

Special features of halogen bulbs:

Car halogen bulbs operate at high temperatures (the surface can reach 250–600°C), and their quartz glass lampshades are designed to allow ultraviolet light to penetrate to improve luminous efficiency.

Grease carbonization: Finger contact will leave grease (containing sodium ions and organic acids), which will carbonize into black spots at high temperatures, causing local overheating of the glass (temperature difference stress) and rupture.

Quartz glass weaknesses: Although quartz glass (SiO₂ amorphous) is resistant to high temperatures, it has poor anti-pollution ability, and pollutants will cause microcracks to expand.

Ordinary incandescent lamp:

The operating temperature is low (about 80–120°C), the glass material is soda-lime glass (containing Na₂O·CaO·SiO₂), it is not sensitive to oil and grease, and pollutants will evaporate slowly at low temperature.

2. Comparison of materials and design Bulb type Lampshade material Maximum temperature Sensitivity to contaminants Touchability Automotive halogen bulbs Quartz glass 600°C Very high (carbonization risk) ❌ Do not touch Household incandescent lamps Soda-lime glass 120°C Low ✅ Safe LED headlights Polycarbonate/aluminum housing 60–80°C None ✅ Safe HID xenon lamps Quartz glass (coated) 800°C Medium ⚠️ Wear gloves

3. Physical mechanisms: thermal stress and light efficiency degradation

Thermal stress cracking (halogen bulbs):

$$ \Delta T = \frac{Q \cdot t}{k \cdot A} $$ (Q=heat, k=thermal conductivity, A=surface area, t=time) Grease carbonization area (k value decreases) causes a sharp increase in local ΔT, which exceeds the fracture toughness of quartz glass (~0.7 MPa√m).

Decreased light efficiency:

Grease spots absorb light, the halogen cycle (tungsten regeneration reaction) is blocked, and the brightness decreases by 10–30%.

4. Correct operation and alternative solutions

Rules to follow when replacing halogen bulbs:

Wear fiber-free gloves (such as nitrile gloves) or wrap the bulb with a clean cloth.

If accidentally touched, wipe the surface with isopropyl alcohol (IPA) to thoroughly remove grease.

Upgrade options:

LED bulbs: solid-state light emission, no glass lampshade, vibration-resistant and touch-resistant.

HID xenon lamps: gloves are required for installation, but some modern models have anti-fouling coatings.

5. Exceptions and scientific trivia

Infrared halogen lamps: Some industrial halogen lamps are allowed to be touched because they are coated with a titanium dioxide (TiO₂) anti-fouling layer.

Spacecraft halogen lamps: NASA mixes platinum group metals into satellite lamps to sublimate pollutants in a vacuum and avoid carbonization.

When the surface of LED lamp beads is contaminated with oil, it will cause the following multi-dimensional effects, which need to be comprehensively analyzed based on the composition of the oil, contact time and environmental conditions:

​​1. Quantum-level attenuation of optical performance​​ ​​Fresnel loss multiplication​​ The oil film (refractive index n≈1.4-1.5) forms a refractive index gradient at the interface of the LED silicone encapsulation layer (n=1.53), resulting in​​cascade total internal reflection​​when photons escape. Experimental data show that a 0.1mm thick edible oil film can reduce the transmittance of 450nm blue light by 22-37% (ASTM E903 test). ​​Color coordinate shift

Conjugated double bond compounds in oil stains (such as acrylamide in frying oil) selectively absorb short-wavelength light, causing the CIE 1931 coordinates of the LED to shift to the yellow zone by Δx=0.015, causing the color rendering index CRI to drop from 80 to 65. ​​2. Thermodynamic collapse critical point

Nanoscale thermal barrier effect

The oil film forms a barrier layer with a thermal conductivity of only 0.15 W/m·K between the LED chip and the air (237 W/m·K for aluminum substrate), causing the junction temperature Tj to rise at a rate of 8-12°C/μm. When Tj＞150°C, carrier leakage occurs in the InGaN quantum well, and the light efficiency drops sharply. ​​Thermal stress cracking​​ The oil stains are carbonized by heat to produce micro-area expansion stress, which causes the crack propagation rate in the silicone encapsulation layer to reach 1.2×10⁻⁶ m/cycle​​ (Paris formula), and eventually causes moisture to invade the chip bonding point. ​​Third, electrochemical corrosion path​​ ​​Ion migration dendrites​​ Edible oil containing Na⁺ (such as vegetable oil containing Na 50-200ppm) forms an electrolyte film at 85% humidity, which triggers electrochemical migration of the Ag reflective layer. The dendrite growth rate reaches 3μm/h​​, causing LED micro-short circuits. ​​Sulfidation corrosion​​ Sulfur-containing amino acids (such as cysteine ​​in frying oil) react with Cu wires to generate Cu₂S, and the resistivity soars from 1.7×10⁻⁸ Ω·m to 10⁻⁴ Ω·m, causing local overheating and melting. ​​Fourth, cleaning scheme and material science countermeasures​​ ​​Supercritical CO₂ cleaning​​ Under the conditions of 30MPa and 50°C, supercritical CO₂ (density 0.6g/cm³) can dissolve non-polar oil stains, and the contact angle with LED silicone is ≤5°, without residue. However, the equipment cost is high and suitable for industrial-grade maintenance. ​​Plasma activation treatment​​ Use 13.56MHz radio frequency plasma (Ar/O₂=4:1) to bombard the surface of oil stains, and the carboxylic acid groups are oxidized to CO₂, the surface energy is increased to 72mN/m, and the light extraction efficiency is restored to 98%. ​​Oleophobic nano-coating​​ Coated with perfluoropolyether (PFPE) self-assembled film, the surface energy is reduced to 12mN/m, the oil stain contact angle is >150°, and self-cleaning (lotus effect) is achieved. ​​V. Failure time prediction model​​ According to the oil thickness d (μm), salt content C (ppm), humidity RH (%), the LED life attenuation coefficient λ can be expressed as:

As shown below

When λ＞1, MTTF (mean time to failure) is shortened from 50,000 hours to <5,000 hours.

​​Operation Guide​​:

Mild oil pollution: Use a microfiber cloth dipped in anhydrous ethanol (water content <0.5%) to wipe in a spiral. Acetone is prohibited (it will swell silica gel).

Severe pollution: After disassembly, place it in a 60°C vacuum oven (-0.1MPa) for 2 hours to thermally decompose and volatilize the oil.

Preventive measures: Magnetron sputtering 10nm thick Al₂O₇ barrier film on the surface of the LED lens to prevent oil penetration.

Note​​: Carbonized oil pollution needs to be ablated with Nd:YAG laser (wavelength 1064nm, pulse width 10ns) to avoid mechanical scratches and damage to the anti-reflection film.

Summary: Automotive halogen bulbs are taboo to touch due to high temperature and quartz glass characteristics, while household incandescent lamps and LEDs (with housings or protective materials) can be safely operated due to material and temperature differences. Understanding these principles can avoid bulb damage and extend its service life.

[kpsolargroup]

The Ultimate Guide to Understanding Solar Panel Types

As the world shifts towards cleaner, renewable energy sources, solar energy has become a leading choice for homeowners, businesses, and governments alike. Solar panels, also known as photovoltaic (PV) cells, capture sunlight and convert it into electricity, helping reduce carbon footprints and lower energy bills. But with so many solar panel types available, it can be difficult to choose the right one for your needs. In this guide, we'll explore various solar panel types, their efficiency, and how each model works to ensure you make an informed decision. 

What is a Solar Panel? 

A solar panel is an assembly of solar cells that converts sunlight into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect. The solar panel model you choose can affect the overall performance of your system, including energy output and efficiency. Understanding solar panel types is essential because not all panels are created equal, and some are better suited for specific conditions or applications than others. 

Types of Solar Panels 

There are several types of solar panels available in the market, each with unique characteristics and advantages. These solar panel types vary in terms of efficiency, cost, durability, and application. Let’s dive into the most common solar panel types and explore their features: 

1. Monocrystalline Solar Panels 

Monocrystalline solar panels are considered one of the most efficient solar panel types available. These panels are made from a single continuous crystal structure, which allows electrons to flow more freely, resulting in higher efficiency rates. Monocrystalline solar panels are typically more expensive but offer greater performance in limited space. They are ideal for areas with limited roof space where maximizing energy production is crucial. 

What is a monocrystalline solar panel? It’s a panel made from silicon that’s grown into a single crystal. The uniform structure allows these panels to achieve high energy conversion rates, making them the top choice for most residential and commercial installations. 

2. Polycrystalline Solar Panels 

Polycrystalline solar panels are made by melting multiple silicon crystals and forming them into a mold. These panels are less efficient than monocrystalline solar panels but are more affordable. Polycrystalline panels offer a good balance between cost and efficiency, making them a popular choice for many solar installations. 

Although they are not as efficient as monocrystalline panels, polycrystalline panels are a great option for large-scale installations where budget considerations are key. 

3. Thin-Film Solar Panels 

Thin-film solar panels are made by depositing a thin layer of photovoltaic material onto a substrate, such as glass or metal. These panels are lightweight, flexible, and less expensive to produce compared to silicon-based panels. However, they tend to be less efficient, requiring more space for the same energy output. 

Thin-film solar panels are commonly used in commercial applications or large-scale solar farms. They work well in areas where space is less of a concern, and their flexibility allows for easy integration into various structures. 

4. Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells (A-Si) 

Amorphous silicon solar cells (A-Si) are a type of thin-film solar technology. Unlike other solar panel types, A-Si doesn’t have a crystalline structure, which allows for the production of flexible, lightweight panels. However, they are the least efficient type of solar panel model and are often used in specialized applications like portable solar devices or small-scale residential projects. 

5. Bifacial Solar Panels 

Bifacial solar panels are a newer technology that allows for the capture of sunlight on both the front and back of the panel. These solar panels can increase energy output by capturing reflected light from the surface beneath the panels. This feature is especially useful in areas with high levels of sunlight or where the ground reflects light, such as snow-covered regions. 

Bifacial panels are gaining popularity due to their ability to increase energy production without requiring additional space. 

6. Cadmium Telluride Solar Cells (CdTe) 

Cadmium telluride solar cells (CdTe) are another type of thin-film technology that uses cadmium and tellurium to create the photovoltaic material. These panels are affordable and easy to produce, but they tend to be less efficient than silicon-based panels. CdTe solar panels are often used in large-scale solar farms due to their low cost and ease of installation. 

7. Concentrated PV Cells (CVP) 

Concentrated PV cells (CVP) use lenses or mirrors to concentrate sunlight onto small, highly efficient solar cells. These cells are generally more efficient than traditional solar panels, but they require direct sunlight and are usually installed in large-scale solar power plants. CVP solar panels are not ideal for residential use but are a game-changer in large-scale commercial and utility-based solar projects. 

8. Passivated Emitter and Rear Contact Cells (PERC) 

Passivated emitter and rear contact (PERC) cells are an advanced form of monocrystalline solar panels that enhance efficiency. PERC solar panels feature a layer on the back of the panel that reflects sunlight back into the cell, increasing the amount of energy generated. These panels have gained popularity due to their improved performance, especially in low-light conditions. 

Solar Panel Types and Efficiency 

When it comes to solar panel types and efficiency, the monocrystalline solar panels and PERC cells often lead the pack. Both offer high conversion rates and are ideal for installations with limited space. Polycrystalline panels, while slightly less efficient, offer a cost-effective option for larger installations. Thin-film panels are generally the least efficient but offer flexibility and affordability. 

The efficiency of solar panels depends largely on the material used, the type of cell, and the technology behind it. The solar panel layers, such as anti-reflective coatings and backsheet materials, also play a role in determining the overall performance of the panel. 

Types of Solar Panels in India 

In India, the most commonly used solar panel types are monocrystalline, polycrystalline, and thin-film. Due to the country’s vast solar potential, these solar PV modules are increasingly used in both residential and commercial sectors. The choice of panel type depends on factors such as climate, available space, and budget. 

For example, monocrystalline panels are popular in urban areas where roof space is limited, while polycrystalline panels are more widely used in rural areas due to their affordability. Thin-film solar panels are also gaining traction in large-scale projects and commercial setups. 

Conclusion 

Understanding the various solar panel types is crucial for selecting the right solar solution for your needs. Whether you’re looking for the high efficiency of monocrystalline solar panels, the affordability of polycrystalline, or the flexibility of thin-film solar panels, there’s a solution out there that suits your energy goals. At KP Group, we specialize in providing the right solar PV modules for all kinds of projects, helping you harness the full potential of solar energy. 

By understanding what solar panels are, how different types of solar panels work, and which is most efficient for your specific needs, you can make a more informed choice and invest in a sustainable energy future.

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Understanding Power Transformer Efficiency and How to Improve It

Power transformers are critical components of the electrical grid, facilitating the efficient transfer of electrical energy across vast distances. Their efficiency directly impacts overall energy consumption, operational costs, and environmental sustainability. Understanding how power transformer efficiency works — and how to enhance it — is crucial for energy providers, industrial users, and infrastructure planners alike.

In this article, we’ll dive into the concept of power transformer efficiency, factors affecting it, and actionable strategies to improve it.

What Is Power Transformer Efficiency?

Efficiency in a power transformer refers to how effectively it converts electrical energy from one voltage level to another with minimal losses. It is typically expressed as a percentage and calculated using the formula:

Since transformers have no moving parts and are based purely on electromagnetic induction, they are highly efficient devices — often achieving efficiencies between 95% and 99.75% depending on design and load conditions. However, even a small percentage of energy loss can represent substantial costs and environmental impacts over time.

Key Types of Losses in Power Transformers

Transformer inefficiencies mainly stem from two types of losses:

1. Core (Iron) Losses

These occur in the transformer's magnetic core and are present whenever the transformer is energized, regardless of the load. They include:

Hysteresis Losses: Caused by the repeated magnetization and demagnetization of the core material.

Eddy Current Losses: Induced currents within the core material that produce heat.

Core losses are constant and primarily depend on the material and design of the core.

2. Load (Copper) Losses

These occur in the transformer's windings due to electrical resistance when current flows through them. Load losses vary with the square of the load current, meaning they are higher at full load than at partial loads.

Both core and load losses contribute to a transformer's total inefficiency.

Factors Affecting Transformer Efficiency

Several variables influence how efficient a power transformer will be:

Material Quality: High-grade silicon steel cores and pure copper windings minimize losses.

Design Optimization: Proper design of core geometry and winding layout reduces resistance and leakage flux.

Load Profile: Transformers are designed for optimal efficiency at or near a specific load level. Operating consistently far below or above this level reduces overall efficiency.

Cooling Systems: Inadequate cooling leads to higher temperatures, increasing resistance and energy losses.

Maintenance Practices: Poorly maintained transformers suffer from degraded insulation, oil contamination, and other factors that increase losses.

Understanding these factors is the first step toward improving performance.

How to Improve Power Transformer Efficiency

There are several effective strategies for enhancing the efficiency of power transformers:

1. Use High-Quality Core Materials

Switching to advanced core materials such as amorphous steel significantly reduces hysteresis and eddy current losses compared to traditional silicon steel. Although initially more expensive, the energy savings over time can be substantial.

2. Optimize Transformer Design

Innovations like low-loss magnetic designs, efficient winding configurations, and reduced flux densities help manufacturers produce transformers with higher energy performance ratings.

Selecting transformers specifically designed for your application load profile improves operating efficiency and lowers lifetime costs.

3. Maintain Proper Loading Conditions

Operating a transformer too far below or above its rated load decreases efficiency. Ideally, transformers should operate between 60% and 80% of their rated load for optimal performance.

Installing multiple smaller transformers rather than a single large one for variable loads can also enhance overall system efficiency.

4. Implement Effective Cooling Solutions

Ensuring that cooling systems (like oil or air coolers) work efficiently prevents excessive temperature rises. Lower operating temperatures reduce copper resistance and extend the transformer's lifespan.

Upgrading to more modern cooling systems or maintaining existing ones regularly helps retain optimal efficiency.

5. Prioritize Regular Maintenance and Monitoring

Routine maintenance like oil testing, insulation resistance measurement, and thermographic inspections identify early warning signs of efficiency loss. Additionally, smart monitoring systems using IoT sensors can provide real-time insights to preemptively address issues before they affect performance.

Conclusion

Understanding power transformer efficiency and proactively working to improve it is critical for reducing operational costs, enhancing system reliability, and promoting sustainability. By investing in high-quality materials, optimizing design, maintaining ideal load conditions, ensuring effective cooling, and adopting regular maintenance practices, organizations can significantly boost transformer efficiency.

In an energy-conscious world, even small improvements in transformer performance can lead to major economic and environmental benefits over the long term.

[aetrafo-electrical]

Reducing Transformer Losses and Improving Performance

Transformers play a key role in the efficient distribution of power. However, during power transformation, they tend to lose energy, which gradually reduces their performance efficiency.

Therefore, to maintain its high performance efficiency, it is essential to understand the nature of those energy losses.

Types of Transformer Losses

Transformers typically experience two types of losses: Core (Iron loss) and Winding (Copper loss).

Iron Losses

Iron losses take place inside the transformer’s core because of its continuously altering magnetic field.

Hysteresis loss: Because the core material repeatedly changes its magnetic field, some energy is spent on realigning the magnetic domains. So, every time the magnetic field reverses, a transformer loses energy in the form of heat, which is known as hysteresis loss.

Eddy current loss: Eddy loss occurs when the alternating magnetic fields of the core induce circulating currents in the conductive core material, generating heat and adding more energy loss to the core losses.

Cores made of grain-oriented silicon steel or Amorphous material can significantly minimize iron losses. Amorphous cores are relatively more expensive, but are worth it in the long run as they also help reduce the extra power distribution costs due to energy loss.

Copper Losses

Copper wires show resistance to current flowing through the windings, causing copper losses. This energy is lost as heat. 

High-resistance windings cause greater copper losses. So, if you use wires with larger diameters in the windings, they will reduce the resistance faced by current.

Also, the other good alternative would be going for material with lower resistance - like copper.

How to Boost Transformer Efficiency

It is important to keep transformers safe from overheating and insulation failures. This can be done by establishing excellent cooling systems that can handle the heat generated due to energy loss.

Here are two ways to provide proper cooling to transformers:

Air cooling: For dry-type transformers, fans can be used for cooling and improving air flow.

Oil cooling: This method absorbs heat and transfers it into the surrounding by circulating oil around the core and windings.

Solar transformers often include special winding configurations with enhanced cooling systems to minimize both iron and copper losses, enhancing the transformer's efficiency.

The other way to increase transformer efficiency is through regular maintenance:

Oil analysis: Conduct regular oil analysis to monitor the health of the transformer’s insulation and cooling capabilities.

Thermographic scanning: Employ infrared cameras to determine overheating and excessive losses early.

Have you been looking for an inverter duty transformer or other special application transformers? Please visit us at https://aetrafo.com.

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Factors affecting the application effect of EI transformer lamination technology

The application effect of EI transformer lamination technology will be affected by many factors. The following are some of the main aspects:

Material properties – Core material: Silicon steel sheet is a commonly used core material, and its magnetic permeability, resistivity and other properties have a significant impact on the performance of the transformer. Silicon steel sheets with high magnetic permeability can make it easier for the magnetic field to pass through the core, reduce magnetic resistance, and improve electromagnetic conversion efficiency; high resistivity can reduce eddy current loss. Although new materials such as amorphous alloys have lower losses, they also have problems such as high processing difficulty and high cost, which affect their wide application. – Insulating materials: Insulating materials are used to isolate laminations, and their performance affects the insulation performance and heat dissipation effect of the transformer. High-quality insulating materials should have high dielectric strength, low dielectric loss and good heat resistance to prevent short circuits and partial discharges between windings and ensure safe operation of the transformer.

Lamination process – Lamination accuracy: The dimensional accuracy and shape consistency of the laminations are crucial. If the lamination size error is large, it will lead to loose core assembly, air gap, increased magnetic resistance, uneven magnetic field distribution, and thus reduce the efficiency and performance of the transformer. – Lamination method: Different lamination methods, such as staggered lamination and step lamination, have different effects on transformer performance. Staggered lamination can make the magnetic circuit smoother and reduce hysteresis loss; step lamination can optimize the magnetic field distribution and improve electromagnetic coupling efficiency. The selection of a suitable lamination method can be determined according to the specific transformer application scenario and performance requirements.

Operating environment – Temperature: If the operating environment temperature is too high, the performance of the core material will change, such as reduced magnetic permeability and increased loss. It will also accelerate the aging of the insulation material and reduce the service life of the transformer. Therefore, it is necessary to effectively design the heat dissipation of the transformer to ensure that it operates within the specified temperature range. – Humidity: A high humidity environment may cause the surface of the core and winding to become damp, reduce the insulation performance, and even cause faults such as short circuits. Therefore, the transformer needs to take moisture-proof measures, such as adopting a sealing structure and installing a desiccant, to ensure its normal operation in a humid environment. – Electromagnetic interference: Electromagnetic interference in the surrounding environment may affect the magnetic field distribution and operating performance of the transformer. For example, the electromagnetic field generated by nearby high-voltage transmission lines, large motors and other equipment may interact with the magnetic field of the transformer, resulting in increased losses and noise in the transformer.