#Adaptive immunity

[stripejournals]

Innovations in Vaccine Design and Immunology

Innovations in Vaccine Design and Immunology: A Comprehensive Review

Introduction

Vaccination has been one of the most integral elements of public health for so many years, which greatly reduced the burden of infectious diseases. Rapid progress in science and technology has brought along innovative changes in the designs of vaccines, changing immunology. This article focuses on recent developments that were brought forward through contributions from microbiology, virology, and cell biology.

Vaccine Innovations: Development and Review Articles

The last few review articles on vaccine development have indicated that over the past decade there was a trend away from the conventional vaccines toward next-generation vaccines. From the live-attenuated and inactivated vaccines it led to novel approaches such as recombinant subunit vaccines, mRNA vaccines, and viral vector vaccines. Such breakthroughs in genetic engineering and immunological understanding have been driving these advances.

Key innovations include:

mRNA Vaccines This employs synthetic messenger RNA, able to instruct cells to produce antigens that induce the proper immune response.

Nanoparticle-based vaccines: nanoparticles with application for improved delivery and antigens stabilizing to attain better immune responses.

Personalized Vaccines: Vaccines designed according to the genetic identity of an individual to tackle diseases.

Make your text human

Contributions from Microbiology case reports and publications

Vaccine design requires a significant input from microbiology, because the knowledge of pathogenic mechanisms of microorganisms helps to identify the targets for the vaccine. The recent microbiology case reports have shed light on pathogen-host interactions, antigenic variability, and antibiotic resistance, which are useful in vaccine strategy.

Staphylococcus aureus vaccine development: Recent studies involving the virulence factors and immune evasion of S. aureus lead to promising antigens for vaccine development. 

Tuberculosis Research: Advances in understanding Mycobacterium tuberculosis pathogenesis have motivated the development of enhanced vaccines such as M72/AS01E.

Virology Research Articles and Blogs

Rapid progress has been achieved in vaccine development through research in virology regarding the newly emerging and re-emerging viral threats. Publications and blogs abound regarding breakthroughs against viruses, like SARS-CoV-2, HIV, and influenza.

Notable findings include:

COVID-19 Vaccines: The mRNA vaccines (Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna) are the epitome of integrating virology research with vaccine innovation through rapid development and deployment.

HIV VACCINE CHALLENGESDespite having passed decades since its identification, the highly mutating nature of HIV still poses a challenge and thus demands the development of broadly neutralizing antibodies.

Universal Influenza Vaccines: Epitopes of the virus are conserved and targeted and vaccines could be designed that provides long-term immunity against most strains of influenza.

Immunology Publications and Blogs

Immunology research underpins mechanisms through which vaccines provide protection. This has made publications and blogs available, including those on topics like immune memory, optimization of adjuvants, and T-cell activation.

Highlights include:

New adjuvants are AS03 and MF59. They act in the modulation of innate as well as adaptive immune response for better vaccine efficacy.

T-Cell-Based Vaccines: An understanding of the cytotoxic T-lymphocyte response has driven vaccines for intracellular infections, including malaria and certain malignancies.

Immune evasion mechanisms: Informed vaccine design based on the mechanism of immune avoidance by pathogen

Cell Biology Journals: Contributions to Vaccine Design

Cell biology journals have offered critical insights pertaining to the cellular processes, whose importance informs vaccine development. Particular areas related 

to antigen processing and presentation, signal transduction, and the cell response to vaccination have emerged more frequently.

For example:

Dendritic Cells as Vaccine Targets: Exploiting dendritic cells to present antigens directly to T-cells has been a focus of cancer vaccine research.

Cellular Uptake Mechanisms: Knowing how cells internalize nanoparticles will help design effective vaccine delivery systems.

Conclusion

The synergy between microbiology, virology, immunology, and cell biology has catalysed innovations in vaccine design. The integration of interdisciplinary research continues to enhance our ability to combat infectious diseases, paving the way for personalized and universally effective vaccines. As highlighted in review articles, newsletters, blogs, and research publications, the future of vaccinology is poised for unprecedented advancements.

References

A comprehensive list of microbiology, virology, and immunology publications, blogs, and newsletters would be appended here to support the findings discussed.

[petpetisy]

Can a Dog Catch Parvo Twice in 2024? Shocking Truth!

Canine parvovirus is a highly contagious and potentially deadly virus. It mainly affects young puppies. Dogs that get over parvo usually build strong immunity. But, new strains can make them sick again. So, can a dog catch parvo twice? It’s important to know how this virus works and its effects on a dog’s immune system. Table of ContentsKey TakeawaysWhat Is Parvo?Susceptible BreedsDuration of…

[cellmadness]

Natural Killer Cells Need More Love

 T cells are my absolute love in immunology.. They are these specialized assassins responsible to eradicate anything that has no business taking advantage of your body. They undergo a highly specialized schooling for killing and come out as the big defenders of the body. They are so important that in their absence, a person has no chance against the pathogens in the world. These are my cell babies. 

  Yet, the immune system is an interwoven cellular system where different cell types work in tandem to protect. Similar to how the Sun and Moon dance in harmony to bring us day and night, different cells in our immune system also follow their harmonious rhythm to deliver the utmost protection. T cells are vital, but they cannot be the only players in the constant war for homeostasis, the position of being healthy. No, that burden is too heavy to bear. So your immune system develops a cooperative plan where various cells collaborate to ensure our survival. One cell that is highly underrated is the

Natural Killer Cell. 

So Natural Killer Cells or NK cells occupy an interesting space. They aren’t adaptive cells, yet they are derived from the same “mother” cell as the adaptive T cells and B cells. Because of this, they are cousins in a way. NK cells are adaptive-like innate cells, where they don’t form memory subsets, but perform similar tasks as adaptive cells to eradicate pathogens. 

  So what marks NK cells as the “adaptive like” innate cells? It’s their similarity to the warrior cytotoxic T cells. Certain T cells, the ground soldiers, have the ability to use perforins and granzymes to destroy infected host cells under attack from infection. They essentially make cells implode to prevent further pathogen storage or replication. NK cells can do the same. They deem a cell as “off” or “non-self” then perform a “you must die” process to force infected cells or tumor cells to implode and die. This is essential as NK cells are important in viral control and cancer cell eradication. But I must highlight the beauty of NK cells in tandem with T cells in their melodic rhythm in immune protection. 

NK cells may perform a similar task as warrior T cells, but their stimuli are quite different. This is important because the layout of the immune system is a complicated yet beautiful network where different parts collaborate from different instructions. Here is where things begin to differ:

Soldier T cells and NK cells read their target cells using the MHC system. Indeed, the MHC complex is an important protein every cell in your body must present to help your immune system protect your body. Yes, the MHC works as the identification badge every cell presents to the immune system team to have an idea about what’s happening in the body. I plan to go into more detail about MHC later as this topic is rich and complicated to our reality of “self’ and the immune system. For now, I want to leave the MHC complex as an important measure of readings between the NK cells and the soldier T cells. 

Now, when a cell is infected or cancerous, they signal to the soldier T cell that something is wrong and must be killed through their MHC protein. For T cells, the MHC complex is the indispensable method of communication between cells. It has to be present to signal T cell activation for killing. 

 Why does this matter? Because some pathogens and tumor cells have discovered this importance of the MHC complex, thus causing the MHC complex to disappear completely on the cell surface. 

In the evolutionary war for dominance, some pathogens and cancers have read through the necessary relay points that trigger immune protection and work to alter these important points to remain under the radar. Unfortunately, it's effective. Cells that lack a MHC are undetected by T cells, for T cells cannot attack what they cannot see. 

On the other hand, NK cells are triggered by various methods, one of which is the lack of MHC complex. This is where the interesting differences come into play. While T cells must read the MHC complex to be activated, the NK cells will detect the absence of the MHC complex to become triggered. This entire process is titled the “Missing Self Hypothesis”. Yes, the NK cells search for the cell that lacks the “self” protein. No ID, no exceptions. You shall be eradicated. So the mechanism is that the MHC complex serves to inhibit NK activity. If you lack your MHC complex, then you lack a way to stop the NK cell, so the cell is subsequently killed. This is wondrous, as the NK cell can detect what the T cell cannot.

Cited:Vivier, E., Ugolini, S., Blaise, D. et al. Targeting natural killer cells and natural killer T cells in cancer. Nat Rev Immunol 12, 239–252 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1038/nri3174

NK cells are the intricate players in the game of survival and they deserve love too.

[djcgold]

Top Immune Boosting Foods for Fall

Discover the power of fall's immune-boosting foods. Strengthen your defenses and stay healthy during the season. Learn more here.

As the leaves change color and the air turns crisp, we welcome the fall season. But along with its beauty, autumn also brings an increased susceptibility to illnesses like the common cold and flu.  Overview of Immunity Understanding the Immune SystemImmunity and its Cyclical BehaviorBest Fall Immune Boosting FoodsApples SquashPumpkinSweet PotatoesPomegranatesNuts and SeedsFinal…

[david-ojcius]

Researchers find that altered B cell function in children with mitochondrial disorders leads to a weaker & less diverse antibody response to viral infections

https://www.threads.net/t/CucbQWYRP-0/?igshid=NTc4MTIwNjQ2YQ==

[ohitslen]

They are doing the thing

[official-english-major]

One of my favorite subtle details in Epic is how, at the start of Wouldn't You Like, you would expect Odysseus to be on his absolute highest guard after all the unexpected hardships throughout the trip and the conversation he just had with Eury. And yet when a mysterious voice from the trees says "I must say, what a brilliant speech you gave," you can practically HEAR the smirk in Odysseus's voice as he asks "who goes there?"

Bro is exploring a strange island while his crews' lives are in danger, but he also LOVES receiving a compliment on his yapping skills

[clannfearrunt]

U can look into sea cucumber toxins but watch out. You might shatter some crucial underlying assumptions you were making with regards to fantasy cephalopod society epidemiology

[girlishwhimsies]

i love looking at hot takes and realizing that some outsiders fans don’t realize that fandom is something fun. nothing is truly that serious at the end of the day.

[reineyday]

finished watching netflix atla! i think the hate is unjustified lol like all that hate seems a little too intense for what i think the show missed. it didn't hit all the same notes as the original show, yeah, so i'm not sure it quite succeeds as an adaptation, but as a standalone show it's pretty good. and i might have some gripes with the characterization, but there was love in the casting and in the costumes and the world, and that goes a long way for me.

[ruvviks]

coming up with zombie apocalypse stories is always fun because you can just say whatever and people will just have to take your word for it

[sunshinechay]

15 Day BL Challenge! Part 2!

Day 19: If you could turn any Non-BL show into a BL, which would you choose?

Part 1 Part 2

I’m going to have to quietly admit that I haven’t watched a whole lot that wasn’t BL or a douyin drama in last year haha. This year has not been good for my brain and so the lower brain power shows tend to be what I go for most often.

However after thinking about it for a while, I did think of a few that I would love to see a BL version of it.

The first one is a Chinese short drama called Forever Love

A very short summary is a woman became blind following an incident that also killed her father. She is left to pick up the pieces of both her life and her father’s company, all the while completely unaware that her fiancée and best friend are having an affair (and also are the ones who killed her dad). She wants to figure out who killed her father and her new bodyguard decides to help her with that. Bodyguard was also there the night her father died but she doesn’t realize that until after she recovers her eyesight. A very convoluted but fun (imo) plot ensures and ends happily with girl and bodyguard getting together and fiancée and best friend dealt with. It’s very soap opera esque and I would kind of love a gl version. Please give me hot lady bodyguard and heiress falling in love please haha.

Another is an old one but I still have the urge to see it turned into a BL

Itazura na Kiss: Love In Tokyo is a show that I love despite how kind of bad is. (The Japanese version is the best one. I will die on this hill). I think it would be an interesting thing to adapt, not just as a BL but in a more present twist (the age of social media would make Kotoko’s life even worse istg). Yes I know their relationship is very toxic but have you meet me? I like my BLs like I like my nuclear waste. Toxic and fucked up.

There are probably a lot of older Shojo mange/anime/shows that would be fun and also better if made into BL or GLs honestly (stares very pointedly at Boys Over Flowers. It would be better as a BL, I said what I said!).

[cellmadness]

Not to Remember, rather to Persist

For those reading this, I am a huge immunology nerd and want to shed some light on T cells. Feel free to keep reading to join in on my excitement, or just to know more about the fuzzy balls that are our immune soldiers. 

T cells are a unique type of cell in our body as they behave quite distinctive from other cells. Alright, all immune cells fit this category, but T cells have their own tier of uniqueness because of what they can and can’t do in the body…

The "T" in "T cells" stands for Thymus, the ever shrinking organ within our bodies. These cells originate from the bone marrow as most blood cells then go into the thymus to finish development. Kinda like raw cookie dough being transferred into the oven to complete the transformation to reach their delicious goodness potential. 

T cells stand out from other immune cells as they are the only immune cell required to have an exclusive organ for development. (They have an official degree as I would like to think of it. A Doctorate in assassination and home regulation from Thymus University). When they leave the Thymus of Education, they look like fuzzy puffs because they are covered in receptors. They are then deemed the official protectors of the body, only being called into action when primed to combat a specific pathogen, a nasty virus, fungus, or bacteria wreaking havoc-hence the title “adaptive” immune cells.

"Fuzzy, fuzzy ,fuzz balls. So cute, yet so murderous. "

Now with a little background, I want to dive into their behavior. T cells have the ability to transform into different subsets as needed based on stimuli and circumstance.

Following infection, T cells rejoice after their victory. It is tough for the little guys to clear our system from disease while not causing collateral damage. Now, when our cells are officially notified of pathogen clearance, some remain in the system as small record keepers of the disease. These T cells are called Memory T cells because they have the task to engage in protection immediately if that same pathogen comes back for another round. The concept of memory is interesting as our understanding of it is that these T cells can wipe out a repeat offender before we acquire disease. 

However, what I want to discuss is what happens when memory doesn’t form. Indeed, there are times when our T cells cannot initially clear pathogens to form Memory T cells. So what does this mean…does it mean the infected individual dies?  Well yes…depending on the disease we’re talking about. But I’m not talking about times when disease overtakes the adaptive immune system-that’s a conversation for another day.

Instead I want to discuss a not commonly talked about T cell subtype when memory T cells cannot form: Exhausted T cells. 

As the names suggest, exhausted T cells are T cells that are exhausted. (Wait, keep reading there's more) Now, what does that mean? 

Exhausted T cells form when after T cells primed to combat a pathogen they cannot overtake for one reason or another. Indeed, the T cells perform their classic showcase- Kill infected cells, boost innate cells, keep disease under control: their bread and butter. Yet some pathogens simply do not care about the efforts in protective immunity. So what happens is that over a period of time, T cells “realize” that their pathogen cannot be beaten, or at least not without extreme measures. T cells get this realization through consistent signaling from their surrounding environment that the pathogen is still present. When this happens, T cells bring about a truce. 

It’s apparent that I cannot be rid of you, but I won’t let you run free either. 

They begin to change. They transition from their initial hardwiring to become less destructive or cytotoxic. They change to become “worse” fighters and better “managers”. Also, similar to a lot of things in immunology- exhausted T cells exist in a spectrum. Depending on how much chronic stimuli they receive or the overall conditions of the pathogen they deal with impacts to what degree they are “exhausted”. Harsher situations make T cells drive to more of the severe exhaustion side where they can hardly do their jobs at all (poor fellas) while the more annoying but less critical pathogens leave more moderate exhaustion. All in all, exhausted T cells appear to be on the other side of the coin from memory. Unlike memory cells that recover and build stemness (readily able to divide and prep for excellent cytotoxic availability) , exhausted T cells are never given that opportunity. These cells never saw victory. So these cells are equivalent to weary soldiers that keep the stalemate to never “lose” the war. They can divide but can’t fight very well. 

  Upon first glance, I decided that exhausted T cells are a strange evolutionary development. Why would T cells choose to become exhaustive if they clearly aren’t effective? Should they die off? Since then I’ve been enlightened. 

   Exhausted T cells do play a role in the hard fight for homeostasis ,the lovely state of being healthy. While these cells are poor killers, they can persist very well. Maintenance is the name of the game, and persistence is key. Exhausted T cells remain in the site of pathogen to keep it at bay, seemingly as long as it needs to. It would be preferred that the exhausted T cell limit continued cytotoxicity because it would be a waste of resources and a risk on innocent bystander cells. Exhausted T cells utilize decreased energy for limited yet effective division to keep the stalemate. Because of them, we live with many pathogens that never diminish our quality of life because these T cells keep them in check. This is shown in cytomegalovirus (CMV) and Epstein Barr Virus where a lot of people are infected, but no symptoms are realized.

    For that, I found another reason to commend these tiny soldiers. Even when they can’t win, they still try to keep the body from losing.

[bestadaptationtournament]

I wanna talk a bit about my thoughts about adaptations.

So first, I think there's a difference between a faithful adaptation and an accurate one. Just like translation, content often needs to change when going from one medium to another, and a lot of work goes into making a story fit its medium beyond transcribing the plot and dialogues line by line. This is why adaptations needs rewriting and are often credited with new writers.

Take some of the visual novel adaptations listed. If Fate Stay Night or Idolish7 gets transcribed into anime line by line, you'd just have characters talking at each other for 200 episodes straight with brief action/music scenes interjected in between. Do you know how long VNs are?? Can you imagine?

I think a faithful adaptation is one that adapts the work in spirit and not to the letter. Does it capture the theme? The essence of the characters? An adaptation can add a lot of element beyond following the story. Atmosphere. A sense of place. Magic. (HP and LOTR were excluded in this tournament for different reasons, but it'd be remiss not to bring them up for how much the world really came to life in the movies.)

I also think some works are written in a way that makes them exciting to adapt into the visual mediums. (Neil Gaiman's works appeared the most on the nomination list.) And some novels are written in a way that translate really well to a screenplay. (Neil Gaiman is also a TV writer.)

Incidentally, this is one of the reasons I didn't let in manga to anime adaptations that are 1:1, since... well... most popular (shonen) animes are 1:1 adaptations. (At least, until they started condensing the guts out of everything in the past few years.) Like, if I were to ask people if the Naruto anime is a better adaptation than the Bleach anime, well... you'd just vote for your preferred series instead. They're just... adaptations. You're meant to be able to consume the anime and manga interchangeably.

It is also going from one visual episodic medium to another visual episodic medium, so changes are not always necessary the way it often is from words to screen. (Except for many cases like FMA 2003, where the anime had to wrap up before the manga, forcing it to create an OG ending.)

I also don't think faithfulness is necessarily the only metrics you can go by when assessing an adaptation. I never even knew Jurrasic Park had a novel, for example. An adaptation can elevate a mediocre work to an iconic one.

No nuance TLDR: Adaption changes are necessary and good goddammit!!!

Anyway... That's my thoughts. I think people should still vote by their own metrics. I do think the idea of pitching one adaptation against another is kind of silly because ultimately the only thing each adaptations needs to measure up to is its own source material. But... This gives y'all a good opportunity to gush about your favorite adaptations, which are most often harshly criticized and under appreciated.

[castametric]

the highest honor I can bestow upon a work of fiction is “metaphor for the immune system”