#Alexander the Great as Herakles

[jeannereames]

Do you think it’s an accident that Alexander’s life paralleled that of his hero Achilles to such an extent?

With no insult to the asker, this would be a great example of where it’d be helpful not to ask anonymously so I could query for clarity. I’m puzzled because I’m not sure what the asker has in mind, other than Hephaistion dying before Alexander as Patroklos did before Achilles?

Otherwise, they’re not parallel.

Alexander led a campaign against Persia that he inherited from his father, and was present and victorious at all (major) battles, not just one siege. He lived to become King of Asia. He married three times and left one posthumous child. That child was killed in the Successor Wars that followed.

Achilles was essentially strong-armed into the campaign by Odysseus due to a prophecy. He was not the leader nor related to the leader, and did not survive to see the final taking of Troy, nor did he become king afterwards. He fathered a child before leaving Greece, and that child survived him to become King of Epiros.

Also, of course, Alexander was real and Achilles wasn’t. This is not facetious. Non-experts sometimes don’t realize the Trojan Myth is just that…a myth. Achilles, Agamemnon, Odysseus, and Hektor never existed any more than Beowulf, King Arthur, or Rumpelstiltskin. A war between the Mycenaeans and Wilusans (Troy) may have happened, but nothing like the myth Homer tells.  

Now, Alexander used Achilles for some marketing during his own campaign. But he used Herakles (and Dionysos) more. All such usages were situational. And Achilles fell behind Herakles as Alexander’s favorite hero.

Here are a couple prior posts about Alexander, Herakles, and Achilles:

Why Is Alexander Associated with Achilles and not Herakles?

Alexander’s Heros: Herakles and Achilles

Numbers from the Ancient Sources of Mentions of Various Gods/Heroes (second half)

Do You Think Alexander and Hephaistion Were Similar to Achilles and Patroklos?

I’m sorry if this harshes some squee … but it’s the historical truth.

[worldhistoryfacts]

Let's take a look at Indo-Greek art and culture this week. Indo-Greek culture emerged after Alexander the Great's armies pushed to the edge of India. Even though Alexander's armies retreated, he left behind a lot of Greek culture and Greek people. The two cultures combined in all sorts of interesting ways.

Here are some coins of Agathokles the Just, a Bactrian king who ruled in the 180s BCE. We don’t know a whole lot about him, but he left behind a lot of coins that give us a sense of what must have been happening in this part of the world.

This shows Herakles wearing a lion skin on his head, with the words “ALEXANDER SON OF PHILIP;” on the back of the coin, Zeus holds an eagle, accompanied by the words “KING AGATHOKLES THE JUST.”

Pretty Greek, right?

It’s square, a shape much more common in Indian coins. And you’ll notice that it has two different scripts, one on the front and one on the back. On the one side, we see the Hindu deity Balarama-Samkarshana with the words (in Greek) “KING AGATHOKLES,” while on the back we have a Hindu god, Vāsudeva-Krishna, with Agathokles’ name written in the Brahmi script, which was widely used in South Asia.

{WHF} {Ko-Fi} {Medium}

[yamayuandadu]

How exactly did Hercules become connected to Vajrapani to being the protector of Buddha? And what’s his relationship of the Nio in Japan?

Katsumi Tanabe notes here that despite the widespread acceptance of the view Heracles influenced the early iconography of Vajrapani in Gandhara, there’s actually no consensus on how this phenomenon originally developed. Full explanation under the cut.

For context: Greek iconographic types were commonly adopted in Central Asia - typically for Iranian deities (who especially in the east were closer to deities in the strict sense than to the Zoroastrian notion of yazatas). However, the logic of these associations was not necessarily as simple as interpretatio graeca resulting in adoption of iconography. Nothing illustrates this point better than the fact Bactrians regarded Oxus as the king of the gods, but adopted the iconography of Marsyas for him, probably because it was a relatively widespread Greek image of a river god as opposed to some deeper analogy between their respective characters. There are also cases where iconography differs from what interpretatio would suggest - Tishtrya was seemingly associated with Apollo, but iconographically took after Artemis instead on Kushan coinage. Therefore, each case needs to be approached separately.

A particularly remarkable example of Heracles-like Vajrapani (British Museum; reproduced here for educational purposes only)

I don’t think there’s any need to undermine the transmission of iconography itself: it’s not hard to find representations of Vajrapani from Gandhara which basically look like Heracles holding a vajra (and sometimes a sword or a fly whisk) instead of a mace. However, it's worth pointing out he's actually not depicted entirely consistently in Gandharan art. In addition to the numerous Heracles-like examples, there are also cases where he resembles Silenus or another satyr; Zeus (a fairly natural match given his typical thunderbolt attribute and Varjapani’s… well, varja); Hermes; Dionysus; Alexander the Great; or an ordinary Kushan in period-appropriate clothing. Interestingly despite Varjapani being considered a yaksha, no images of him actually resemble the conventional depictions of yakshas from further south, which at the time typically drew from Indian royal iconography. Interestingly it seems only two other Buddhist figures were patterned on Greek ones in Gandharan art, Panchika (for unknown reasons depicted in the form of Hermes) and Hariti (who borrowed Tyche’s cornucopia though this was not a consistent attribute).

Ladislav Stančo in his monograph Greek gods in the East: Hellenistic Iconographic Schemes in Central Asia present a rather bold theory: the adoption of Heracles-like iconography for Varjapani was less a case of syncretism and more the result of artists familiar with Hellenistic standards being hired by Buddhists and repurposing standard forms their were familiar with already. They would often be operating only on vague descriptions of Buddhist figures they heard from the commissioners. With time these would become a standard in their own right. 

However, there are other theories too - I’ll simply summarize here what Karl Galinsky wrote in his article Herakles Vajrapani, the Companion of Buddha from the recent Herakles Inside and Outside the Church: From the first Apologists to the end of the Quattrocento.

Obviously, the fact both figures are characterized by their strength is a commonly cited factor. Another possibility is that Varjapani might have absorbed Heracles’ iconography after Kushan kings started promoting Buddhism because of a shared association with royalty. Yet another option is that Varjapani was a traveling companion of the Buddha which made him a good match for globetrotting Heracles. Finally, the fact they could both fulfill many distinct roles could be an argument in favor of identification in its own right (Galinsky seems to support this proposal himself).

In the past arguments have been made that Heracles’ iconography survived in Central Asia through Vajrapani as late as in the sixth and seventh centuries (source; note the article still follows the vintage theory Vajrapani was in part a Buddhist adoption of Zoroastrian fravashi, which I haven’t seen validated in anything recent), based on a mural showing a figure wearing a lion skin from the Kizil Caves. There is a recent article which tries to salvage this point, but the author admits this is all highly speculative. In any case, by the time Varjapani reached China his attire started to change, and he came to be shown either with a bare chest or in armor, but no longer nearly naked like Heracles. He also commonly has the exaggerated facial features you’d expect from yakshas and other similar beings, as seen for example on a mural from the Mogao Caves:

(wikimedia commons)

Vajrapani appears in later Buddhist tradition in an assortment of tales which typically portray him subduing demons or unruly deities on behalf of the Buddha. None of them really show much Greek influence, though -  I don’t really think Heracles is known for fighting Maheshvara, and in turn Vajrapani never got to free Prometheus or complete any of the twelve labors (though we know the myths themselves were known in Central Asia); iconography and mythology could be transmitted independently of each other.

A Japanese depiction of Varhapani - note the third eye (Art Institute Chicago; reproduced here for educational purposes only) In Japan, Varjapani (Kongōshu, 金剛手; Shukongōshin, 執金剛神; Kongō-rikishi, 金剛力士  etc.) only appeared after a long process of transformations in Mahayana tradition, and his depictions generally reflect Chinese artistic conventions. The Niō, literally “benevolent kings”, are a double manifestation of him and similarly reflect a Chinese model. I don’t think there’s any real reason to claim there’s all that much Heracles in them. JAANUS notes that multiple identities could be assigned to them, though none particularly consistently. There’s a case to be made that the fact they are most commonly statues guarding temple gates is basically the core of their character judging from the proliferation of legends which revolve around this (for a Chinese example see here, Japanese ones are mentioned briefly in the linked JAANUS entries). They also only became widespread in the Kamakura period, centuries after even the boldest theories suggest the survival of some memory of Heracles in Buddhist sources. To put it differently: both Heracles and Nio are undeniably parts of Varjapani's history, but they are not necessarily a part of each other's history just because of that.

[sag-dab-sar]

Hi, I’m Nik. I was wondering what’s ur opinion on worshiping/working with demigods? Thx💛

Hi Nik! I'm sorry this is all the way from October I simply haven't had the energy.

🍁 Definition 🍁

Well people view "demigods," in different ways. The word in English comes from Latin "semideus" (semi meaning half, deus meaning god) for lesser divine beings.

🔹This could include what a lot of literature labels "lesser gods" or "minor gods." For example: nymphs such as a Dryads (trees, forests, groves) or Naiads (fresh waters).

🔹This could include what Homer & Hesoid both referred to people of "good character, family, strength, and power" as hemitheoi (hemi meaning half, theoi meaning gods) after death. This individual didn't need to be part immortal to make it into this category. They tended to be people with hero worship cultus. They could be real people or legendary ancestors whose historicity is dubious.

🔹Related to the above, sometimes great rulers were considered Gods, such as Alexander the Great or various Roman emperors. Sometimes while alive sometimes posthumously.

🔹Some consider an individual with one mortal parent and one immortal parent to be demigods, Herakles would be a good example; his father being the immortal Zeus & his mother being the mortal Alcmene. However, in some cases Dionysos was considered the son of the immortal Zeus and the mortal Semele.... and he was one of the 12 Olympians in some locations and even more important in various other cults so this categorization doesn't hold up well.

🍁 Other Pantheons? 🍁

The word comes from Latin and is most properly used in regards to the Roman and by extension of history Greek pantheons (The semideus and hemitheoi); and possibly closely related ones. But of course people are going to plaster the term across any other pantheon as they see fit so lets talk about that for a second.

I find it difficult to use this term in regards to other pantheons because other pantheons have there own terms.

I'm a Sumerian polytheist so if I was to attempt to use these characteristics to pick out Mesopotamian demigods I might bring up these examples:

🔹It could be say, Lama/Lamassu goddesses & Alad/Šedu Gods, who were unnamed protective deities who might be regarded by modern eyes as "lesser divine" compared to the named city gods.

🔹Pazuzu a demon, not god, who was used in exorcism rituals, as protective talisman, and was considered to hold the much more evil Lamaštu and Lilû demons at bay. Is he a demigod? As a protective powerful being.

🔹Mortals who became immortals— Ziusudra, Ūt-napišti, (possibly) Atrahasis—but there is no term I know of for "half god" that could apply to them. They simply did a thing (build an ark) and were granted immortality.

🔹Deified rulers (while alive and posthumously) especially the kings of Ur III. Such as Narām-Suen or Samsuditāna, they claimed to be sons or brothers of various Gods, but I don't know if they would be seen on the exact same level as the Gods or a lesser level that could be labeled "demigod."

🔹Gilgameš (In Sumerian: Bilgames) is a mess when it comes to this idea. He was likely a historical king during the earliest part of Early Dynastic Period, if he was deified during his life is unknown. By the later part of the Early Dynastic period there was a deity being worshipped named Bilgames/Gilgameš that probably derived from this early king. He was a patron deity of King Utu-heĝal of Uruk, as a full divine being. Yet, the Gilgameš known in the most well known tales, is not a God, he is not even immortal. He is more akin to a hero going on adventures and destroying monsters. Some accounts say he is the son of the Goddess Ninsun and a mortal man which would also make him half mortal half immortal [edit: I think hes actually described as 2/3rds divine 1/3 human]. The very few depictions we are certain show Gilgameš do not have him with a horned cap the sign of divinity. So is he a demigod? a deified king? a half mortal half immortal? a hero? a great ancestor? Most academics use the term hero for him based on the myths even though a much more ancient Bilgames/Gilgameš was possibly worshipped as a full fledged deity.

It really does not make sense to try and parse out Mesopotamian religious figures using this word's conception (though I'm sure it appears in academia at some point) thus it doesn't make sense to use it elsewhere either. The term, like most, does not work well for pantheons that it does not derive from. I'm sure you'll see it used for pantheons and religions across the entire globe but I can't speak to any of them.

🍁 My Category Summary 🍁

For the Roman & Greek traditions (and any surrounding similar ones that I'm not going to attempt to pretend I know such as Etruscan)

Category 1: "lesser divine beings"

Category 2: People of good character after death who eventually received honor and worship. Historicity aside. (Homer & Hesoids' "hemitheoi")

Category 3: Rulers, Emperors

Category 4: Half mortal half immortal individuals

In these contexts worship of demigods in Greece & Rome has deeply entrenched historical precedent. I would see their worship as no different than worshipping other Gods or spirits from a revivalist standpoint. I love me some Dryads and have considered Herakles worship. I do find worshipping Roman emperors odd but they were deemed Gods and had cultus so I can't state that it's ahistorical or inherently bad. Basically: go right ahead! Honoring and worshiping these demigods.

🍁 Modern People 🍁

However, what about these categories in the modern world.

Category 1: Well that hasn't changed much "lesser divine beings" are still the same

Category 2: This could be construed as worshipping modern individuals who fall into this "good character, good family, strong, and powerful" idea described above. For example, idunno lets pretend Albert Einstein falls into that characterization in someone's opinion. I'd be deeply uncomfortable with someone declaring and worshipping him as a demigod. However, including him in ancestor worship seems to be a valid way to honor him, or so thats the consensus among most modern pagan and polytheists that I take no issue with.

Category 3: This might lead someone to the idea of worshipping "recent" powerful rulers. I mean Alexander the Great was a bloody conqueror who made a vast empire. ...So was Queen Victoria (albeit without going into battle) she ruled over the largest human empire in history. I'd be deeply uncomfortable and essentially offended to see her worshipped as a demigod considering the sheer brutality the colonies suffered under her reign. This idea also plays a role in white supremacist groups unfortunately, in some "Esoteric Hitlerism" where Hitler is essentially a divine figure, savior of humankind, deified as a demigod. Unlike the heros and ancestors of category 2 deified rulers tend to get their god status from their conquests and policies which should be looked at very critically. Its one reason I take pause when I see pagans whose primary Gods are Roman emperors.

Category 2/3 offshoot: Category 2 was defined by the person after death. While category 3 could include prior to their death. This could lead to worshipping [insert currently living person] as a demigod. Which makes me deeply uncomfortable, especially because that person probably hasn't consented.

Category 4: This is kind of up to the individual. Most mythical characters who are half/half have their own ancient cultus that will tell you whether they were worshipped as heros (demigods) or Gods

Modern communities: Godkin; Godshard; Demigod (as an identity); Offspring of God X (claiming to be literally part immortal); etc etc etc. No.

🍁 TL;DR🍁

The word has varying meanings. There is plenty of historical examples and definitions for demigod honor and worship in the Greek and Roman traditions (and probably extremely close or syncretic ones). The word should be avoided for beings outside those pantheons & traditions in my opinion. We should be very very careful when using it to talk about modern (or relatively modern) humans both living and dead.

-definitely not audio proof read sorry for whatever my dyslexia did with this post-

[kotinosjewelry]

14k Solid Gold ring with gold replica coin copy of the original ancient coin.The original was struck during the lifetime of Alexander, c.325-323 B.C. KINGDOM OF MACEDON. Alexander III, The Great (336-323 B.C.). Head of young Herakles facing to right, wearing a lion’s skin headdress.

[theancientwayoflife]

~ Head of Alexander the Great as young Herakles. Culture: Greek Period: Hellenistic Date: late 4th-3rd century B.C. Medium: Marble

[theworldofalexanderthegreat-blog]

Alexander The Great wearing a lion skin, a frequent attribute on monetary portraits alluding to Herakles, his mythical ancestor; inscribed letters on the face are later additions. Pentelic marble, ca. 300 BC. Found in Kerameikon. National Archaeological Museum, Athens, Greece. 

[ausarts]

RENEGADES was an exciting commission with renowned Spanish urban artists PichiAvo. The commission consisted of three outdoor, free-standing portraits, each depicting a woman from ancient Greek history or mythology. RENEGADES pays homage to three women who were, in their own way, renegades. Women who broke away from the traditional roles associated with women of the time and made an indelible mark on history.

MEDUSA The Gorgon With her serpent hair, Medusa is an instantly recognisable figure. Possibly one of the most maligned characters in Greek mythology, a close look at her story reveals a nuanced and complex character who suffered at the hands of both men and women and ultimately became the archetypal femme fatale.

HIPPOLYTA The Amazon Long believed to be a myth, Amazons were a tribe of warrior women who were the archenemies of the ancient Greeks. Ancient accounts describe them as fierce and fearless in battle, a stark contrast to the cloistered and dependent Greek women. Hippolyta, an Amazonian queen, figures predominantly in the stories of Herakles and Theseus, both of which end with her death.

PHRYNE The Courtesan Phryne, an Athenian courtesan notable for her intelligence and wit was a desired and sought after companion amongst some of the most fêted intellects of all time. A self-made woman, she became so rich that she offered to pay for the rebuilding of the walls of Thebes, which were destroyed by Alexander the Great in 335 BCE. The city patriarchs refused her offer, leaving the walls in ruins.

[verdantlyviolet]

The Nemean Lion

In mythology, the Nemean lion was a large fearsome monster that terrorised Nemea in the Argolid, with a hide impervious to iron, bronze or stone, and claws that could shatter weapons.

Hesiod has an early mention of the Nemean lion in Theogony 8-7 century BCE

[...] the nemean lion, which Hera, Zeus’ honoured wife, fostered and settled in the foothills of Nemea, an affliction for men. There it lived, harassing the local peoples, monarch of Tretos in Nemea and of Apesas; but mighty Heracles’ force overcame it. (trans. M L West)

Hesiod however does not mention the classic impenetrable skin that the lion has become known for. Though Hesiod’s wording is confusing, he does imply just before this passage, as do other sources, that the lion’s mother is Echidna and father Typhon, the parents of all the worst of Ancient Greek monsters, including Cerberus, Drakon and the Hydra. Hera then reared the lion and set it loose on the Argolid. Others say the lion was cast down by Selene at Hera’s request, or that Hesiod meant it was the offspring of the Chimera.

The fearsome Leon Nemeios was slain by Herakles at the behest of King Eurystheus as the first of the hero’s twelve labours. Herakles tried to shoot the lion down with his arrows, but they bounced off its golden hide. He then cornered the lion in a cave at the base of Mt Tretos in Nemea, having blocked one of the cave’s two entrances, and, clubbing the beast with his iconic weapon, grappled with it while the lion was dazed until he choked it to death with sheer force. Herakles attempted to skin the beast but his weapons still couldn’t pierce the skin. Goddess Athena whispered the secret to him; pierce the lion’s hide with its own claws.

The common iconography of Herakles wearing the lion skin seems fixed from 6 century BCE onward, with the earliest representations coming from the islands and eastern Greece. Herakles, poetically depicted as larger than life, wore the huge nemean lion’s skin as a perfectly fitting cloak, using its protective properties as a shield throughout his career. Herakles and his descendants, notably Alexander the Great, can be easily identified by the mighty lion mane and jaw worn as a helmet, and the skin as a cloak with the front paws tied in a knot at his chest. This imagery, in part, gave rise to the nautical rope knot known as the Hercules Knot.

Lions are no longer native to Greece, though Herodotus does say they were still present in his time. The image of the lion and the fight scene with Herakles is well documented and unmistakable. What’s interesting is the Nemean lion’s domain, Mt Tretos, means “to pierce” or “to perforate” because of a ravine dug in the base of the mountain. A lion with impenetrable skin lurked on a torn mountain, or, as Tyrrell says, ‘A perforated mountain shelters a lion that cannot be perforated.’

On a more personal note, that Herakles’ first labour was won by strength alone, with his bare hands, feels more significant than any of his other acts. He was known as a skilled archer, a formidable man with talents beyond any normal mortal, yet to be reduced to fighting with his hands with no aid from the onset cements his prowess to me. Even without the lion hide’s properties I believe he would have worn the skin regardless to show the world what he was capable of. Indeed, there are some myths that state the hide he wore was that of the Kithaeron lion, the first he slew as a much younger man.

🦁

Sources:

Theoi.com

Wikipedia (image 1)

Perseus (image 2)

Apollodoros, Library 2.5.1

From Bowman to Clubman: Herakles and Olympia

On Making the Myth of the Nemean Lion

[toposopos]

Ancient Greek names of kings of Macedon and Diadochi

1. ALEXANDROS m Ancient Greek (ALEXANDER Latinized) Pronounced: al-eg-ZAN-dur From the Greek name Alexandros, which meant ‘defending men’ from Greek alexein ‘to defend, protect, help’ and aner ‘man’ (genitive andros). Alexander the Great, King of Macedon, is the most famous bearer of this name. In the 4th century BC he built a huge empire out of Greece, Egypt, Persia, and parts of India. The name was borne by five kings of Macedon.

2. PHILIPPOS m Ancient Greek (PHILIP Latinized) Pronounced: FIL-ip From the Greek name Philippos which means ‘friend of horses’, composed of the elements philos ‘friend’ and hippos ‘horse’. The name was borne by five kings of Macedon, including Philip II the father of Alexander the Great.

3. AEROPOS m Ancient Greek, Greek Mythology Male form of Aerope who in Greek mythology was the wife of King Atreus of Mycenae. Aeropos was also the son of Aerope, daughter of Kepheus: ‘Ares, the Tegeans say, mated with Aerope, daughter of Kepheus (king of Tegea), the son of Aleos. She died in giving birth to a child, Aeropos, who clung to his mother even when she was dead, and sucked great abundance of milk from her breasts. Now this took place by the will of Ares.’ (Pausanias 8.44.) The name was borne by two kings of Macedon.

4. ALKETAS m Ancient Greek (ALCAEUS Latinized) Pronounced: al-SEE-us Derived from Greek alke meaning ‘strength’. This was the name of a 7th-century BC lyric poet from the island of Lesbos.

5. AMYNTAS m Ancient Greek Derived from Greek amyntor meaning ‘defender’. The name was borne by three kings of Macedon.

6. ANTIGONOS m Ancient Greek (ANTIGONUS Latinized) Pronounced: an-TIG-o-nus Means ‘like the ancestor’ from Greek anti ‘like’ and goneus ‘ancestor’. This was the name of one of Alexander the Great’s generals. After Alexander died, he took control of most of Asia Minor. He was known as Antigonus ‘Monophthalmos’ (‘the One-Eyed’). Antigonos II (ruled 277-239 BC) was known as ‘Gonatos’ (‘knee, kneel’).

7. ANTIPATROS m Ancient Greek (ANTIPATER Latinized) Pronounced: an-TI-pa-tur From the Greek name Antipatros, which meant ‘like the father’ from Greek anti ‘like’ and pater ‘father’. This was the name of an officer of Alexander the Great, who became the regent of Macedon during Alexander’s absence.

8. ARCHELAOS m Ancient Greek (ARCHELAUS Latinized) Pronounced: ar-kee-LAY-us Latinized form of the Greek name Archelaos, which meant ‘master of the people’ from arche ‘master’ and laos ‘people’. It was also the name of the 7th Spartan king who came in the throne of Sparti in 886 BC, long before the establishment of the Macedonian state.

9. ARGAIOS m Greek Mythology (ARGUS Latinized) Derived from Greek argos meaning ‘glistening, shining’. In Greek myth this name belongs to both the man who built the Argo and a man with a hundred eyes. The name was borne by three kings of Macedon.

10. DEMETRIOS m Ancient Greek (DEMETRIUS Latinized) Latin form of the Greek name Demetrios, which was derived from the name of the Greek goddess Demeter. Kings of Macedon and the Seleucid kingdom have had this name. Demetrios I (ruled 309-301 BC) was known as ‘Poliorketes’ (the ‘Beseiger’).

11. KARANOS m Ancient Greek (CARANUS Latinized) Derived from the archaic Greek word ‘koiranos’ or ‘karanon”, meaning ‘ruler’, ‘leader’ or ‘king’. Both words stem from the same archaic Doric root ‘kara’ meaning head, hence leader, royal master. The word ‘koiranos’ already had the meaning of ruler or king in Homer. Karanos is the name of the founder of the Argead dynasty of the Kings of Macedon.

12. KASSANDROS m Greek Mythology (CASSANDER Latinized) Pronounced: ka-SAN-dros Possibly means ‘shining upon man’, derived from Greek kekasmai ‘to shine’ and aner ‘man’ (genitive andros). In Greek myth Cassandra was a Trojan princess, the daughter of Priam and Hecuba. She was given the gift of prophecy by Apollo, but when she spurned his advances he cursed her so nobody would believe her prophecies. The name of a king of Macedon.

13. KOINOS m Ancient Greek Derived from Greek koinos meaning ‘usual, common’. An Argead king of Macedon in the 8th century BC.

14. LYSIMACHOS m Ancient Greek (LYSIMACHUS Latinized) Means ‘a loosening of battle’ from Greek lysis ‘a release, loosening’ and mache ‘battle’. This was the name of one of Alexander the Great’s generals. After Alexander’s death Lysimachus took control of Thrace.

15. SELEUKOS m Ancient Greek (SELEUCUS Latinized) Means ‘to be light’, ‘to be white’, derived from the Greek word leukos meaning ‘white, bright’. This was the name of one of Alexander’s generals that claimed most of Asia and founded the Seleucid dynasty after the death of Alexander in Babylon.

16. ARRIDHAIOS m Ancient Greek Son of Philip II and later king of Macedon. The greek etymology is Ari (= much) + adj Daios (= terrifying). Its full meaning is “too terrifying”. Its Aeolian type is Arribaeos.

17. ORESTES m Greek Mythology Pronounced: o-RES-teez Derived from Greek orestais meaning ‘of the mountains’. In Greek myth he was the son of Agamemnon. He killed his mother Clytemnestra after she killed his father. The name of a king of Macedon (ruled 399-396 BC).

18. PAUSANIAS m Ancient Greek King of Macedon in 393 BC. Pausanias was also the name of the Spartan king at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC, and the name of the Greek traveller, geographer and writer whose most famous work is ‘Description of Greece’, and also the name of the man who assassinated Philip II of Macedon in 336 BC.

19. PERDIKKAS m Ancient Greek (PERDICCAS Latinized) Derived from Greek perdika meaning ‘partridge’. Perdikkas I is presented as founder of the kingdom of Macedon in Herodotus 8.137. The name was borne by three kings of Macedon.

20. PERSEUS m Greek Mythology Pronounced: PUR-see-us It derives from Greek verb pertho meaning ‘to destroy, conquer’. Its full meaning is the “conqueror”. Perseus was a hero in Greek legend. He killed Medusa, who was so ugly that anyone who gazed upon her was turned to stone, by looking at her in the reflection of his shield and slaying her in her sleep. The name of a king of Macedon (ruled 179-168 BC).

21. PTOLEMEOS m Ancient Greek (PTOLEMY Latinized) Pronounced: TAWL-e-mee Derived from Greek polemeios meaning ‘aggressive’ or ‘warlike’. Ptolemy was the name of several Greco-Egyptian rulers of Egypt, all descendents of Ptolemy I, one of Alexander the Great’s generals. This was also the name of a Greek astronomer. Ptolemy ‘Keraunos’ (ruled 281-279 BC) is named after the lighting bolt thrown by Zeus.

22. TYRIMMAS m Greek Mythology Tyrimmas, an Argead king of Macedon and son of Coenus. Also known as Temenus. In Greek mythology, Temenus was the son of Aristomaches and a great-great grandson of Herakles. He became king of Argos. Tyrimmas was also a man from Epirus and father of Evippe, who consorted with Odysseus (Parthenius of Nicaea, Love Romances, 3.1). Its full meaning is “the one who loves cheese”.

QUEENS AND ROYAL FAMILY

23. EURYDIKE f Greek Mythology (EURYDICE Latinized) Means ‘wide justice’ from Greek eurys ‘wide’ and dike ‘justice’. In Greek myth she was the wife of Orpheus. Her husband tried to rescue her from Hades, but he failed when he disobeyed the condition that he not look back upon her on their way out. Name of the mother of Philip II of Macedon.

24. BERENIKE f Ancient Greek (BERENICE Latinized) Pronounced: ber-e-NIE-see Means ‘bringing victory’ from pherein ‘to bring’ and nike ‘victory’. This name was common among the Ptolemy ruling family of Egypt.

25. KLEOPATRA f Ancient Greek (CLEOPATRA Latinized), English Pronounced: klee-o-PAT-ra Means ‘glory of the father’ from Greek kleos ‘glory’ combined with patros ‘of the father’. In the Iliad, the name of the wife of Meleager of Aetolia. This was also the name of queens of Egypt from the Ptolemaic royal family, including Cleopatra VII, the mistress of both Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. After being defeated by Augustus she committed suicide by allowing herself to be bitten by an asp. Also the name of a bride of Philip II of Macedon.

26. CYNNA f Ancient Greek Half-sister of Alexander the great. Her name derives from the adj. of doric dialect Cyna (= tough).

27. THESSALONIKI f Ancient Greek Means ‘victory over the Thessalians’, from the name of the region of Thessaly and niki, meaning ‘victory’. Name of Alexander the Great’s step sister and of the city of Thessaloniki which was named after her in 315 BC.

GENERALS, SOLDIERS, PHILOSOPHERS AND OTHERS

28. PARMENION m ancient Greek The most famous General of Philip and Alexander the great. Another famous bearer of this name was the olympic winner Parmenion of Mitiline. His name derives from the name Parmenon + the ending -ion used to note descendancy. It means the “descedant of Parmenon”.

29. PEUKESTAS m Ancient Greek He saved Alexander the Great in India. One of the most known Macedonians. His name derives from Πευκής (= sharp) + the Doric ending -tas. Its full meaning is the “one who is sharp”.

30. ARISTOPHANES m Ancient Greek Derived from the Greek elements aristos ‘best’ and phanes ‘appearing’. The name of one of Alexander the Great’s personal body guard who was present during the murder of Cleitus. (Plutarch, Alexander, ‘The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans’). This was also the name of a 5th-century BC Athenian playwright.

31. KORRAGOS m Ancient Greek The Macedonian who challenged into a fight the Olympic winner Dioxippos and lost. His name derives from Koira (= army) + ago (= lead). Korragos has the meaning of “the leader of the army”.

32. ARISTON m Ancient Greek Derived from Greek aristos meaning ‘the best’. The name of a Macedonian officer on campaign with Alexander the Great (Arrian, Anabasis, Book II, 9 and Book III, 11, 14).

33. KLEITUS m Ancient Greek (CLEITUS Latinized) Means ‘calling forth’ or ‘summoned’ in Greek. A phalanx battalion commander in Alexander the Great’s army at the Battle of Hydaspes. Also the name of Alexander’s nurse’s brother, who severed the arm of the Persian Spithridates at the Battle of the Granicus.

34. HEPHAISTION m Greek Mythology Derived from Hephaistos (‘Hephaestus’ Latinized) who in Greek mythology was the god of fire and forging and one of the twelve Olympian deities. Hephaistos in Greek denotes a ‘furnace’ or ‘volcano’. Hephaistion was the companion and closest friend of Alexander the Great. He was also known as ‘Philalexandros’ (‘friend of Alexander’).

35. HERAKLEIDES m Ancient Greek (HERACLEIDES Latinized) Perhaps means ‘key of Hera’ from the name of the goddess Hera combined with Greek kleis ‘key’ or kleidon ‘little key’. The name of two Macedonian soldiers on campaign with Alexander the Great (Arrian, Anabasis, Book I, 2; Book III, 11 and Book VII, 16).

36. KRATEROS m Ancient Greek (CRATERUS Latinized) Derived from Greek adj. Κρατερός (= Powerful). This was the name of one of Alexander the Great’s generals. A friend of Alexander the Great, he was also known as ‘Philobasileus’ (‘friend of the King’).

37. NEOPTOLEMOS m Greek Mythology (NEOPTOLEMUS Latinized) Means ‘new war’, derived from Greek neos ‘new’ and polemos ‘war’. In Greek legend this was the name of the son of Achilles, brought into the Trojan War because it was prophesied the Greeks could not win it unless he was present. After the war he was slain by Orestes because of his marriage to Hermione. Neoptolemos was believed to be the ancestor of Alexander the Great on his mother’s (Olympias’) side (Plutarch). The name of two Macedonian soldiers during Alexander’s campaigns (Arrian, Anabasis, Book I, 6 and Book II, 27).

38. PHILOTAS m Ancient Greek From Greek philotes meaning ‘friendship’. Son of Parmenion and a commander of Alexander the Great’s Companion cavalry.

39. PHILOXENOS m Ancient Greek Meaning ‘friend of strangers’ derived from Greek philos meaning friend and xenos meaning ‘stranger, foreigner’. The name of a Macedonian soldier on campaign with Alexander the Great (Arrian, Anabasis, Book III, 6).

40. MENELAOS m Greek Mythology (MENELAUS Latinized) Means ‘withstanding the people’ from Greek meno ‘to last, to withstand’ and laos ‘the people’. In Greek legend he was a king of Sparta and the husband of Helen. When his wife was taken by Paris, the Greeks besieged the city of Troy in an effort to get her back. After the war Menelaus and Helen settled down to a happy life. Macedonian naval commander during the wars of the Diadochi and brother of Ptolemy Lagos.

41. LAOMEDON m ancient greek Friend from boyhood of Alexander and later Satrap. His names derives from the greek noun laos (λαός = “people” + medon (μέδω = “the one who governs”)

42. POLYPERCHON Ancient Greek Macedonian, Son of Simmias His name derives from the greek word ‘Πολύ’ (=much) + σπέρχω (= rush).

43. HEGELOCHOS m (HEGELOCHUS Latinized) Known as the conspirator. His name derives from the greek verb (ηγέομαι = “walking ahead” + greek noun λόχος = “set up ambush”).

44. POLEMON m ancient Greek From the house of Andromenes. Brother of Attalos. Means in greek “the one who is fighting in war”.

45. AUTODIKOS m ancient greek Somatophylax of Philip III. His name in greek means “the one who takes the law into his (own) hands”

46. BALAKROS m ancient Greek Son of Nicanor. We already know Macedonians usually used a “beta” instead of a “phi” which was used by Atheneans (eg. “belekys” instead of “pelekys”, “balakros” instead of “falakros”). “Falakros” has the meaning of “bald”.

47. NIKANOR (Nικάνωρ m ancient Greek; Latin: Nicanor) means “victor” – from Nike (Νικη) meaning “victory”. Nicanor was the name of the father of Balakras. He was a distinguished Macedonian during the reign of Phillip II. Another Nicanor was the son of Parmenion and brother of Philotas. He was a distinguished officer (commander of the Hypaspists) in the service of Alexander the Great. He died of disease in Bactria in 330 BC.

48. LEONNATOS m ancient Greek One of the somatophylakes of Alexander. His name derives from Leon (= Lion) + the root Nat of noun Nator (= dashing). The full meaning is “Dashing like the lion”.

49. KRITOLAOS m ancient Hellinic He was a potter from Pella. His name was discovered in amphoras in Pella during 1980-87. His name derives from Κρίτος (= the chosen) + Λαός (= the people). Its full meaning is “the chosen of the people”.

50. ZOILOS m ancient Hellinic Father of Myleas from Beroia – From zo-e (ΖΩΗ) indicating ‘lively’, ‘vivacious’. Hence the Italian ‘Zoilo’

51. ZEUXIS m ancient Hellinic Name of a Macedonian commander of Lydia in the time of Antigonos III and also the name of a Painter from Heraclea – from ‘zeugnumi’ = ‘to bind’, ‘join together’

52. LEOCHARIS m ancient Hellinic Sculptor – Deriving from ‘Leon’ = ‘lion’ and ‘charis’ = ‘grace’. Literally meaning the ‘lion’s grace’.

53. DEINOKRATIS m ancient Hellinic Helped Alexander to create Alexandria in Egypt. From ‘deinow’ = ‘to make terrible’ and ‘kratein’ = “to rule” Obviously indicating a ‘terrible ruler’

54. ADMETOS (Άδμητος) m Ancient Greek derive from the word a+damaw(damazw) and mean tameless,obstreperous.Damazw mean chasten, prevail

55. ANDROTIMOS (Ανδρότιμος) m Ancient Greek derive from the words andreios (brave, courageous) and timitis(honest, upright )

56. PEITHON m Ancient Greek Means “the one who persuades”. It was a common name among Macedonians and the most famous holders of that names were Peithon, son of Sosicles, responsible for the royal pages and Peithon, son of Krateuas, a marshal of Alexander the Great.

57. SOSTRATOS m Ancient Greek Derives from the Greek words “Σως (=safe) +Στρατος (=army)”. He was son of Amyntas and was executed as a conspirator.

58. DIMNOS m Ancient Greek Derives from the greek verb “δειμαίνω (= i have fear). One of the conspirators.

59. TIMANDROS m Ancient Greek Meaning “Man’s honour”. It derives from the greek words “Τιμή (=honour) + Άνδρας (=man). One of the commanders of regular Hypaspistes.

60. TLEPOLEMOS ,(τληπόλεμος) m Ancient Greek Derives from greek words “τλήμων (=brave) + πόλεμος (=war)”. In greek mythology Tlepolemos was a son of Heracles. In alexanders era, Tlepolemos was appointed Satrap of Carmania from Alexander the Great.

61. AXIOS (Άξιος) m ancient Greek Meaning “capable”. His name was found on one inscription along with his patronymic “Άξιος Αντιγόνου Μακεδών”.

62. THEOXENOS (Θεόξενος) ancient Greek Derives from greek words “θεός (=god) + ξένος (=foreigner).His name appears as a donator of the Apollo temple along with his patronymic and city of origin(Θεόξενος Αισχρίωνος Κασσανδρεύς).

63. MITRON (Μήτρων) m ancient Greek Derives from the greek word “Μήτηρ (=Mother)”. Mitron of Macedon appears in a inscription as a donator

64. KLEOCHARIS (Κλεοχάρης) M ancient greek Derives from greek words “Κλέος (=fame) + “Χάρις (=Grace). Kleocharis, son of Pytheas from Amphipoli was a Macedonian honoured in the city of Eretria at the time of Demetrius son of Antigonus.

65. PREPELAOS (Πρεπέλαος) m, ancient Greek Derives from greek words “πρέπω (=be distinguished) + λαος (=people). He was a general of Kassander.

66. HIPPOLOCHOS (Ιππόλοχος) m, ancient Greek Derives from the greek words “Ίππος” (= horse) + “Λόχος”(=set up ambush). Hippolochos was a Macedonian historian (ca. 300 B.C.)

67. ALEXARCHOS (Αλέξαρχος) m, ancient Greek Derives from Greek “Αλέξω” (=defend, protect, help) + “Αρχος ” (= master). Alexarchos was brother of Cassandros.

68. ASCLEPIODOROS (Ασκληπιοδορος) m Ancient Greek Derives from the greek words Asclepios (= cut up) + Doro (=Gift). Asclepios was the name of the god of healing and medicine in Greek mythology. Asclepiodoros was a prominent Macedonian, son of Eunikos from Pella. Another Asclepiodoros in Alexander’s army was son of Timandros.

69. KALLINES (Καλλινης) m Ancient Greek Derives from greek words kalli + nao (=stream beautifully). He was a Macedonian, officer of companions.

70. PLEISTARHOS (Πλείσταρχος) m ancient Greek Derives from the greek words Pleistos (=too much) + Arhos ((= master). He was younger brother of Cassander.

71. POLYKLES (Πολυκλής) m ancient Greek Derives from the words Poli (=city) + Kleos (glory). Macedonian who served as Strategos of Antipater.

72. POLYDAMAS (Πολυδάμας) m ancient Greek The translation of his name means “the one who subordinates a city”. One Hetairos.

73. APOLLOPHANES (Απολλοφάνης) m ancient greek. His name derives from the greek verb “απολλυμι” (=to destroy) and φαίνομαι (= appear to be). Apollophanes was a prominent Macedonian who was appointed Satrap of Oreitae.

74. ARCHIAS (Αρχίας) m ancient Greek His name derive from greek verb Άρχω (=head or be in command). Archias was one of the Macedonian trierarchs in Hydaspes river.

75. ARCHESILAOS (Αρχεσίλαος) m ancient Greek His name derive from greek verb Άρχω (=head or be in command) + Λαος (= people). Archesilaos was a Macedonian that received the satrapy of Mesopotamia in the settlement of 323.

76. ARETAS (Αρετας) m ancient Greek Derives from the greek word Areti (=virtue). He was commander of Sarissoforoi at Gaugamela.

77. KLEANDROS (Κλέανδρος) m ancient Greek Derives from greek verb Κλέος (=fame) + Ανδρος (=man). He was commander of Archers and was killed in Hallicarnasus in 334 BC.

78. AGESISTRATOS (Αγησίστρατος) m ancient greek Father of Paramonos, a general of Antigonos Doson. His name derives from verb ηγήσομαι ( = lead in command) + στρατος (= army). “Hgisomai” in Doric dialect is “Agisomai”. Its full meaning is “the one who leads the army”

79. AGERROS (Αγερρος) M ancient Greek He was father of Andronikos, general of Alexander. His name derives from the verb αγέρρω (= the one who makes gatherings)

80. AVREAS (Αβρέας) m ancient Greek Officer of Alexander the great. His name derives from the adj. αβρός (=polite)

81. AGATHANOR (Αγαθάνωρ) m ancient Greek Som of Thrasycles. He was priest of Asklepios for about 5 years. His origin was from Beroia as is attested from an inscription. His name derives from the adj. αγαθός (= virtuous) + ανήρ (= man). The full meaning of his name is “Virtuous man”

82. AGAKLES (Αγακλής) m ancient Greek He was son of Simmihos and was from Pella. He is known from a resolution of Aetolians. His name derives from the adj. Αγακλεής (= too glorious)

83. AGASIKLES (Αγασικλής) m ancient Greek Son of Mentor, from Dion of Macedonia. It derives from the verb άγαμαι (= admire) + Κλέος (=fame). Its full meaning is “the one who admires fame”

84. AGGAREOS (Αγγάρεος) m ancient Greek Son of Dalon from Amphipolis. He is known from an inscription of Amphipolis (S.E.G vol 31. ins. 616) It derives from the noun Αγγαρεία (= news)

85. AGELAS (Αγέλας) m ancient Greek Son of Alexander. He was born during the mid-5th BCE and was an ambassador of Macedonians during the treaty between Macedonians and Atheneans. This treaty exists in inscription 89.vol1 Fasc.1 Ed.3″Attic inscrip.” His name was common among Heraclides and Bacchiades. One Agelas was king of Corinth during the first quarter of 5 BCE. His name derives from the verb άγω (= lead) and the noun Λαός (= people or even soldiers (Homeric)). The full meaning is the “one who leads the people/soldiers”.

86. AGIPPOS (Άγιππος) m ancient Greek He was from Beroia of Macedonia and lived during middle 3rd BCE. He is known from an inscription found in Beroia where his name appears as the witness in a slave-freeing. Another case bearing the name Agippos in the Greek world was the father of Timokratos from Zakynthos. The name Agippos derives from the verb άγω (= lead) + the word ίππος (= Horse). Its full meaning is “the one who leads the horse/calvary”.

87. AGLAIANOS (Αγλαϊάνος) m ancient Greek He was from Amphipolis of Macedonia (c. 4th BC) and he is known from an inscription S.E.G vol41., insc. 556 His name consists of aglai- from the verb αγλαϊζω (= honour) and the ending -anos.

88. AGNOTHEOS (Αγνόθεος) m ancient Greek Macedonian, possibly from Pella. His name survived from an inscription found in Pella between 300-250 BCE. (SEG vol46.insc.799) His name derives from Αγνός ( = pure) + Θεός (=God). The full meaning is “the one who has inside a pure god”

89. ATHENAGORAS (Αθηναγόρας) m ancient Greek General of Philip V. He was the general who stopped Dardanian invasion in 199 BC. His name derives from the verb αγορά-ομαι (=deliver a speech) + the name Αθηνά (= Athena).

90. PERIANDROS (Περίανδρος) m ancient Greek Son of the Macedonian historian Marsyas. His name derives from Περί (= too much) + άνηρ (man, brave). Its full meaning is “too brave/man”.

91. LEODISKOS (Λεοντίσκος) m ancient Greek He was son of Ptolemy A’ and Thais, His name derives from Λέων (= lion) + the ending -iskos (=little). His name’s full etymology is “Little Lion”

92. EPHRANOR (Ευφράνωρ) m ancient Greek He was General of Perseas. It derives from the verb Ευφραίνω (= delight). Its full meaning is “the one who delights”.

93. DIONYSOPHON m Ancient Greek It has the meaning “Voice of Dionysos”. The ending -phon is typical among ancient greek names.

MACEDONIAN WOMEN

94. ANTIGONE f ancient Greek Usage: Greek Mythology Pronounced: an-TIG-o-nee Means ‘against birth’ from Greek anti ‘against’ and gone ‘birth’. In Greek legend Antigone was the daughter of Oedipus and Jocasta. King Creon of Thebes declared that her slain brother Polynices was to remain unburied, a great dishonour. She disobeyed and gave him a proper burial, and for this she was sealed alive in a cave. Antigone of Pydna was the mistress of Philotas, the son of Parmenion and commander of Alexander the Great’s Companion cavalry (Plutarch, Alexander, ‘The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans’).

95. VOULOMAGA (Βουλομάγα) f ancient greek Derives from greek words “Βούλομαι (=desire) + άγαν (=too much)”. Her name is found among donators.

96. ATALANTE (Αταλαντη) f ancient Greek Her name means in Greek “without talent”. She was daughter of Orontes, and sister of Perdiccas.

97. AGELAEIA (Αγελαεία) f ancient Greek Wife of Amyntas, from the city of Beroia (S.E.G vol 48. insc. 738) It derives from the adj. Αγέλα-ος ( = the one who belongs to a herd)

98. ATHENAIS (Αθηναϊς) f ancient Greek The name was found on an altar of Heracles Kigagidas in Beroia. It derives from the name Athena and the ending -is meaning “small”. Its whole meaning is “little Athena”.

99. STRATONIKE f Ancient Greek (STRATONICE Latinized) Means ‘victorious army’ from stratos ‘army’ and nike ‘victory’. Sister of King Perdiccas II. “…and Perdiccas afterwards gave his sister Stratonice to Seuthes as he had promised.” (Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War, Chapter VIII)

100. THETIMA f Ancient Greek A name from Pella Katadesmos. It has the meaning “she who honors the gods”; the standard Attic form would be Theotimē.

Bibliography:

“Who’s who in the age of Alexander the Great: Prosopography of Alexander’s Empire” by Waldemar Heckel“The Marshals of Alexander’s empire” by Waldemar Heckel

[classicalmonuments]

Ephesus (Turkey)

Ephesus (Ancient Greek: Ἔφεσος Efesos) was an ancient Greek city on the coast of Ionia, three kilometres southwest of present-day Selçuk in İzmir Province, Turkey. It was built in the 10th century BCE on the site of the former Arzawan capital by Attic and Ionian Greek colonists. During the Classical Greek era it was one of the twelve cities of the Ionian League. The city flourished after it came under the control of the Roman Republic in 129 BCE.

Ephesus is located near the western shores of modern-day Turkey, where the Aegean Sea meets the former estuary of the River Kaystros, about 80 kilometers south of Izmir, Turkey.

According to legend, the Ionian prince Androclos founded Ephesus in the eleventh century B.C. The legend says that as Androclos searched for a new Greek settlement, he turned to the Delphi oracles for guidance. The oracles told him a boar and a fish would show him the new location.

One day, as Androclos was frying fish over an open fire, a fish flopped out of the frying pan and landed in the nearby bushes. A spark ignited the bushes and a wild boar ran out. Recalling the oracles’ wisdom, Androclos built his new settlement where the bushes stood and called it Ephesus.

Another legend says Ephesus was founded by the Amazons, a tribe of female warriors, and that the city was named after their queen, Ephesia.

In 546 BCE, Ephesus fell to the Persian Empire, along with the rest of Anatolia. Ephesus continued to thrive even as other Ionian cities rebelled against Persian rule.

In 334 BCE, Alexander the Great defeated the Persians and entered Ephesus. Upon his death in 323 BCE, one of his generals, Lysimachus, took over the city and renamed it Arsineia.

Lysimachus moved Ephesus two miles away and built a new harbor and new defensive walls. The Ephesian people, however, wouldn’t relocate and remained in their homes until Lysimachus forced them to move. In 281 BCE, Lysimachus was killed at the Battle of Corupedium and the city was renamed Ephesus again.

In 263 BCE, Ephesus fell under Egyptian rule along with much of the Seleucid Empire. The Seleucid king Antiochus III took back Ephesus in 196 BCE; however, after being defeated at the Battle of Magnesia six years later, Ephesus fell under Pergamon rule.

Ephesus Under Roman Rule

In 129 BCE, King Attalos of Pergamon left Ephesus to the Roman Empire in his will and the city became the seat of the regional Roman governor. The reforms of Caesar Augustus brought Ephesus to its most prosperous time, which lasted until the third century CE

Most of the Ephesian ruins seen today such as the enormous amphitheater, the Library of Celsus, the public space (agora) and the aqueducts were built or rebuilt during Augustus’s reign.

During the reign of Tiberius, Ephesus flourished as a port city. A business district was opened around 43 BCE. to service the massive amounts of goods arriving or departing from the man-made harbor and from caravans traveling the ancient Royal Road.

According to some sources, Ephesus was at the time second only to Rome as a cosmopolitan center of culture and commerce.

Sites covered on this blog (#ephesus):

Temple of Artemis, Altar of Artemis, Library of Celsus, Heroon of Androclus,  Hexagon of Ephesus, Octagonal Tomb of Arsioe IV, Tetrakionion, Gate of Mazaeus and Mithridates, Tetragonos Agora, Fountain at the Magnesian street,  Hellenistic Fountain house, “Hadrians Gate”, The Hydreon, Fountain of Laecanius Bassus, Herakles gate, Pollio Monument and Fountain of Domitian,  Bouleuterion / Odeon, Prytaneion,Temple of Domitian, Arcadian street & Middle Harbor gate, Parthian monument, Serapeion, Nymphaeum of Trajan, Temple of Hadrian, Monument of Memmius, The Great Theater 

Other cities on the blog: Delphi

[jeannereames]

Why do you think Alexander prefer the Aquiles archetype over Odyseus?? Was it only because Odyseus was not a renowed fighter in comparison to Aquiles whose mother was a nymph so was not a mere mortal

Why Achilles and not Odysseus has layers, first among them that Alexander believed himself to be descended from Achilles via his mother, Olympias, an Aeacid/Aiakid of the Molossian Royal House of Epiros.* Thus, it makes a natural connection. But—as I’ve argued elsewhere, both HERE and HERE and on TikTok—Herakles was the hero who Alexander most sought to emulate. Even while Macedonia reveled in its Homeric-style culture, which was less Homeric than they liked to pretend, but pretend is the salient part. Homer was ubiquitous in antiquity.

Again, the Herakles emulation also owes to a supposed family link. The Argead (or Temenid) Royal House of Macedon believed themselves descended from Herakles.** Bonus, Herakles was a son of Zeus, just as Alexander later claimed to be one from Zeus-Ammon. In the sources, we have more references to Herakles than Achilles (by far), and in terms of personal iconography, Alexander was most commonly assimilated to Herakles (at least in and close to his own time) followed by Ammon (with the horns). Never seen and Alexander-as-Achilles, or at least, not one obviously so. There’s a sculpture group that might be meant to portray Alexander as Achilles (so Andrew Stewart, if I recall, but my books are packed in boxes, so can’t check). Yet it’s a Hellenistic/Roman piece.

Other than that, we should emphasize the age thing. Alexander was young; Achilles was young. Odysseus was also a talented warrior, but not “the best of the Acheans.” At least not on a battlefield. He was cleverer, that’s for sure, but also twisty. At least early in the campaign, Alexander wanted to capitalize on youth and bravery and forthrightness—more the Achilles bailiwick. Keep in mind that Alexander molded his marketing image to the needs of the moment, so he could cast himself as various heroes. Yet Odysseus just isn’t a choice we find for him. Even when he was being sly, I don’t think he wanted to come off as sly. It wasn’t part of the image he wanted to project. One could speculate some as to why, but that attempts to get into his head and his psychology, which is always tricky to find past the layers and layers of mythos piled on top of him.

* According to myth, Achilles’s son Neoptolemos (a nasty piece of work) took Andromache as his war prize and had a son by her, one Molossos, founder of that dynasty. Even into historical periods, Neoptolemos was a common name in the Molossian family: both Olympias’s father was named that, and her grandson by Kleopatra.

* Temenos, supposed founder of the Macedonian royal house, if you believe the spin they were originally from Argos in the Peloponnesos, was the great-great-grandson of Herakles, and part of the Return of the Heraklaidai, in Greek myth, attacking Mycenae, after which he became the king of Argos. Hence their claim. They were not actually from Argos (at least not the one in the Peloponnesos), but yes, they certainly believed they were.

[teawiththegods]

Masterpost of Followers of Hellenic Deities

This is the masterpost of follower lists for the deities of the Greek Pantheon. If you would like to be added to any list please either comment on the post featuring the list(s) you would like to be added to or shoot me an ask stating which lists you’d like to be added to and the name of the blog if it isn’t the one you’re using. If your deity does not appear on this masterpost please send me an ask or message and I will be happy to make them one! ALL deities and figures from the Greek Pantheon are welcome on this list! 

Any problems, corrections, or changes please feel free to message me! 

Achilles

Adonis

Akeso

Alala

Alexander the Great

Amphitrite

Antheia

Antinous

Aphrodite

Apollo

Ares

Aristaeus

Artemis

Asclepius

Asteria

Astraios

Athena

Baubo

Boreas

Britomartis

Chiron

Circe

Demeter

Dionysus

The Dioscuri

Eirene

Eleos

Enyo

Eos

Epione

Erebos

Eris

Eros

The Erotes

Gaia

Ganymedes

Hades

Harmonia

Hebe

Hekate

Helen

Helios

Hephaestion

Hephaestus

Hera

Herakles

Hermaphroditus

Hermekate

Hermes

Hestia

Hyacinthus

Hygeia

Hypnos

Iaso

Icarus

Iris

Kronos

Leto

Medea

Medusa

Morpheus

The Muses

Narcissus

Nemesis

Nike

Nyx

Pan

Panacea

Pandora

Patroclus

Persephone

Phanes

Poseidon

Priapus

Prometheus

Psyche

Rhea

Sappho

Selene

Soteria

Tethys

Thalia

Thanatos

Themis

Zephyrus

Zeus

[antlering]

maybe this will sound dumb, but what's hero worship exactly?

Hey! Not a dumb question at all! ^_^

Hero worship is the practice of venerating “heroes” who have already died and who usually have a place of prominence in culture/popular mythos. I separate hero worship from ancestor veneration (my great-great grandparents, cool as they were, are not cultural heroes).

My practice of hero worship is mainly Hellenic in nature, as it was a common practice in ancient Hellas. Heroes are usually mortal or demi-gods who achieved such a great level of arete (personal excellence and glory, essentially) that they were remembered in myth, sometimes elevated to godhood, and served as models of success for other mortals.

Examples of heroes include Herakles, Achilles and Patroclus, Alexander, Antinous, and the Dioskouroi. We can see from these examples that “hero” and “god” are not mutually exclusive, and exist on a sliding scale depending on how much honour the Olympians bestowed upon them at death. Herakles and the Dioskouroi in particular were generally considered full-fledged gods, while Patroclus and Alexander didn’t necessarily reach that status.

Heroes can also be mortals who had great cultural significance but weren’t considered divinized at death. I consider Sappho a hero, for instance, although others might strictly consider her an ancestor/one of the blessed dead. Hero worship is ad-hoc in a similar way to ancestor veneration, and everyone’s practice looks different.

Hope that’s helpful! Let me know if you have other questions ^_^

[thewyrdwritere]

Thebes Review

Thebes: The Forgotten City of Ancient Greece by Paul Anthony Cartledge My rating: 3 of 5 stars Thebes, as the birthplace of the great hero Herakles and the home of the terrifying Sphinx whose riddle Oedipus solved, can claim a mythic past as rich as any ancient Greek polis. Yet Thebes stands overshadowed by its rivals Athens and Sparta. In Thebes: The Forgotten City of Ancient Greece eminent Classics Professor Paul Cartledge seeks to bring Thebes out from the shadows and bring Thebes to the forefront of the ancient Greek world. It is a fascinating angle to take. Placing Thebes at the heart of a chronological history illuminates the ancient polis and its links to the Greek mythic age, its importance to the formation of the Greek city states and the experiments in government that resulted in competition and warfare of the classical age, and finally to its Greek heyday and eventual destruction by Alexander the Great heralding the Hellenistic era. Placing Thebes at the forefront of Ancient Greek history is a canny bit of scholarly promotion. Being the star of its own grand narrative Thebes can be viewed as a living breathing polis, brimming with its own motivations and agency that showcases Theban importance within ancient Greek mythology, religion, military and politics. All this is achieved through impeccable research that utilizes a vast array of sources, from archaeological, literary, histographic and numismatic. The Theban focus and erudite scholarship brings forth an exciting argument and a new perspective to a well-trodden path but simply because of the available historical sources the focus inevitably shifts, despite Herculean efforts, towards the more established historical focus on Athens and Sparta. Discussing The Peloponnesian War Cartledge gives over a large amount of text to establishing the background to Sparta and Athens’ political and military conflict. It is a digression of focus that can only really portray Thebes as a bit part player to those two classical heavyweights. Likewise, where Cartledge discusses Athenian Drama, often set in mythic Thebes, the Athenian focus works to downplay Thebes more than possibly intended as, 1) it celebrates Athenian culture and 2), a clear answer as to why Athenian dramatists’ focused on Thebes is not easily deciphered. Cartledge does, however, illustrate the important role Thebes brought to the cultural, mythic and religious Greek world, linking archaeology evidence from Thebes to the Linear B tablets and the introduction of writing, as well as discussing the importance of Thebes to the great bedrocks of Greek culture Homer and Hesiod. It is an argument that suggests Thebes, in some capacity, laid important groundwork for the future literary achievements of classical Athens. However, Thebes’ contribution is also slightly downplayed where Cartledge briefly points out that writing was restored by Euboean Islanders (so much for ‘Cadmean letters’) after the Mycenaean collapse and the Greek dark ages. That Cartledge's structure and style allows for questions to be asked, is no bad thing, for history and scholarship is at its best when the reader is provided with an argument and text that can be engaged with critically. Either way the digressions in focus do heighten the reclamation of Thebes’ historical prominence suggesting the city’s strength (and indeed in Cartledge's mission to reposition Thebes) lies in the simple fact that Thebes managed to outlast both Sparta and Athens military and politically (if not culturally), and take advantage of an opportunity to rise in prominence, at least until Alexander The Great. It is no wonder Cartledge begins the discussion of Thebes downfall with the Herodotean concept of peripeteia (the cyclic vagaries of power), Thebes fall from grace certainly fits that Herodotean bill, but it ever so slightly suggests Thebes was never all that. It is another wrinkle in the recovery of Theban prominence. Despite the 'Theban Hegemony' the city had to align with arch rival Athens to ward off Macedon and still failed to stave of destruction. It is another discussion where focus again falls upon Thebes’ rivals, first Phillip of Macedon and then his son Alexander. Yet, in the end Alexander never destroyed Athens or Sparta quite like he did Thebes. It’s a final subtle narrative point that suggests Cartledge's shrewdest analysis is in keeping Thebes a part of the discussion. Thebes is the tale of a polis coming into its own, the wealth of evidence, from its place in epic poetry to depictions on pottery, from its coins to its monuments, and its rivals literary obsessions, Thebes tells of a city with a stake in its own time and through the march of history to a stake in ours. View all my reviews

[thegrapeandthefig]

On Hellenistic Imperial Cult

A few weeks ago @amor-augusti suggested me this: “I'd like to know your take on imperial cult as an hellenic polytheist or on the historical practice if hero cult/cult of a living human being in the hellenic world.” And my reaction was : "Both. We'll do a bit of both" but I think I mostly want to show that Imperial cult ended up being a very Greek thing. Once we're done with the historical aspect, I'll tell a bit about my personal bias on the topic (under the cut).

Quick recap before I start: Hellenic = 507-323 BC; Hellenistic = 323-31 BC. After 323, Alexander the Great’s Empire is divided in 3 kingdoms: Ptolemaic, Antigonid and Seleucid. Here’s a map. 

I’m separating it from hero worship because I personally make a distinction between diefied mortals and mythological heroes. I’ll be talking only about deified rulers here. Giving god-like honors to people was nothing new. Before Emperors, this was the benefit of city-founders, athletes or generals. The earliest example we know of is the one of Lysandros, a Spartan general, which took the form of erecting an altar, giving offerings, singing cult songs and renaming the festival to Hera to Lysandreia. It was an expression of gratitude after the person's death for whatever great service had been done by the individual. That’s for the strictly hellenic period. 

Later, the cult of Alexander the Great stood out by its uniqueness compared to the pre-existing tradition. His cult integrated elements that were foreign to the Greeks, taking from either the Persian or Egyptian traditions (display of obeisance and worship of the Pharaoh). Alexander could also count on “divine lineage” which included Achilles and Herakles. This practice was a rather efficient way to legitimize your power, especially in Egypt where Alexander, as pharaoh, was considered the son of Ammon-Re. Because of this efficiency, the practice continued to be very common in the Hellenistic world. As such, the Ptolemies claimed their ancestry to be of Dionysus and Herakles, while the Seleucids claimed theirs from Apollo. The cult of Alexander also stands out in term of longevity and popularity. There is of course the official worship held by the Ptolemies, but there is also traces of personal worship of Alexander in Macedonia, Ephesos and various other places and perduring several centuries later. 

As I’ve stated, alongside the cult of Alexander, the following Kings adopted the same strategy. Most of the time, the cult of the living ruler was introduced by the city but it could also be introduced by the royal administration itself. In the latter case, it is often to deify a deceased member of the royal family.

The most commonly found epithets for the Kings were: Soter (”savior”), Euergetes (”good-doing”), Epiphanes (”the one with power”), Philopator (”father-loving”), among others. All epithets that aim to highlight the benevolance of the King, and thus reassure that their power is legimitate and not tyrannical.

On a religious level, the practices did not differ too much from the standard template: you would find a sacrifice, a procession, a contest of some kind (musical or athletic). The birthday would be the day where the festival would take place, and like for the other gods, it would be monthly instead of annually. If the cult was established after the death of the ruler, then it could be either on the the anniversary of death or the birthday. Occasionally, other important anniversaries would be taken into account (accession to the throne, anniversary of a victory etc...). However, it is rare for Hellenistic temples to be dedicated to the ruler. Most often, the temple is dedicated to a deity who shares the temple with the deifed mortal. 

I’m cutting through details but ultimately my point is that between Alexander the Great and the battle of Actium, the Greek world was very well used to the idea of Imperial Cult. The mortal god had the advantage of being available and his power visible, while the deities of Olympus or the Underworld were invisible and distant. After Actium, Octavian made a skillful use of the traditions already in place to strenghten his position. While the Hellenistic royal cults were city-based, he added a more prestigious provincial cult to the mix where necessary. 

Further reading: 

Angelos Chianotis, The Divinity of Hellenistic Rulers, IN: A Companion to the Hellenistic World, Wiley-Blackwell, 2003

Simon Price, Rituals and Power: The Roman Imperial Cult in Asia Minor, Cambridge University Press, 1984