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marketinsightshare · 2 years ago

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Blood Collection Tubes Market - Forecast(2022 - 2027)

Blood Collection Tubes Market size is estimated to reach $2.47 billion by 2027, growing at a CAGR of 5.1% during the forecast period 2022-2027. Blood collection tubes are sterile glass or plastic tubes with a vacuum within expediting the draw of a predetermined volume of liquid. Most typically utilized to accumulate blood samples in venipuncture, they are planned for the accumulation, transfer, and processing of skin puncture blood. The suggested range of heparin in evacuated tubes is 10 to 30 USP units of heparin/mL of blood. Tubes including heparin need to be inverted 8 to 10 times consequent to accumulation to guarantee comprehensive mixing of the additive with the blood and, thus, complete anticoagulation of the sample. BD Vacutainer® Heparin Tubes are spray-coated with either lithium heparin or sodium heparin. Samples accumulated in these tubes are utilized for plasma determinations in chemistry. EDTA serves as an anticoagulant in a vacutainer blood collection tube. Therefore, it averts clot formation. Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic Acid (EDTA) tube has a lavender cap as per International Standard and a red cap as per European Standard. It is the anticoagulant utilized for most hematology processes like recognizing and counting blood cells and blood typing. The EDTA blood sample can effortlessly last for at least 4 hours at room temperature and for a few days within the freezer. Also, it assists to conserve the morphology of the blood cells. EDTA tubes are utilized for most hematology treatments. The application of vinyl plastic blood bags and tubing in transfusion medicine is beneficial in the accumulation, processing, repository, and distribution of blood constituents. Serum-separating tubes, also termed serum separating tubes or SSTs, are utilized in medical clinical chemistry tests needing blood serum.

The surging count of surgeries requiring the application of heparin tubes owing to different conditions and accidents is set to drive the Blood Collection Tubes Market. The growing health awareness in conjunction with the surging application of blood samples in the diagnosis and need of blood constituents in the treatment of numerous ailments is set to propel the growth of the Blood Collection Tubes Market during the forecast period 2022-2027. This represents the Blood Collection Tubes Industry Outlook.

Blood Collection Tubes Market Report Coverage

The report: “Blood Collection Tubes Market Forecast (2022-2027)”, by Industry ARC, covers an in-depth analysis of the following segments of the Blood Collection Tubes Market.

By Product Type: Serum Separating Tubes, EDTA Tubes, Plasma Separation Tubes, Rapid Serum Tubes, Others. By Material Type: Plastic, Glass. By End Use: Hospitals And Clinics, R&D Centres, Diagnostic Centres, Others. By Geography: North America (the U.S, Canada, and Mexico), Europe (Germany, France, UK, Italy, Spain, Russia and Rest of Europe), Asia-Pacific (China, Japan, South Korea, India, Australia & New Zealand, and Rest of Asia-Pacific), South America (Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Rest of South America), and Rest Of The World (Middle East, Africa).

Key Takeaways

Geographically, North America Blood Collection Tubes Market accounted for the highest revenue share in 2021 and it is poised to dominate the market over the period 2022-2027 owing to the surging pervasiveness of accidents which may require the application of blood bags and incessant ailments in the North American region.

Blood Collection Tubes Market growth is being driven by the expanding population of the elderly, the soaring application of serum separating tubes in medical clinical chemistry tests needing blood serum, and the increasing predominance of incessant ailments. However, the hazard of obtaining infections owing to unhygienic blood transfusion is one of the major factors hampering the growth of the Blood Collection Tubes Market.

Blood Collection Tubes Market Detailed Analysis on the Strength, Weakness, and Opportunities of the prominent players operating in the market will be provided in the Blood Collection Tubes Market report.

Blood Collection Tubes Market: Market Share (%) by Region, 2021

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Blood Collection Tubes Market Segment Analysis – By Product Type:

The Blood Collection Tubes Market based on product type can be further segmented into Serum Separating Tubes, EDTA Tubes, Plasma Separation Tubes, Rapid Serum Tubes and Others. The EDTA Tubes Segment held the largest market share in 2021. This growth is owing to the soaring application of EDTA Tubes for nearly all hematology processes like ablation therapy and blood transfusions. EDTA Tubes may include K2 EDTA or K3 EDTA. The raised count of accidents and blood transfusions at the time of surgeries and cancer therapy are further propelling the growth of the EDTA Tubes segment.

Furthermore, the Serum Separating Tubes segment is estimated to grow with the fastest CAGR of 5.9% during the forecast period 2022-2027 owing to the soaring application of serum separating tubes for serum separation which is utilized for distinct kinds of diagnosis.

Blood Collection Tubes Market Segment Analysis – By End Use:

The Blood Collection Tubes Market based on end-use can be further segmented into Hospitals And Clinics, R&D Centres, Diagnostic Centres, and Others. The Hospitals And Clinics Segment held the largest market share in 2021. This growth is owing to the soaring diagnosis and treatments worldwide. Different kinds of blood collection tubes may be utilized in hospitals and clinics including heparin tubes for surgeries. The surging application of vacutainer tubes owing to their security, effortless application, and reduced risk of hemolysis is further propelling the growth of this segment.

Furthermore, the Diagnostic Centres segment is estimated to grow with the fastest CAGR of 6.1% during the forecast period 2022-2027 owing to the surging population of the elderly who are susceptible to different ailments and the increasing predominance of ailments like red blood cell disorders needing periodic blood transfusion resulting in the application of EDTA tubes.

Blood Collection Tubes Market Segment Analysis – By Geography:

The Blood Collection Tubes Market based on geography can be further segmented into North America, Europe, Asia-Pacific, South America, and the Rest of the World. North America (Blood Collection Tubes Market) held the largest share with 47% of the overall market in 2021. The growth of this region is owing to the soaring presence of key players like Becton Dickinson & Company in Franklin Lakes, New Jersey, the U.S. in the region. The favorable healthcare policies and the surging count of patients in the U.S. requiring the application of EDTA tubes for blood collection are further driving the growth of the Blood Collection Tubes Market in this region. The existence of well-developed healthcare facilities is further propelling the growth of the Blood Collection Tubes Market in the North American region.

Furthermore, the Asia-Pacific region is estimated to be the region with the fastest CAGR rate over the forecast period 2022-2027. This growth is owing to factors like a boost in government backing and the surging progress in blood collection technology in the Asia-Pacific region. The expanding population of the elderly and the increasing need for blood transfusion for the treatment of distinct hematological ailments requiring the application of EDTA tubes are further fuelling the progress of the Blood Collection Tubes Market in the Asia-Pacific region.

Blood Collection Tubes Market Drivers

Surging Applications Of EDTA Tubes Are Projected To Drive The Growth Of Blood Collection Tubes Market:

EDTA denotes Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, which is the anticoagulant utilized for nearly all hematology processes like recognizing and counting blood cells and blood typing. Tubes may include K2 EDTA or K3 EDTA. K2 EDTA is an anticoagulant utilized in blood collection procedures. K3 EDTA is a substitute anticoagulant for K2 EDTA. Consequent to treatment by EDTA, the plasma may be utilized to assess nearly all proteins. Furthermore, it expedites the stocking of genetic material by way of EDTA buffy coats, which is the interface between the red cells and the plasma subsequent to centrifugation. Historically, EDTA has been endorsed as the anticoagulant of selection for hematological testing owing to its ability to permit the most excellent conservation of cellular constituents and morphology of blood cells. The exceptional extension in laboratory test volume and complexity over current decades has intensified the possible spectrum of uses for this anticoagulant, which can be utilized to balance blood for an assortment of conventional and creative tests. The surging applications of EDTA Tubes are therefore fuelling the growth of the Blood Collection Tubes Market during the forecast period 2022-2027.

Soaring Applications Of Serum Separating Tubes Are Expected To Boost The Demand Of Blood Collection Tubes Market:

Serum separating tubes, also termed serum separator tubes or SSTs are utilized in medical clinical chemistry tests needing blood serum. They include a special gel that segregates blood cells from serum and particles to bring about blood to clot fast. The blood sample can then be centrifuged, permitting the clear serum to be eliminated for testing. Serum collecting tubes or serum separator tubes are convenient uses of the evacuated blood collection system. These tubes have acquired extensive adoption owing to the benefit of the barrier gel that expedites accelerated segregation of serum from cellular components of blood and therefore minimizes hemolysis. It can minimize the pre-analytical turnaround time without considerable clinical effect on normal clinical chemistry tests. The soaring applications of serum separating tubes are driving the growth of the Blood Collection Tubes Market during the forecast period 2022-2027.

Blood Collection Tubes Market – Challenges

Disadvantages Of Blood Collection Systems Are Hampering The Growth Of The Blood Collection Tubes Market:

Becton, Dickinson, and Company (BD) have developed BD Vacutainer® Tubes, Needles, and Holders which are utilized in conjunction as a system for the accumulation of venous blood. BD Vacutainer® Tubes are utilized to transfer and process blood for testing serum, plasma, or whole blood in the clinical laboratory. BD Vacutainer® Tubes are evacuated tubes with color-coded traditional stoppers or BD Hemogard™ Closures. The amount of blood drawn changes with altitude, ambient temperature, barometric pressure, tube age, venous pressure, and filling method. Tubes withdraw volume tinier than the seeming proportions designated (partial draw tubes), may fill more gradually than tubes of the identical size with greater draw volume. For those tubes exposed to centrifugation to produce plasma or serum for testing, standard processing conditions do not essentially fully sediment all cells, whether or not barrier gel is existing. Correspondingly, cell-based metabolism and an organic deterioration ex vivo influence serum/plasma analyte concentrations/activities beyond acellular alterations. It is advocated that testing for glucose, uric acid, and lactate dehydrogenase (LD) be carried out as quickly after collection and separation as possible. Owing to natural deterioration, deferment in segregation of the serum or plasma from the cellular mass or in testing after segregation will lead to erroneous outcomes for those analytes. These issues are thus hampering the growth of the Blood Collection Tubes Market.

Blood Collection Tubes Market Landscape:

Product launches, mergers and acquisitions, joint ventures, and geographical expansions are key strategies adopted by players in the Blood Collection Tubes Market. Key companies of this market are:

Sunphoria Co. Ltd.

Narang Medical Limited

CML Biotech

Bio – X

Labtech Disposables

Hebei Xinle Sci &Tech Co., Ltd.

Greiner Bio-One International

Becton Dickinson & Company

QIAGEN N.V

AdvaCare Pharma

Recent Development

In November 2021, BD (Becton, Dickinson, and Company) declared the introduction of the BD UltraSafe Plus™ 2.25 mL Passive Needle Guard for application by pharmaceutical firms in medication-tool integration products. When integrated with a Glass Prefillable Syringe, the BD UltraSafe Plus™ 2.25 mL system permits the subcutaneous transfer of biologic solutions of distinct fill volumes up to 2 mL and viscosities up to 30 cP. BD UltraSafe Plus™ 2.25 mL is the most-recent solution to be commercially delivered into BD’s portfolio of medication delivery systems for integration products and is planned to satisfy the requirements of healthcare providers, patients, and caregivers in carrying out manual injections of biologic solutions.

In November 2021, QIAGEN declared the inclusion of StableScript™ to the OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer) portfolio. The adaptable reverse transcriptase is planned for application in one-step RT-qPCR and long-range RT-PCR and is accessible to order in large amounts. The launch of reverse transcriptases has permitted polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to be administered to RNA and the formulation of cDNA libraries from mRNA.

In May 2021, Greiner Bio-One International GmbH has currently issued an extensive assortment of cell culture flasks. Issued under the brand name of CELLSTAR, the flasks have been planned particularly to provide for exacting laboratory requirements. Every flask has been formed utilizing polystyrene of excellent quality, which boosts the longevity and guarantees durability.

#Blood Collection Tubes Market share #Blood Collection Tubes Market size #Blood Collection Tubes Market forecast

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biomedgrid · 2 years ago

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Biomed Grid | Nested Polymerase Chain Reaction for Identification of Mitochondrial Cytochrome b Gene of Gazella Dorcas

Introduction

One of the most desert-adapted gazelles, dorcas gazelles may go their entire lives without drinking any water, obtaining all needed moisture from the plants which they eat [1]. They can withstand very high temperatures, although during hot weather they are primarily active at dawn, dusk, and throughout the night. Herds wander over large areas searching for food and tend to congregate in areas where recent rainfall has stimulated plant growth [1, 2, 3, 4 ].According to [5] dorcas gazelle still ranges in Algeria, Burkina Faso, Chad, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Somalia, Sudan, Tunisia and Western Sahara; its occurrence in Nigeria is very doubtful, while it is considered extinct in Senegal. Its geographical distribution was acquired from [6]. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a scientific technique in molecular biology to amplify a single or a few copies of a piece of DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of a DNA sequence. Developed [7, 8]. The method relies on thermal cycling, consisting of cycles of repeated heating and cooling of the reaction for DNA melting and enzymatic replication of the DNA. Primers containing sequences complementary to the target region along with a DNA polymerase are key components to enable selective and repeated amplification [8]. As PCR progresses, the DNA generated is itself used as a template for replication, setting in motion a chain reaction in which the DNA template is exponentially amplified. PCR can be extensively modified to perform a wide array of genetic manipulations [8]. Nested polymerase chain reaction (Nested PCR) is a modification of polymerase chain reaction intended to reduce the contamination in products due to the amplification of unexpected primer binding sites. Polymerase Chain Reaction itself is the process used to amplify DNA samples, via a temperature-mediated DNA polymerase.

Anon (2010) [9] Nested PCR involves two sets of primers, used in two successive runs of (PCR). The second set intended to amplify a secondary target within the first run product [9]. A nested PCR has been developed by [10] to detect a 320 bp DNA segment of the gene encoding the p 57 protein. The sensitivity of the method was increased a hundredfold compared to a conventional PCR method. [10]. The rapidity, sensitivity and specificity of the nested PCR assay would greatly facilitate detection of mitochondrial cytochrome- b gene [11]. The nested PCR yielded a DNA band of expected 101 bp size. The NS1 gene primer sequences for partial length and nested PCR used in the study were the same as used earlier [8]. The nested PCR assay provides greater specificity because it involves 2 rounds of amplification. In the first round, a pair of external primers used to get a larger fragment, which acts as a template for second round of amplification with second set of internal primers [11]. This process provides an additional specificity to the reaction and greatly enhances the efficiency of amplification. The rapidity, sensitivity and specificity of the nested PCR assay would greatly facilitate detection of mitochondrial cytochrome- b gene [11].

Materials and Methods

Blood samples were collected from different species of animals (Gazelles, sheep, goats, cows, camels, donkeys, horses and pigs) in blood container with Ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA) , these samples were used for DNA extraction. The extraction by used QiAgen commercial kit.

Extraction of DNA from Blood Samples:

For extraction of the DNA from blood samples we used commercial kit (QIAamp blood kit- QIAGEN Inc Chatsworth, CA, USA) according to the manufacturer´s instructions. Briefly, 200 μl from the Lysing buffer (L.pin sterile epindorf tube, then added 200 μl from the blood sample and added 10 μl from lyses enhancer, vortexed the tubes then incubated in water bath at 70ºC for 10 minutes. Add 200 μl absolute alcohol, vortexed and incubated in water bath at 70ºC for 2 minutes. Transferred all contents from the epindorf tubes and put to QIA spin column. Spin at 8000 rpm for 2 minutes and discarded the deposite. Washed with 500 μl buffer one, vortexed and spin at 8000 rpm for 2 minutes. Changed the QIAamp column and washed with 500 μl buffer two, vortexed and spin at 12000 rpm for 3 minutes. Discarded the deposit and put the QIAamp column in epindorf tube and add 200 μl from elution buffer and left for 1 minute. Put in the spin for 8000 rpm for 2 minutes then discard the column and saved the epindorf tube at freezing.

Nested Polymerase Chain Reaction

For detecting the mitochondrial cytochrome-b gene for dorcas gazelle we designed the primers by using bioedit software by accession number JN410257.1 of Gazella dorcas isolate from west 7 cytochrome- b (cytb) gene, complete cds; mitochondrial Tunisia from GenBank. The target DNA undergoes the first run of polymerase chain reaction with the first set of primers. The product from the first reaction undergoes a second run with the second set of primers, included bases of the positive sense strand ´5: CAC ACT CCT AGT TCT ATT CT. Complementary included bases of the complementary stand ´5: GTA TAA GGA TTA AGA TTA GA. Solved the primers: The left solved 371 μl, the total volume 100 pmol/ μl to final concentration volume 371 μl × 2 = 742 pmol/ μl. The complementary primer solved 289 μl, the total volume 100 pmol/ μl to final concentration volume 289 μl × 2 = 578 pmol/ μl. Fortytwo μl PCR mix were taken and mixed with 2 μl primers, 1 μl Taq DNA polymerase and 5 μl PCR product from first run (GZ1 and GZ2) for dorcas gazelle put in thermal-cycler tubes. All PCR amplification reaction was carried out in a final volume 50 μl.

Nested Polymerase Chain Reaction Sensitivity

To test the sensitivity of species-specific primer, serial dilution of the product from 10 μl to 10 -6 μl were subjected to the reaction containing the individual species DNA. Vortexed the mixture and adjusted the thermal-cycler apparatus at the specific program according to Tm. The thermal cycling profiles were as follows: at 95ºC, followed by 40 cycles of 94ºC for 1 min, 54ºC for 30 sec, and 72ºC for 45 sec and final incubation at 72ºC for 10 min. The total time of program was 2 hours and twelve minutes. After PCR took 10 μl from the product with 3 μl from loading dye mixed and loaded onto gel of 1.0% Seakem agarose (FMC Bioproduct, Rockland Me) and electrophoresed. Put the gel onto Ethidium bromide, the PCR products were easily identified under U.V light.

Discussion

Lack of detailed information about threatened groups of animals can hamper conservation efforts [12, 13]. Animal or meat species identification has been developed to address different concerns. Authentication of food ingredients is important for consumers because of food fraud was spread. The traceability of meat component in food improves consumer’s confidence in food products. The substitution of expensive meat with cheaper one is a major concern. For some consumer groups, such as vegetarians, the contamination of food with meat residue is strictly prohibited. Another good example of meat identification is the Halal food for the Muslim consumers, who are prohibited from consuming pork. In this study we used the tissues and cooked meat from Gazella dorcas to detect (mtcy-b gene) using PCR and this in accord with [14, 15, [16, 17, 18] findings.

In this study we developed nested-PCR method for very low DNA content products like blood for detection of mitochondrial cytochrome- b gene in Gazella dorcas in Sudan to identify authentic blood, especially from expensive dorcas gazelle’s products because the technique was more sensitive, easier, and faster than the conventional PCR. The result of nested PCR in this study is in agreement with [11, 19, 20] findings.

Results

The results of this study identified mtcyt-b gene in blood from 10 dorcas gazelles and show the sensitivity and specificity of the synthesized primers with target DNA from gazelle and other animals’ species [21, 22]. Nested PCR shows (Table 1)(Figure 1).

Read More About this Article: https://biomedgrid.com/fulltext/volume7/nested%20polymerase-chain-reaction-for-identification-of-mitochondrial-cytochrome-b-gene-of-gazella-dorcas.001105.php

For more about: Journals on Biomedical Science :Biomed Grid | Current Issue

#biomedgrid #american journal of biomedical science & research #immunological diseases #open access medical journal

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machiningparts · 3 years ago

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The chelation therapy is considered to be not free from some bad effects

Oral chelation is considered to be not as efficient as the intravenous therapy, because it hardly has an effect on the plaques in the blood capillaries. In the cases of metal poisonings, chelating stuff works as a detoxifying agent. This therapy can be done in two special methods. It has the ability to connect heavy metals all together & remove them out from the body. Moreover, it gets connected with calcium (Ca) which is helpful in the Precision Assembly of assemblies Manufacturers plaque formation in the blood vessels. In the intravenous therapy, a pine needle is inserted into the blood vessel. In the situation of autism, it eliminates mercury from the head. The metals consist of lead & mercury. This is done to insert the Ethylene Diamine tetra acetic acid into the blood vessels.

These are consumed with chelation products. In oral therapy, a mixture of chelation agents is consumed orally. In chelation therapy, the major component used is Ethylene Diamine tetra acetic acid or EDTA. It is a synthetic amino acid taken as an unknown material in the body. Oral therapy needs a great amount of water consumption. Manufactured products for oral chelation are obtainable in the variety of suppositories, powders & sprays also. All these advantages are linked with atherosclerosis. Chelation therapy is liked to autism as well. However, chelating agents are mainly used for curing metal poisoning. Some of the components used in the chelation products are vitamin E, B, C, calcium, Folic Acid, Potassium, Magnesium, Ginko Biloba, Zinc, Selenium & Ethylene Diamine tetra acetic acid.

The chelation therapy is considered to be not free from some bad effects. For doing oral therapy, chelating agents are presented in the shape of pills. Moreover, it does the similar task to intravenous therapy. These methods are intravenous & oral chelation therapy. Some probable bad effects comprise of bone marrow depression, shock, low blood pressure, kidney toxicity & too much calcium elimination. Moreover, chelation vitamins are presented in the marketplace that includes minerals as well as vitamin C also. There are several advantages of chelation therapy. In addition, it is said to be used for skin enhancement.

It is generally used for treating metal poisoning. Some of the healings chelation agents are accepted by the FDA also. It includes reduced calcium (Ca) assimilation, reduced blood clotting, lessened free ethnic activity in the blood & maintains usual cholesterol level in the body.The organization of chelation agents for the elimination of lethal materials & metals from the body is known as chelation therapy. Patients of cancer, fatigue, gastrointestinal problems & depression are also recommended for having chelation therapy.. Patients need a number of gatherings of therapy in the chelation healing

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garibaldibeardguy · 4 years ago

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juniperpublishers-ttsr · 4 years ago

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Biofield Energy Healing Based Vitamin D3: An Improved Overall Bone Health Activity in MG-63 Cell Line

Abstract

The potential of The Trivedi Effect®-Consciousness Energy Healing vitamin D3 and DMEM medium was investigated in human bone osteosarcoma cells (MG-63). The Test Items (TI) i.e. vitamin D3 and DMEM were separated into two parts. Bone health parameters were tested such as Alkaline Phosphatase enzyme (ALP) activity, collagen levels and bone mineralization. The Test Items (TI) i.e. vitamin D3 and DMEM medium were divided into two parts. The test samples received Consciousness Energy Healing Treatment by Karen Byrnes Allen and samples were defined as the Biofield Energy Treated (BT) samples, while the other parts of each sample were denoted as the Untreated test items (UT). Cell viability using MTT assay exhibited increased cell viability more than 71% with safe and nontoxic profile among test samples on MG-63 cell line. The level of ALP was significantly increased by116.4% at 50μmL in the UT-DMEM+BT-TI group, while 35.6%, 81.2%, and 47.9% at 10, 50 and 100 μmL, respectively in the BT-DMEM+UT-TI group. In addition, ALP level was increased by 42.3% and 90.6% at 10 and 50 μ mL, respectively in the BT-DMEM+BT-TI groups as compared with the untreated group. The level of collagen was significantly increased by 10.5% and 110.1% at 0.1 and 1 μmL, respectively in the UT-DMEM+BT-TI group, while 22.6% and 190.6% at 0.1 and 1μmL, respectively in the BT-DMEM+UT-TI group as compared with the untreated group. In addition, BT-DMEM+BT-TI group showed a significant increased collagen level by 140.6% and 39.9% at 0.1 and 1 μmL, respectively as compared with the untreated test item and DMEM group. The percent of bone mineralization was significantly increased by 128.7% at 50 μmL, in the UT-DMEM+BT-TI group, while 34.1%, 154.7%, and 18.7% at 1, 10, and 50 μmL, respectively in the BT-DMEM+UT-TI group as compared with the untreated group. In addition, BT-DMEM+BT-TI group showed a significant increased bone mineralization by 105.7%, 78.1%, and 39.6% at 1, 10, and 50 μmL, respectively as compared with the untreated group. Thus, the study results concluded that The Trivedi Effect® Treatment would be the best alternative treatment for the maintenance of strong and healthy bones and quality of life. Further, it regulates the osteoblast function and improved the level of collagen, ALP, and calcium absorption in wide range of bone disorders along with wide range of adverse bone health conditions

Keywords: The Trivedi Effect®; Bone Health; Biofield Healing; Osteosarcoma Cells; Vitamin D; Bone mineralization

Abbreviations: CAM: Complementary and Alternative Medicine, NCCAM: National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine; MG- 63: Human Bone Osteosarcoma Cells, ALP: Alkaline phosphatase, DMEM: Dulbecco's Modified Eagle's Medium; FBS: Fetal bovine serum; EDTA: Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic Acid, UT: Untreated, BT: Biofield Energy Treated, TI: Test Item.

Introduction

Vitamin D has multiple effects which regulate the functions in different organs such as brain, lungs, liver, kidneys, and heart, immune, skeletal, and reproductive systems. Moreover, it has sig-nificant anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic, anti-osteoporosis, anti-stress, anti-aging, anti-apoptotic, wound healing, anti-cancer, anti-psychotic, and anti-fibrotic roles. Vitamin D receptors (VDRs) are widely present in most of the body organs like brain, heart, lungs, kidney, liver, pancreas, large and small intestines, muscles, reproductive, nervous system, etc. [1]. VDRs influence cell-to- cell communication, normal cell growth, cell differentiation, cell cycling and proliferation, hormonal balance, neurotransmission, skin health, immune and cardiovascular functions. Bone-related health issues become a major problem among the population from village to the cities. Vitamin D plays a vital role in preserving a healthy mineralized skeleton of most of the vertebrates including humans. Cod liver oil, irradiation of other foods including plants, sunlight, etc. are found to be effective against bone related disorders, which lead to discovering the active principle- vitamin D [1]. The role of vitamin D has been well defined not only for improving the bone mineralization but also with increased bone resorption, aging, inflammation and overall quality of life. Vitamin D3 is synthesized in the skin by sunlight and once formed it sequentially metabolized in the liver and kidney to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (calcitriol, the vitamin D hormone) [2]. Calcitriol play an important role in maintaining the normal level of calcium and phospho-rus, promotes bone mineralization, induce or repress the genes responsible for conserving the mineral homeostasis and skeletal integrity, and inhibit hypertension, kidney damage, cardiovascular and immune disorders (such as Lupus, Addison Disease, Graves' Disease, Hashimoto Thyroiditis, Multiple Sclerosis, Myasthenia Gravis, Anemia, Sjogren Syndrome, Systemic Lupus Erythemato-sus, Diabetes, Alopecia Areata, Fibromyalgia, Vitiligo, Psoriasis, Scleroderma, Chronic Fatigue Syndrome and Vasculitis), and the secondary hyperparathyroidism [3]. Vitamin D insufficiency and deficiency is the major health problem, which causes metabolic bone disease in the young and elderly populations [4]. Fortified foods have a variable amount of vitamin D and most of the foods do not contain vitamin D, which can be fulfilled using some supplements. In order to avoid the bone related disorders such as osteomalacia, exacerbate osteoporosis, hyperparathyroidism, immune disorders, etc. calcium 1000-1500mg/day along with vitamin D supplement around 400 IU/day is very important for maintaining the good bone health [5].

Various in vitro studies have readily established the role of bone health using cell lines and its resorbing effects using three important key biomarkers, such as alkaline phosphatase (ALP), collagen and calcium. MG-63 cell line derived from juxta cortical osteosarcoma, which represents an immature osteoblast phenotype and undergoes temporal development in long term culture. The response of MG-63 cells to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25(OH)2D3) administration has been studied to be similar to normal human osteoblast cells [6]. Hence, MG-63 cell line is widely used for studying the potential of any test compounds to improve the bone health [7]. The formation of new bone involves a complex series of events including the proliferation and differentiation of osteoblasts, and eventually the formation of a mineralized extracellular matrix. ALP is a phenotypic marker for the early differentiation and maturation of osteoblasts. ALP increases the local concentration of inorganic phosphate for bone mineralization and hence is an important marker for osteogenic activity [8]. Similarly, active osteoblasts synthesize and extrude collagen, which plays an important role in the formation of bone extracellular matrix by providing strength and flexibility. Collagen fibrils formed an arrays of an organic matrix known as Osteoid [9]. Likewise, calcium phosphate is deposited in the Osteoid and gets mineralized (combination of calcium phosphate and hydroxyapatite) and provides rigidity to the bone [10]. Thus, these parameters are very essential in order to study the bone health in cell lines. Authors evaluated the in vitro effect of the Biofield Energy Treated vitamin D3 as a test item, a Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) on bone health using MG-63 cell line for major biomarkers.

Within the burgeoning ground of CAM therapies, Biofield En-ergy Treatment or energy medicine, is emerging with significant benefits in various scientific fields. The effects of the CAM ther-apies have great potential, which include external qigong, Johrei, Reiki, therapeutic touch, yoga, Qi Gong, polarity therapy, Tai Chi, pranic healing, deep breathing, chiropractic/osteopathic manipu-lation, guided imagery, meditation, massage, homeopathy, hypno-therapy, progressive relaxation, acupressure, acupuncture, special diets, relaxation techniques, Rolfing structural integration, healing touch, movement therapy, pilates, mindfulness, Ayurvedic medi-cine, traditional Chinese herbs and medicines in biological systems both in vitro and in vivo[11]. Biofield Energy Healing Treatment (The Trivedi Effect®) contain a putative bioenergy, which is channeled by a renowned practitioners from a distance. Biofield Energy Healing as a CAM showed a significant results in biological studies [12]. However, the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM), well-defined Biofield therapies in the subcategory of Energy Therapies [13]. The Trivedi Effect®- Consciousness Energy Healing Treatment has been reported with significant revolution in the physicochemical properties of metals, chemicals, ceramics and polymers [14-16], improved agricultural crop yield, productivity, and quality [17,18], transformed antimicrobial characteristics [19,20], bone health [21,22], biotechnology [23], improved bioavailability [24-26], skin health [27,28], nutra- ceuticals [29,30], cancer research [31,32], and human health and wellness.

Based on the significant outcomes of Biofield Energy Treatment and vital role of vitamin D3 on bone health, authors sought to evaluate the impact of the Biofield Energy Treatment (The Trivedi Effect®) on vitamin D3 as test sample for bone health activity with respect to the assessment of different bone health parameters like ALP, collagen content, and bone mineralization using standard in vitro assays in MG-63 cells.

Material and Methods

Chemicals and reagents

Rutin hydrate was purchased from TCI, Japan, while vitamin D3 (denoted as test item) and L-ascorbic acid were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich, USA. Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS) and Dulbec- co's Modified Eagle's Medium (DMEM) were purchased from Life Technology, USA. Antibiotics solution (penicillin-streptomycin) was procured from HiMedia, India, while 3-(4, 5-diamethyl-2-thi- azolyl)-2, 5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium) (MTT), Direct Red 80, and ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA) were purchased from Sigma, USA. All the other chemicals used in this experiment were analytical grade procured from India.

Cell culture

Human bone osteosarcoma cell line -MG-63 was used as test system in the present study. The MG-63 cell line was maintained in DMEM growth medium for routine culture supplemented with 10% FBS. Growth conditions were maintained as 37 °C, 5% CO2 and 95% humidity and sub cultured by trypsinisation followed by splitting the cell suspension into fresh flasks and supplementing with fresh cell growth medium. Three days before the start of the experiment, the growth medium of near-confluent cells was replaced with fresh phenol-free DMEM, supplemented with 10% charcoal dextran stripped FBS (CD-FBS) and 1% penicillin-strep-tomycin [33].

Experimental design

The experimental groups consisted of cells in baseline control, vehicle control groups (0.05% DMSO with Biofield Energy Treated and untreated DMEM), positive control group (rutin hydrate) and experimental test groups. The experimental groups included the combination of the Biofield Energy Treated and untreated vitamin D3/DMEM. It consisted of four major treatment groups on specified cells with Untreated-DMEM + Untreated-Test item (UT-TI), UT-DMEM + Biofield Energy Treated test item (BT-TI), BT-DMEM + UT-TI, and BT-DMEM + BT-TI.

Consciousness energy healing treatment strategies

The test item and DMEM were divided into two parts. One part each of the test item and DMEM was treated with the Biofield Energy by a renowned Biofield Energy Healer (also known as The Trivedi Effect®) and coded as the Biofield Energy Treated item, while the second part did not receive any sort of treatment. This Biofield Energy Healing Treatment was provided by Karen Byrnes Allen remotely for ~5 minutes. Biofield Energy Healer was remotely located in the USA, while the test samples were located in the research laboratory of Dabur Research Foundation, New Delhi, India. This Biofield Energy Treatment was administered for 5 minutes through the Healer's unique Energy Transmission process remotely to the test samples under laboratory conditions. Karen Byrnes Allen in this study never visited the laboratory in person, nor had any contact with the test item and medium. Further, the control group was treated with a sham healer for comparative purposes. The sham healer did not have any knowledge about the Biofield Energy Treatment. After that, the Biofield Energy Treated and untreated samples were kept in similar sealed conditions for experimental study.

Determination of non-cytotoxic concentration

The cell viability was performed by MTT assay in human bone osteosarcoma cell line (MG-63). The cells were counted and plated in 96 well plates at the density corresponding to 5 X 103 to 10 X 103 cells/well/180 μL of cell growth medium. The above cells were incubated overnight under growth conditions and allowed the cell recovery and exponential growth, which were subjected to serum stripping or starvation. The cells were treated with the test item, DMEM, and positive control. The untreated cells were served as baseline control. The cells in the above plate(s) were incubated for a time point ranging from 24 to 72 hours in CO2 incubator at 37 °C, 5% CO2, and 95% humidity. Following incubation, the plates were taken out and 20μL of 5mg/mL of MTT solution were added to all the wells followed by additional incubation for 3 hours at 37 °C. The supernatant was aspirated and 150μL of DMSO was added to each well to dissolve formazan crystals. The absorbance of each well was read at 540 nm using Synergy HT micro plate reader, BioTek, USA [34]. The percentage cytotoxicity at each tested concentrations of the test substance were calculated using the

following equation (1):

% Cytotoxicity = (1 - X / R) *100 (1)

Where, X = Absorbance of treated cells; R = Absorbance of untreated cells

The percentage cell viability corresponding to each treatment was obtained using the following equation (2):

% Cell Viability = 100 - % Cytotoxicity (2)

The concentrations exhibiting >70% Cell viability was considered as non-cytotoxic.

Assessment of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity

The cells were counted using an hemocytometer and plated in a 24-well plate at the density corresponding 1 x 104 cells/well in phenol free DMEM supplemented with 10% CD-FBS. Following respective treatments, the cells in the above plate were incubated for 48 hours in CO2 incubator at 37 °C, 5% CO2, and 95% humidity. After 48hours of incubation, the plate was taken out and processed for the measurement of ALP enzyme activity. The cells were washed with 1X PBS and lysed by freeze thaw method i.e, incubation at -80 °C for 20 minutes followed by incubation at 37 °C for 10 minutes. To the lysed cells, 50μL of substrate solution i.e, 5mM of p-nitrophenyl phosphate (pNPP) in 1M diethanolamine and 0.24 mM magnesium chloride (MgCl2) solution (pH 10.4) was added to all the wells followed by incubation for 1 hour at 37 °C. The absorbance of the above solution was read at 405 nm using Synergy HT micro plate reader (Biotek, USA). The absorbance val-ues obtained were normalized with substrate blank (pNPP solution alone) absorbance values [33]. The percentage increase in ALP enzyme activity with respect to the untreated cells (baseline group) was calculated using equation (3):

% Increase =[(X -R) /R)]*100 (3)

Where, X = Absorbance of cells corresponding to positive control and test groups

R = Absorbance of cells corresponding to baseline group (untreated cells).

Assessment of collagen synthesis

The MG-63 cells were counted using a hemocytometer and plated in 24-well plate at the density corresponding to 10 x 103 cells/well in phenol free DMEM supplemented with 10% CD-FBS. Following respective treatments, the cells in the above plate were incubated for 48 hours in CO2 incubator at 37°C, 5% CO2, and 95% humidity. After 48 hours of incubation, the plate was taken out and the amount of collagen accumulated in MG-63 cells corresponding to each treatment was measured by Direct Sirius red dye binding assay. In brief, the cell layers were washed with PBS and fixed in Bouin's solution (5% acetic acid, 9% formaldehyde and 0.9% picric acid) for 1 hours at room temperature (RT). After 1 hour of incubation, the above wells were washed with milliQ water and air dried. The cells were then stained with Sirius red dye solution for 1 hour at RT followed by washing in 0.01 N HCl to remove un-bound dye. The collagen dye complex obtained in the above step was dissolved in 0.1 N NaOH and absorbance was read at 540 nm using Biotek Synergy HT micro plate reader. The level of collagen was extrapolated using standard curve obtained from purified Calf Collagen Bornstein and Traub Type I (Sigma Type III) [33]. The percentage increase in collagen level with respect to the untreated cells (baseline group) was calculated using equation (4):

% Increase = [(X - R) / R] *100 (4)

Where, X = Collagen levels in cells corresponding to positive control and test groups

R = Collagen levels in cells corresponding to baseline group (untreated cells).

Assessment of bone mineralization by alizarin red S staining

The MG-63 cells were counted using an hemocytometer and plated in 24-well plate at the density corresponding to 10 x103cells/well in phenol free DMEM supplemented with 10% CD- FBS. Following respective treatments, the cells in the above plate were incubated for 48 hours in CO2 incubator at 37°C, 5% CO2, and 95% humidity to allow cell recovery and exponential growth. Following overnight incubation, the above cells will be subjected to serum stripping for 24 hours. The cells will be then be treated with non-cytotoxic concentrations of the test samples and positive control. After 3-7days of incubation with the test samples and positive control, the plates were taken out cell layers and processed further for staining with Alizarin Red S dye. The cells were fixed in 70% ethanol for 1 hour, after which Alizarin Red solution (40 μm; pH 4.2) was added to the samples for 20 minutes with shaking. The cells were washed with distilled water to remove unbound dye. For quantitative analysis by absorbance evaluation, nodules were solubilized with 10% cetylpyridinium chloride for 15 minutes with shaking. Absorbance was measured at 562 nm using Biotek Synergy HT micro plate reader [33]. The percentage increase in bone mineralization with respect to the untreated cells (baseline group) was calculated using the following equation (5):

% Increase = [(X - R) / R] *100 (5)

Where, X = Absorbance in cells corresponding to positive control or test groups; R = Absorbance in cells corresponding to baseline (untreated) group.

Statistical analysis

All the values were represented as percentage of respective parameters. For multiple group comparison, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used followed by post-hoc analysis by Dun- netts test. Statistically significant values were set at the level of p≤0.05.

Results and Discussion

Cell viability using MTT assay

Cell viability data showed that cell viability was significant im-proved percentage among the Biofield Energy Treated vitamin D3 and DMEM in MG-63 cells are shown in Figure 1. The data showed that the test samples found as nontoxic and safe (as evidence of cell viability approximately more than 71%) across all the tested concentrations up to 100μg/mL. Hence, the same concentrations were used for the evaluation of other bone health parameters such as alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, collagen synthesis, and bone mineralization in MG-63 cells.

Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) enzyme activity

The Trivedi Effect®-Energy of Consciousness Healing based test items displayed an increased ALP level in various groups (Figure 2) as compared with the untreated group. The percentage change in ALP data at various concentrations in different groups were presented in Figure 2 in terms of percentage values. The positive control, rutin showed a significant increased value by 43.44%, 53.55%, and 83.33% at 0.01, 0.1, and 1 μg/mL, respectively with respect to the untreated cells. The experimental test group's untreated medium and Biofield Treated Test item (UT-DMEM+BT- TI) showed a significant increased level of ALP by 116.4% and 2.3% at 50 and 100 μg/mL, respectively while Biofield Treated medium and untreated Test item (BT-DMEM+UT-TI) showed a significant increased ALP level by 35.6%, 81.2%, and 47.9% at 10, 50 and 100 μg/mL, respectively as compared with the untreated test item and DMEM group. However, the Biofield Energy Treated medium and Biofield Energy Treated Test item (BT-DMEM+BT-TI) showed a significant increased ALP level by 42.3% and 90.6% at 10 and 50 μg/mL, respectively as compared with the untreated test item and DMEM group. ALP (zinc metalloprotein enzymes) is considered as one of the important bone biomarker proteins for osteoblast differentiation. Reduced level of bone ALP leads to various disorders such as obstructive liver disease, osteoblastic activity, metabolic bone disease, reduced bone growth, acromegaly, osteogenic sarcoma, or bone metastases, healing fracture, myelo-fibrosis, leukemia, and rarely myeloma [35-37]. Thus, the overall data suggested a significant improved ALP level after Biofield Energy Treatment. Biofield Energy Treated test samples could be useful against patients suffering from bone disorders to improve the skeletal structure and overall bone-related disorders.

Estimation of collagen synthesis

The Trivedi Effect®-Biofield Energy Treated test samples showed a significant enhanced level of collagen synthesis as compared with the untreated test samples. All the results are presented in percentage collagen values in Figure 3. The rutin hydrate (positive control group) showed a significant increased value of collagen by 46.59%, 51.97%, and 65.41% at 0.01, 0.1, and 1 μg/ mL, respectively. In addition, the experimental test groups such as UT-DMEM+BT-TI showed a significant increased collagen level by 10.5% and 110.1% at 0.1 and 1 μg/mL, respectively while BT- DMEM+UT-TI group showed a significant increased collagen level by 22.6%, 190.6%, and 1.6% at 0.1, 1, and 10 μg/mL, respectively as compared with the untreated test item and DMEM group. On the other hand, BT-DMEM+BT-TI group showed a significant increased collagen level by 140.6% and 39.9% at 0.1 and 1 μg/mL, respectively as compared with the untreated test item and DMEM group. Collagen synthesis leads to build stronger bone and muscles, which provide strength to skeletal structure. Collagen fibers provide strong mechanical force and strength to life. The most abundant matrix protein, collagen type I play a significant role in overall bone health [38,39]. Overall, the Consciousness Energy treated vitamin D3 had significantly improved the synthesis of collagen fibers in the human osteosarcoma cells with respect to all the treatment groups. Hence, it is assumed that The Trivedi Effect® has the significant potential to improve the bone health in various skeletal disorders against weaken joints, tendons, and ligaments.

Bone mineralization

The effect of Biofield Energy Treatment (Trivedi Effect®-Bio- field Energy Healing) on bone mineralization in MG-63 cells is shown in Figure 4, which showed a significant increased bone mineralization percentage in the test samples. Supplementation with calcium and vitamin D3 increased the chance of degree of bone mineralization. As, bioactive vitamin D or calcitriol is a steroid hormone, which has an important long term role in regulating the body levels of calcium and phosphorus, and in bone mineralization process. However, lack of vitamin D and calcium is directly linked to an inability of any person to fight against infections effectively, depression, muscle weakness, multiple sclerosis, fatigue and the development of diabetes, bone cancers, heart disease, high blood pressure, and stroke [40,41]. The results in term of percentage bone mineralization was presented in Figure 4. The positive control, rutin group showed a significant increased value of bone mineralization by 47.98%, 59.73%, and 139.02% at 5, 10, and 25 μg/mL, respectively. The experimental data among test group's UT-DMEM+BT-TI showed a significant increased bone mineralization by 128.7% at 50 μg/mL, while BT-DMEM+UT- TI group showed a significantly increased bone mineralization by 34.1%, 154.7%, and 18.7% at 1, 10, and 50 μg/mL, respectively as compared with the untreated test item and DMEM group. However, BT-DMEM+BT-TI group showed a significant increased bone mineralization by 105.7%, 78.1%, and 39.6% at 1, 10, and 50 μg/ mL, respectively as compared with the untreated test item and DMEM group. Thus, The Trivedi Effect®-Biofield Energy Treated vit D3 could be significantly useful to maintain a healthy skeletal structure for the patients suffering from various bone-related disorders.

Conclusion

The experimental results of cell viability data using MTT assay showed more than 71% cells were viable and Consciousness Energy Healing based vitamin D3 further improved the cell viability. Thus, MTT data indicated that the test samples were safe and nontoxic in all the tested concentrations. However, various bone health parameters were significantly improved such as ALP was increased by 116.4% at 50 μg/mL in the UT-DMEM+BT-TI, while 35.6%, 81.2%, and 47.9% at 10, 50 and 100 μg/mL, respectively in the BT-DMEM+UT-TI group as compared with the untreated test item and DMEM group. In addition, BT-DMEM+BT-TI group showed an increased ALP level by 42.3% and 90.6% at 10 and 50 μg/mL, respectively The level of collagen was significantly increased by 10.5% and 110.1% at 0.1 and 1 μg/mL, respectively in the UT-DMEM+BT-TI, while 22.6%, 190.6%, and 1.6% at 0.1, 1, and 10 μg/mL, respectively in the BT-DMEM+UT-TI group. The level of collagen was increased by 140.6% and 39.9% at 0.1 and 1μg/mL, respectively in BT-DMEM+BT-TI group as compared with the untreated test item and DMEM group. Similarly, the bone mineralization percent was significantly increased by 128.7% at 550 μg/mL in the UT-DMEM+BT-TI group, while 34.1%, 154.7%, and 18.7% at 1, 10, and 50 μg/mL, respectively in the BT-DMEM+UT-TI group as compared with the untreated group. In addition, BT-DMEM+BT- TI group showed a significant increased bone mineralization by 105.7%, 78.1%, and 39.6% at 1, 10, and 50 μg/mL, respectively as compared with the untreated group. The Bone health parameters were significantly improved among the Biofield Energy Treated vitamin D3 test samples in MG-63 cells. Overall, the Biofield Energy Treated (The Trivedi Effect®) test samples were found to have a significant impact on tested bone health parameters collagen, bone mineralization, and ALP, which are very vital to combat the bone disorders. Therefore, the Consciousness Energy Healing based vitamin D3 might be a suitable alternative nutritional supplement, which could be useful for the management of various bone related disorders osteoporosis, Paget's disease of bone, rickets, deformed bones, osteomalacia, bone and/or joint pain, increased frequency of fractures, osteoma, hormonal imbalance, stress, aging, bone loss and fractures, and other bone diseases that are caused by poor nutrition, genetics, or problems with the rate of bone growth or rebuilding. Biofield Energy Treated Vitamin D3can be useful as anti-inflammatory, anti-aging, anti-stress, anti-arthritic, anti-osteoporosis, anti-cancer, anti-apoptotic, wound healing, anti-psychotic and anti-fibrotic roles. It also influence cell-to-cell communication, normal cell growth, cell differentiation, neurotransmission, cell cycling and proliferation, hormonal balance, skin health, immune and cardiovascular functions. Besides, it can also be utilized in hormonal imbalance, aging, and various immune related disease conditions such as Multiple Sclerosis, Alzheimer's Disease, Asthma, Atherosclerosis, Pernicious Anemia, Aplastic Anemia, Diverticulitis, Graves' Disease, Dermatomyositis, Dermatitis, stress, Irritable Bowel Syndrome, Systemic Lupus Ery-thematosus, Hepatitis, Hashimoto Thyroiditis,Diabetes, Myasthe-nia Gravis, Ulcerative Colitis, Sjogren Syndrome, Parkinson's Dis-ease, etc. with a safe therapeutic index to improve overall health, and quality of life.

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siwaporns · 5 years ago

Text

ตรวจโลหะหนักในร่างกาย เป็นอย่างไร จำเป็นไหม ราคามากแค่ไหน?

ทราบไหมว่า ฝุ่นละอองควันจากท่อไอเสียรถยนต์ หรือแม้กระทั้งอาหารที่คุณกินเป็นประจำนั้น อาจมีการแปดเปื้อนของโลหะหนัก ซึ่งถ้าได้รับในปริมาณมากต่อเนื่องกันเป็นเวลานาน บางทีอาจส่งผลรุนแรงต่อสภาพร่างกาย นำมา��ึ่งการก่อให้เกิดโรคร้ายต่างๆตามมาได้ การตรวจโลหะหนักภายในร่างกาย เป็นอีกโอกาสหนึ่งที่ช่วยให้พวกเราสามารถสกัดกั้นโรคร้ายที่กำลังจะเกิดขึ้น

โลหะหนักเป็นอย่างไร?

โลหะหนักเป็นส่วนประกอบที่เจอได้ตามธรรมชาติ มักประยุกต์ใช้ในระบบอุตสาหกรรมการผลิตองค์ประกอบ อุปกรณ์อิเล็กทรอนิกส์ ยา รวมไปถึงผลิตภัณฑ์ทางการเกษตรต่างๆจึงนับยอดเยี่ยมในสิ่งที่มีประโยชน์ต่อมนุษย์อย่างมาก

นอกจากนั้นโลหะหนักชนิดสังกะสี เหล็ก ทองแดง ยังเป็นส่วนประกอบสำคัญภายในร่างกายมนุษย์อีกด้วย เนื่องจากเป็นสารที่จำเป็นจะต้องต่อแนวทางการทำงานของระบบต่างๆแต่ถ้าร่างกายได้รับโลหะหนักมากจนเกินความจำเป็น ก็จะทำให้เกิดผลเสียตามมา โดยโลหะที่พบได้บ่อยว่ามีการปนเปื้อนในร่างกายจนมีอันตรายนั้นมีอยู่ 9 ชนิดร่วมกัน เช่น

* สารหนู (Arsenic)

* ปรอท (Mercury)

* แคตเมียม (Cadmium)

* โครเมียม (Chromium)

* วัวบอลท์ (Cobalt)

* นิเกิล (Nickle)

* แมงกานีส (Manganese)

* อลูมินัม (Aluminum)

* ตะกั่ว (Lead)

โลหะหนักไปสู่ร่างกายได้อย่างไร?

โลหะหนักเข้าสู่ร่างกายได้มากมายช่องทาง แม้พวกเรารู้ถึงสิ่งที่ก่อให้เกิดความเสี่ยงเหล่านี้ ก็จะสามารถวางแผนป้องกันได้อย่างเหมาะสม โดยวิธีที่โลหะหนักเข้าสู่ร่างกายมี 3 วิธีหลักๆดังต่อไปนี้

* การสูดดม ควันจากท่อไอเสียรถยนต์ ยาสูบ หรือควันที่มีพิษจากโรงงานอุตสาหกรรม รวมไปถึงฝุ่นที่ลอยล่องอยู่กลางอ��กาศ มักมีการแปดเปื้อนของโลหะหนักอยู่ออกจะมาก ด้วยเหตุนั้นแม้คุณดมควันและก็ฝุ่นละอองเหล่านี้ โลหะหนักก็จะเข้าสู่ร่างกายไปด้วย

* การกิน แหล่งน้ำจืด น้ำทะเล แผ่นดินบางพื้นที่ที่อยู่ใกล้กับโรงงานอุตสาหกรรม อาจมีการแปดเปื้อนของโลหะหนัก ซึ่งถ้าหากมีการจับสัตว์น้ำหรือมีการเพาะปลูกรอบๆดังที่ได้กล่าวมาแล้ว ก็มีโอกาสที่สัตว์น้ำหรือพืชผักจะแปดเปื้อนโลหะหนักออกจะสูง ดังนี้ในบางประเทศมีการออกคำเสนอแนะให้หญิงตั้งท้อง หลีกเลี่ยงการรับประทานปลาทูน่า เนื่องมาจากพบว่ามีสารปรอทแปดเปื้อนในปริมาณที่สูง กระทั่งอาจเป็นอันตรายต่อทารกในครรภ์ได้

* การสัมผัส เป็นอีกหนึ่งวิธีที่ทำให้โลหะหนักเข้าสู่ร่างกาย โดยเฉพาะอย่างยิ่งผู้ที่ทำงานในโรงงานอุตสาหกรรมซึ่งจะต้องสัมผัสกับสารเคมีต่างๆหลายครั้ง ผิวหนังก็อาจมีการดูดซึมโลหะหนักที่แปดเปื้อนอยู่ได้ นอกนั้นการใช้เครื่องสำอางที่มิได้มาตรฐานมีการผสมสารโลหะหนัก ก็เป็นช่องทางที่ทำให้โลหะหนักสะสมภายในร่างกายได้ด้วยเหมือนกัน

เมื่อโลหะหนักเข้าสู่ร่างกายจะออกอาการอย่างไร?

โลหะหนักแม้ว่าจะเป็นส่วนประกอบสำคัญของร่างกาย แม้กระนั้นถ้าได้รับในปริมาณที่มากเกินความจำเป็น จะมีผลรุนแรงได้ ซึ่งอันตรายจากโลหะหนักนั้นจะต่างๆนาๆตามประเภทของโลหะนั้นๆแต่โดยธรรมดาจะมีอาการเบื้องต้นดังต่อไปนี้

* ท้องร่วง คลื่นไส้ ปวดท้อง อ้วก

* หายใจไม่สะดวก สูดหายใจได้ไม่สุด

* มือหรือเท้า สั่น เมื่อยล้า

* รู้สึกเหมือนมีเข็มทิ่มแทงตามมือรวมทั้งเท้า

ดังนี้ปัญหาพิษจากโลหะหนักที่พบในตอนนี้มักมิได้เกิดขึ้นได้เพราะมีสาเหตุเนื่องมาจากการได้รับพิษอย่างฉับพลันและก็ออกอาการโดยทันที แต่ว่าเป็นการได้รับโลหะหนักปริมาณน้อยแล้วก็สะสมไปเรื่อยๆจนถึงนำไปสู่ปัญหาด้านสุขภาพตามมา เนื่องจากเมื่อสารโลหะหนักเข้าสู่ร่างกายจะเข้าไปจับกับโปรตีนที่ทำหน้าที่เร่งปฏิกิริยาเคมีต่างๆจนกระทั่งทำให้โปรตีนที่ทำหน้าที่เร่งปฏิกิริยาเคมีพวกนั้นไม่ทำงาน ระบบต่างๆภายในร่างกายจึงหยุดชะงัก ยิ่งไปกว่านี้โลหะหนักยังส่งผลให้เกิดการอักเสบของเส้นเลือด ทำให้เกิดลิ่มเลือดอุด��ัน รวมทั้งยังเป็นพิษต่อเซลล์ภายในร่างกาย ทำให้เซลล์มีการแบ่งตัวแตกต่างจากปกติ ซึ่งเป็นต้นเหตุสำคัญของโรคมะเร็งอีกด้วย

แนวทางกันร่างกายให้ไกลห่างจากโลหะหนัก

จากสิ่งแวดล้อมในขณะนี้ อาจพูดได้ว่าโลหะหนักได้โอกาสไปสู่ร่างกายได้ตลอดระยะเวลา ผ่านการสูดดม สัมผัสและกินอาหารที่มีการปนเปื้อนโลหะหนัก แม้กระนั้นเราสามารถเลี่ยงได้เช่นเดียวกัน ด้วยการปฏิบัติตัว��ามคำแนะนำนี้

* หลบหลีกการอยู่ในที่ที่มีฝุ่นละอองควัน แม้กระนั้นแม้ต้องเดินทางไปยังสถานที่นั้น ควรสวมหน้ากากอนามัยที่บอกว่าสามารถกันฝุ่นผงแล้วก็โลหะหนักได้

* ถ้าเกิดต้องปฏิบัติงานหรืออาศัยในบริเวณที่ได้รับผลกระทบจากโลหะหนัก จำเป็นที่จะต้องสวมหน้ากากแล้วก็เสื้อผ้าที่กันพิษ

* หลีกเลี่ยงการสัมผัสแบตเตอรี่ ถ่านไฟฉาย แล้วก็อุปกรณ์อิเลคทรอนิกส์ ที่ย่อยสลายแล้ว

* อ่านฉลากของเครื่องมือต่างๆก่อนเลือกซื้อทุกหน เนื่องจากอุปกรณ์บางจำพวกอาจมีส่วนประกอบของโลหะหนักที่จำเป็นต้องรอบคอบในระหว่างการใช้งาน

* เลี่ยงการรับประทานอาหารซ้ำๆแม้แต่ผัก ผลไม้ก็ควรจะเวียนกิน เนื่องจากมีโอกาสได้รับโลหะหนักจำพวกเดิมโดยตลอด จนกระทั่งมีอันตรายต่อสุขภาพได้ โดยเหตุนี้ควรจะรับประทานอาหารให้นานัปการเพื่อกระจายความเสี่ยง

* หลบหลีกการซื้อยา อาหารเสริม หรือสมุนไพรที่มิได้รับการยืนยันมาตรฐานจากสำนักงานคณะกรรมการอาหารและยา โดยยิ่งไปกว่านั้นยาลูกกลอน เนื่องจากว่ามีการเจอโลหะหนักปนเปื้อนในโดยประมาณที่สูงมากมาย

* แม้อาศัยอยู่ในบ้านเก่าที่ก่อสร้างก่อนปี พุทธศักราช 2521 ควรจะปรับปรุงแก้ไขใหม่ เพราะเหตุว่าช่วงก่อนปี พ.ศ. 2521 มีการนำผลิตภัณฑ์สีทาบ้านที่ผสมสารตะกั่วมาใช้อย่างแพร่หลาย ซึ่งถ้าสัมผัสหรือสูดดมอย่างต่อเนื่องจะทำให้เป็นอันตรายร้ายแรงได้

* เลี่ยงการใช้งานเครื่องสำอางที่ไม่ได้มาตรฐาน ชนิดครีมหน้าขาว ที่ชี้แจงสรรพคุณว่าช่วยให้ผิวกระจ่างใสได้อย่างรวดเร็ว ด้วยเหตุว่าจำนวนมากจะมีส่วนผสมของโลหะหนักพวกปรอท ที่บางทีอาจก่อให้เกิดอันตรายต่อผิวหนังได้

* ตรวจโลหะหนักในร่างกายเสมอๆทุกปี เพราะแม้พบว่ามีโลหะหนักภายในร่างกายเกินกฏเกณฑ์ แพทย์จะได้วางแผนเพื่อขับออกอย่างเหมาะสม

ตรวจโลหะหนักภายในร่างกายคืออะไร?

การตรวจโลหะหนักภายในร่างกายเป็นหนึ่งในกรรมวิธีการที่ช่วยให้พวกเราทราบดีว่าในร่างกายของพวกเรามีระดับโลหะหนักเกินมาตรฐานจนถึงก่อให้เกิดอันตรายไหม โดยแพทย์จะตรวจด้วยการเก็บเนื้อเก็บตัวอย่างเลือด เยี่ยวหรือเหงื่อ แล้วส่งไปตรวจทางห้องปฏิบัติการพิเศษซึ่งสามารถตรวจระดับโลหะหนักที่เป็นพิษต่อสุขภาพได้อีกทั้ง 9 ประเภท ถ้าพบว่ามีระดับโลหะหนักเกินมาตรฐานมาตรฐานจะได้กำหนดแผนการขับโลหะหนักออกมาจากร่างกายต่อไป

ผู้ใดควรตรวจโลหะหนักบ้าง?

อันที่จริงแล้วทุกคนสามารถเข้ารับการตรวจโลหะหนักได้ เพื่อกันโรคร้ายที่บางทีอาจเกิดขึ้น แต่ถ้าหากคุณมีความเสี่ยงดังต่อไปนี้ ควรเข้ารับการตรวจโลหะหนักบ่อยๆทุกปีเพื่อร่างกายที่แข็งแรงของตัวคุณเอง

* ผู้ที่แก่ 15 ปีขึ้นไป

* ผู้ที่ดำรงชีพที่มีการเสี่ยงจำเป็นต้องดมหรือสัมผัสกับโลหะหนักเป็นประจำ ตัวอย่างเช่น บ��คลากรในโรงงานผลิตชิ้นส่วนอิเล็กทรอนิกส์

* ผู้ที่อยู่อาศัยใกล้โรงงานอุตสาหกรรม หรืออยู่ในสถานที่ที่พบว่ามีการปนเปื้อนหรือเคยมีการปนของโลหะหนัก

* ผู้ที่จำเป็นต้องดำเนินงานหรืออาศัยอยู่ในสภาพแวดล้อมที่มีมลพิษทางอากาศ

* คนที่ประกอบอาชีพเกษตรกร ซึ่งจำต้องสัมผัสกับสารเคมีจำพวกปุ๋ย สารกำจัดแมลง บ่อยๆ

เตรียมความพร้อมก่อนที่จะมีการตรวจโลหะหนัก

วิธีการเตรียมพร้อมก่อนการตรวจโลหะหนักนั้นไม่ยุ่งยาก โดยมีการเตรียมตัวดังต่อไปนี้

* งดน้ำแล้วก็อาหาร (กินน้ำเปล่าได้) ก่อนเข้ารับการตรวจอย่างน้อย 8-12 ชั่วโมง

* งดเว้นอาหารทะเลก่อนจะมีการตรวจอย่างต่ำ 1 สัปดาห์

ค่าใช้จ่ายสำหรับเพื่อการตรวจโลหะหนักภายในร่างกาย

การตรวจโลหะหนักในร่างกายยอดเยี่ยมในวิธีที่ช่วยลดจังหวะเสี่ยงของการเกิดโรคร้ายได้ ซึ่งเดี๋ยวนี้โรงหมอรัฐและเอกชนชั้นนำหลายที่ก็มีบริการตรวจโลหะหนักภายในร่างกาย โดยราคาเริ่มต้นอยู่ที่โดยประมาณ 3,000 บาท ขึ้นอยู่กับค่าใช้จ่ายสำหรับบริการทางด้านการแพทย์และค่าสำหรับบริการโรงพยาบาลนั้นๆ

ถ้าตรวจเจอว่าโลหะหนักเกินเกณฑ์มาตรฐานจำต้องทำอย่างไร?

ถ้าหากตรวจโลหะหนักแล้วพบว่ามีระดับโลหะหนักในร่างกายเกินมาตรฐานมาตรฐาน จำเป็นจะต้องวางแผนเพื่อกำจัดโลหะหนักพวกนั้นออกมาจากร่างกาย โดยแนวทางที่หมอใช้ในปัจจุบันคือการทำ คีเลชั่น (Chelation Therapy) โน่นคือการล้างพิษรวมทั้งโลหะหนักในเส้นเลือด โดยเป็นการให้ของเหลว ซึ่งสารประกอบชนิดกรดอะมิโนที่เรียกว่า Ethylene diamine tetra-acetic acid หรือ EDTA ผสมกับวิตามินและก็แร่ต่างๆเมื่อ EDTA เข้าสู่ร่างกายจะเข้าไปทำหน้าที่จับกับสารโลหะหนัก อย่างเช่น ตะกั่ว ปรอท สารหนู หรือแม้กระทั้งแคลเซียมส่วนเกิน ต่อจากนั้นจะขับออกทางเยี่ยว โดยใช้เวลาสำหรับการให้ของเหลวราว 3-4 ชั่วโมง ทำประมาณ 8-10 ครั้ง นับเป็นวิธีที่ปลอดภัยและช่วยกำจัดโลหะหนักออกจากร่างกายได้อย่างมีประสิทธิภาพ

หลายท่านอาจมองผ่านการตรวจโลหะหนักในร่างกาย ด้วยเหตุว่ามีความรู้สึกว่าเกิดเรื่องไกลตัว แม้กระนั้นอันที่จริงแล้วโลหะหนักอยู่ใกล้ตัวกว่าที่คิด ยิ่งสิ่งแวดล้อมในปัจจุบันนั้นมีมลภาวะค่อนข้างจะมากมาย ทำให้มีโอกาสสัมผัสกับโลหะหนักมากเพิ่มขึ้นตามไปด้วย การตรวจโลหะหนักอย่างสม่ำเสมอก็เลยเป็นสิ่งจำเป็นที่ทุกคนควรที่จะเอาใจใส่ เนื่องจากยิ่งตรวจพบเร็วเท่าใด ก็ยิ่งลดความเสี่ยงของการเกิดโรคร้ายได้เร็วขึ้นเพียงแค่นั้น

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siva3155 · 5 years ago

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300+ TOP ENVIRONMENTAL Engineering Objective Questions & Answers

ENVIRONMENTAL Engineering Objective Questions :-

1. Assertion A : The consumption of water increases with increase in the distribution pressure. Reason R : Higher distribution pressure causes more loss and waste of water. Select your answer according to the coding system given below a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A. b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A. c) A is true but R is false. d) A is false but R is true. Ans: a 2. The per capital consumption of a locality is affected by i) climatic conditions ii) quality of water iii) distribution pressure The correct answer is a) only (i) b) both (i) and (ii) c) both (i) and (iii) d) all (i), (ii) and (iii) Ans: d 3. Which of the following causes a decrease in per capita consumption ? a) use of metering system b) good quality of water c) better standard of living of the people d) hotter climate Ans:a 4. The hourly variation factor is usually taken as a) 1.5 b) 1.8 c) 2.0 d) 2.7 Ans:a 5. If the average daily consumption of a city is 100,000 m3, the maximum daily con¬sumption on peak hourly demand will be a) 100000m3 b) 150000m3 c) 180000m3 d) 270000 m3 Ans:d

ENVIRONMENTAL Engineering Mcqs 6. The distribution mains are designed for a) maximum daily demand b) maximum hourly demand c) average daily demand d) maximum hourly demand on maxi¬mum day Ans:d 7. As compared to geometrical increase method of forecasting population, arithmetical increase method gives a) lesser value b) higher value c) same value d) accurate value Ans:a 8. The population of a town in three consecutive years are 5000, 7000 and 8400 respectively. The population of the town in the fourth consecutive year according to geometrical increase method is a) 9500 b) 9800 c) 10100 d) 10920 Ans:d 9. The suitable method of forecasting popu¬lation for a young and rapidly increasing city is a) arithmetical increase method b) geometrical increase method c) incremental increase method d) graphical method Ans:b 10. The depression of water table in a well due to pumping will be maximum a) at a distance R from the well b) close to the well c) at a distance R/2 from the well d) none of the above where R is the radius of influence Ans:b 11. The devices which are installed for drawing water from the sources are called a) aquifers b) aquiclude c) filters d) intakes Ans:d 12. Select the correct relationship between porosity (N), specific yield (y) and specific retention (R) a) N = y + R b) y = N + R c) R = N + y d) R > (N + y) Ans:a 13. The type of valve, which is provided on the suction pipe in a tube-well, is a) air relief valve b) reflux valve c) pressure relief valve d) sluice valve Ans:b 14. The maximum discharge of a tube-well is about a) 5 litres/sec b) 50 litres/sec c) 500 litres/sec d) 1000 litres/see Ans:b 15. As compared to shallow-wells, deep wells have a) more depth b) less depth c) more discharge d) less discharge Ans:c 16. Ground water is usually free from a) suspended impurities b) dissolved impurities c) both suspended and dissolved impuri¬ties d) none of the above Ans:a 17. The polluted water is one which a) contains pathogenic bacteria b) consists of undesirable substances rendering it unfit for drinking and domestic use c) is safe and suitable for drinking and domestic use d) is contaminated Ans:b 18. Which of the following is not a water borne disease ? a) dysentery b) cholera c) typhoid d) maleria Ans:d 19. The most common cause of acidity in water is a) carbon dioxide b) oxygen c) hydrogen d) nitrogen Ans:a 20. The phenolic compounds in public water supply should not be more than a) 0.1 ppm b) 0.01 ppm c) 0.001 ppm d) 0.0001 ppm Ans:c 21. The maximum permissible limit for flouride in drinking water is a) 0.1 mg/litre b) 1.5 mg/litre c) 5 mg/litre d) 10 mg/litre Ans:b 22. Standard EDTA (ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid) solution is used to determine the a) hardness in water b) turbidity in water c) dissolved oxygen in water d) residual chlorine in water Ans:a 23. If the coliform bacteria is present in a sample of water, then the coliform test to be conducted is i) presumptive coliform test ii) confirmed coliform test iii) completed coliform test The correct answer is a) only (i) b) both (i) and (ii) c) both (i) and (iii) d) all (i), (ii) and (iii) Ans:d 24. Alkalinity in water is expressed as milli-grams per litre in terms of equivalent a) calcium carbonate b) magnesium carbonate c) sodium carbonate d) calcium hydroxide Ans:a 25. Which of the following values of pH represents a stronger acid? a) 2 b) 5 c) 7 d) 10 Ans:a 26. Turbidity is measured on a) standard silica scale b) standard cobalt scale c) standard platinum scale d) platinum cobalt scale Ans:a 28. On standard silica scale, the turbidity in drinking water should be limited to a) 10 ppm b) 20 ppm c) 30 ppm d) 50 ppm Ans:a 29. Residual chlorine in water is determined by a) starch iodide method b) orthotolidine method c) both (a) and (b) d) none of the above Ans:c 30. Orthotolidine test is used for determination of a) dissolved oxygen b) residual chlorine c) biochemical oxygen demand d) dose of coagulant Ans:b 31. If the total hardness of water is greater than its total alkalinity, the carbonate hardness will be equal to a) total alkalinity b) total hardness c) total hardness - total alkalinity d) non carbonate hardness Ans:a 32. The amount of residual chlorine left in public water supply for safety against pathogenic bacteria is about a) 0.01 to 0.05 ppm b) 0.05 to 0.5 ppm c) 0.5 to 1.0 ppm d) 1.0 to 5.0 ppm Ans:b 33. The dissolved oxygen level in natural unpolluted waters at normal temperature is found to be of the order of a) 1 mg/litre b) 10 mg/litre c) 100 mg/litre d) 1000 mg/litre Ans:b 34. The velocity of flow of water in a sedimentation tank is about a) 5 to 10 cm/sec. b) 15 to 30 cm/sec. c) 15 to 30 cm/minute d) 15 to 30 cm/hour Ans:c 35. The length of rectangular sedimentation tank should not be more than a) B b) 2B c) 4B d) 8B where B is the width of the tank Ans:c 36. The overflow rate for plain sedimentation tanks is about a) 500 to 750 litres/hour/ m2 b) 1000 to 1250 litres/hour/ m2 c) 1250 to 1500 litres/hour/m2 d) 1500 to 2000 litres/hour/m2 Ans:a 37. Percentage of bacterial load that can be removed from water by the process of plain sedimentation is about a) 10 to 25 b) 50 c) 75 d) 100 Ans:c 38. The settling velocity of a particle in a sedimentation tank depends on a) depth of tank b) surface area of tank c) both depth and surface area of tank d) none of the above Ans:b 39. The settling velocity of a particle in a sedimentation tank increases if a) particle size is decreased b) the surface area of tank is increased c) the depth of tank is decreased d) none of the above Ans:d 40. For a given discharge, the efficiency of sedimentation tank can be increased by a) increasing the depth of tank b) decreasing the depth of tank c) increasing the surface area of tank d) decreasing the surface area of tank Ans:c 41. The detention period and overflow rate respectively for plain sedimentation as compared to sedimentation with coagulation are generally a) less and more b) less and less c) more and less d) more and more Ans:c 42. The amount of coagulant needed for coagulation of water increases with i) increase in turbidity of water ii) decrease in turbidity of water iii) increase in temperature of water iv) decrease in temperature of water The correct answer is a) (i) and (ii) b) (i)and(iv) c) (ii) and (iii) d) (ii) and (iv) Ans:b 43. Alum as a coagulant is found to be most effective when pH range of water is a) 2 to 4 b) 4 to 6 c) 6 to 8 d) 8 to 10 Ans:c 44. The detention period in coagulation tanks is usually kept as a) 1 to 2 minutes b) 30 to 45 minutes c) 2 to 6 hours d) 2 to 6 days Ans:c 45. The alum, when added as a coagulant in water a) does not require alkalinity in water for flocculation b) does not affect pH value of water c) increases pH value of water d) decreases pH value of water Ans:d 46. The chemical most commonly used to increase speed of sedimentation of sewage is a) sulphuric acid b) copper sulphate c) lime d) sodium permanganate Ans:c 47. In water treatment, rapid gravity filters are adopted to remove a) dissolved organic substances b) dissolved solids and dissolved gases c) floating solids and dissolved inorganic solids d) bacteria and colloidal solids Ans:d 48. The rate of filtration in slow sand filters in million litres per day per hectare is about a) 50 to 60 b) 100 to 150 c) 500 to 600 d) 1400 to 1500 Ans:a 49. The effective size of sand particles used in slow sand filters is a) 0.25 to 0.35 mm b) 0.35 to 0.60 mm c) 0.60 to 1.00 mm d) 1.00 to 1.80 mm Ans:a 50. As compared to rapid sand filters, slow sand filters give i) slower filtration rate ii) higher filtration rate iii) lesser efficiency in removal of bacteria iv) higher efficiency in removal of bacteria The correct answer is a) (i) and (ii) b) (ii) and (iii) c) (i) and (iv) d) (ii) and (iv) Ans:c 51. Assertion A: Slow sand filters are more efficient in removal of bacteria than rapid sand filters. Reason R : The sand used in slow sand filters is finer than that in rapid sand filters. Select your answer based on the coding system given below: a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A. b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A. c) A is true but R is false. d) A is false but R is true. Ans:a 52. Air binding phenomena in rapid sand filters occur due to a) excessive negative head b) mud ball formation c) higher turbidity in the effluent d) low temperature Ans:a 53. The percentage of filtered water, which is used for backwashing in rapid sand filters, is about a) 0.2 to 0.4 b) 0.4 to 1.0 c) 2 to 4 d) 5 to 7 Ans:c 54. Period of cleaning of slow sand filters is about a) 24 - 48 hours b) 10-12 days c) 2-3 months d) 1-2 year Ans:c 55. The rate of Alteration of pressure filters is a) less than that of slow sand filters b) in between the filtration rate of slow sand filters and rapid sand filters c) greater than that of rapid sand filters d) equal to that of slow sand filters Ans:c 56. Double filtration is used a) to increase the filtration slow sand filters capacity of b) to increase the filtration rapid sand filters capacity of c) for isolated buildings like pools, hotels etc swimming d) all of the above Ans:a 57. Cleaning is done by i) scraping and removal in filters slow sand ii) back washing in slow sand filters iii) scraping and removal in filters rapid sand iv) back washing in rapid sand filters The correct answer is a) (i) and (ii) b) (ii) and (iii) c) (i) and (iv) d) (ii) and (iv) Ans:c 58. Disinfection of water results in a) removal of turbidity b) removal of hardness c) killing of disease bacteria d) complete sterilisation Ans:c 59. The disinfection efficiency of chlorine increases by i) decreasing the time of contact ii) decreasing the temperature of water iii) increasing the temperature of water The correct answer is a) only (i) b) both (i) and (ii) c) both (i) and (iii) d) only (iii) Ans:d 60. Chlorine demand of water is equal to a) applied chlorine b) residual chlorine c) sum of applied and residual chlorine d) difference of applied and residual chlorine Ans:d 61. The process in which the chlorination is done beyond the break point is known as a) prechlorination b) post chlorination c) super chlorination d) break point chlorination Ans:c 62. The percentage of chlorine in fresh bleaching powder is about a) 10 to 15 b) 20 to 25 c) 30 to 35 d) 40 to 50 Ans:c 63. The treatment of water with bleaching powder is known as a) prechlorination b) super chlorination c) dechlorination d) hypochlorination Ans:d 64. The suitable method for disinfection of swimming pool water is a) ultra violet rays treatment b) lime treatment c) by using potassium permanganate d) chlorination Ans:a 65. Which of the following chemical compounds can be used for dechlorination of water ? a) carbon dioxide b) bleaching powder c) sulphur dioxide d) chloramines Ans:c 66. In chlorination, with the rise in temperature of water, death rate of bacteria a) increases b) decreases c) remains unaffected d) none of the above Ans:a 67. As compared to higher pH values, the contact period required for efficient chlorination at lower pH values is a) smaller b) larger c) same d) none of the above Ans:a 68. Disinfection efficiency is a) reduced at higher pH value of water b) unaffected by pH value of water c) increased at higher pH value of water d) highest at pH value equal to 7 Ans:a 69. In lime-soda process a) only carbonate hardness is removed b) only non-carbonate hardness is re-moved c) lime reduces the carbonate hardness and soda-ash removes the non-carbo¬nate hardness d) lime reduces the non-carbonate hard-ness and soda-ash removes the carbo¬nate hardness Ans:c 70. The major disadvantage of lime soda process of water softening is that a) it is unsuitable for turbid and acidic water b) huge amount of precipitate is formed which creates a disposal problem c) the effluent cannot be reduced to zero hardness d) it is unsuitable for softening the water of excessive hardness Ans:b 71. Which of the following compounds is widely used for algae control ? a) sodium sulphate b) copper sulphate c) sodium chloride d) calcium chloride Ans:b 72. Activated carbon is used for a) disinfection b) removing hardness c) removing odours d) removing corrosiveness Ans:c 73. As compared to cast iron pipes, steel pipes are a) heavier b) stronger c) costlier d) less susceptible to corrosion Ans:b 74. The suitable layout of a distribution system for irregularly growing town is a) dead end system b) grid iron system c) radial system d) ring system Ans:a 75. The layout of distribution system in which water flows towards the outer periphery is a) ring system b) dead end system c) radial system d) grid iron system Ans:c Environmental Engineering Multiple Choice Questions :: 76. The suitable layout of distribution system for a city with roads of rectangular pattern is a) grid iron system b) dead end system c) ring system d) radial system Ans:a 77. The commonly used material for water supply pipes, which has the properties of being strong, not easily corroded and long life but is heavy and brittle is a) steel b) cast iron c) copper d) reinforced cement concrete Ans:b 78. Hardy cross method of analysis of distribution system i) involves successive trials ii) takes economic aspects into account iii) is time consuming The correct answer is a) only (i) b) (i)and(ii) c) (i) and (iii) d) all are correct Ans:c 79. The method of analysis of distribution system in which the domestic supply is neglected and fire demand is considered is a) circle method b) equivalent pipe method c) electrical analysis method d) Hardy cross method Ans:a 80. Which of the following methods of analysis of water distribution system is most suitable for long and narrow pipe system ? a) circle method b) equivalent pipe method c) Hardy cross method d) electrical analysis method Ans:b 81. The type of valve which is provided to control the flow of water in the distribution system at street corners and where the pipe lines intersect is a) check valve b) sluice valve c) safety valve d) scour valve Ans:b 82. The type of valve which allows water to flow in one direction but prevents its flow in the reverse direction is a) reflux valve b) sluice valve c) air relief valve d) pressure relief valve Ans:a 83. Scour valves are provided a) at street corners to control the flow of water b) at every depression and dead ends to drain out the waste water that may collect there c) at the foot of rising main along the slope to prevent back running of water d) at every summit of rising mains Ans:b 84. A sewer that receives the discharge of a number of house sewers is called a) house sewer b) lateral sewer c) intercepting sewer d) submain sewer Ans:b 85. A pipe conveying sewage from plumbing system of a single building to common sewer or point of immediate disposal is called a) house sewer b) lateral sewer c) main sewer d) submain sewer Ans:a 86. For a country like India, where rainfall is mainly confined to one season, the suitable sewerage system will be a) separate system b) combined system c) partially combined system d) partially separate system Ans:a 87. Average rate of water consumption perhead per day as per Indian Standard is a) 100 litres b) 135 litres c) 165 litres d) 200 litres Ans:b 88. Sewerage system is usually designed for a) 10 years b) 25 years c) 50 years d) 75 years Ans:b 89. Which of the following sewers is preferred for combined system of sewage ? a) circular sewer b) egg shaped sewer c) rectangular sewer d) none of the above Ans:b 90. The suitable system of sanitation for area of distributed rainfall throughout the year with less intensity is a) separate system b) combined system c) partially separate system d) partially combined system Ans:b 91. The water carriage system of collection of waste product a) is cheaper in initial cost than dry conservancy system b) requires treatment before disposal c) creates hygenic problem d) all of the above Ans:b 92. If the time of concentration is 9 minutes, then the intensity of rainfall according to British Ministry of Health formula will be a) 4 mm/hr b) lOmm/hr c) 20 mm/hr d) 40 mm/hr Ans:d 93. The time of concentration is defined as a) the time taken by rainfall water to run from most distant point of water shed to the inlet of sewer b) the time required for flow of water in sewer to the point under consideration c) sum of (a) and (b) d) difference of (a) and (b) Ans:c 94. The specific gravity of sewage is a) much greater than 1 b) slightly less than 1 c) equal to 1 d) slightly greater than 1 Ans:d 95. The self cleansing velocity for all sewers in India is usually a) less than 1.0 m/sec b) 1.0 m/sec to 1.2 m/sec c) 1.5 m/sec to 2.0 m/sec d) 3.0 m/sec to 3.5 m/sec Ans:b 96. The slope of sewer shall be a) given in the direction of natural slope of ground b) given in the direction opposite to natural slope of ground c) zero d) steeper than 1 in 20 Ans:a 97. The design discharge for the separate sewer system shall be taken as a) equal to dry weather flow (DWF) b) 2xDWF c) 3 x DWF d) 6xDWF Ans:d 98. The design discharge for the combined sewer system shall be taken as a) equal to rainfall b) rainfall + DWF c) rainfall + 2 DWF d) rainfall + 6 DWF Ans:c 99. The minimum and maximum diameters of sewers shall preferably be a) 15 cm and 100 cm b) 15 cm and 300 cm c) 30 cm and 450 cm d) 60 cm and 300cm Ans:b 100. The main disadvantage of cement concrete sewers is a) less strength b) difficulty in construction c) difficulty in transportation due to heavy weight d) less life Ans:c 101. Most suitable section of sewer in separate sewage system is a) rectangular section b) circular section c) standard form of egg shaped sewer d) modified egg shaped section Ans:b 102. An egg shaped section of sewer a) is economical than circular section b) provides self cleansing velocity at low discharges c) is more stable than circular section d) is easy to construct Ans:b 103. The velocity of flow does not depend on a) grade of sewer b) length of sewer c) hydraulic mean depth of sewer d) roughness of sewer Ans:b 104. The hydraulic mean depth (HMD) for an egg-shaped sewer flowing two-third full is a) equal to HMD when flowing full b) less than HMD when flowing full c) greater than HMD when flowing full d) none of the above Ans:c 105. The effect of increasing diameter of sewer on the self cleansing velocity is a) to decrease it b) to increase it c) fluctuating d) nil Ans:b 106. The most commonly used sewer under culverts is a) circular brick sewer b) circular cast iron sewer c) semi-elliptical sewer d) horse-shoe type sewer Ans:a 107. The type of sewer which is suitable for both combined and separate system is a) circular sewer b) egg shaped sewer c) horse-shoe type sewer d) semi-elliptical sewer Ans:b 108. The characteristics of fresh and septic sewage respectively are a) acidic and alkaline b) alkaline and acidic c) both acidic d) both alkaline Ans:b 109. The pathogens can be killed by a) nitrification b) chlorination c) oxidation d) none of the above Ans:b 110. Which of the following retards the self purification of stream ? a) higher temperature b) sunlight c) satisfying oxygen demand d) none of the above Ans:d 111. Sewage treatment units are normally designed for a) 5-10 years b) 15-20 years c) 30-40 years d) 40-50 years Ans:b 112. Settling velocity increases with a) specific gravity of solid particles b) size of particles c) depth of tank d) temperature of liquid Ans:c 113. Standard BOD is measured at a) 20°C - 1day b) 25°C- 3day c) 20°C - 5day d) 30°C- 5day Ans:c 114. The correct relation between theoretical oxygen demand (TOD), Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is given by a) TOD>BOD>COD b) TOD>COD>BOD c) BOD>COD>TOD d) COD>BOD>TOD Ans:b 115. Select the correct statement. a) 5 day BOD is the ultimate BOD. b) 5 day BOD is greater than 4 day BOD keeping other conditions same. c) 5 day BOD is less than 4 day BOD keeping other conditions same. d) BOD does nof depend on time. Ans:c 116. If Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of a town is 20000 kg/day and BOD per capita per day is 0.05 kg, then population equivalent of town is a) 1000 b) 4000 c) 100000 d) 400000 Ans:d 117. The rate of BOD exerted at any time is a) directly proportional to BOD satisfied b) directly proportional to BOD remain-ing , c) inversely proportional to BOD satisfied d) inversely proportional to BOD re-maining Ans:b 118. The ratio of 5 day BOD to ultimate BOD is about a) 1/3 b) 2/3 c) 3/4 d) 1.0 Ans:b 119. In a BOD test, 1.0 ml of raw sewage was diluted to 100 ml and the dissolved oxygen concentration of diluted sample at the beginning was 6 ppm and it was 4 ppm at the end of 5 day incubation at 20°C. The BOD of raw sewage will be a) 100 ppm b) 200 ppm c) 300 ppm d) 400 ppm Ans:b 120. The minimum dissolved oxygen which should always be present in water in order to save the aquatic life is a) 1 ppm b) 4 ppm c) 10 ppm d) 40 ppm Ans:b 121. The relative stability of a sewage sample, whose dissolved oxygen is same as the total oxygen required to satisfy BOD, is a) 1 b) 100 c) infinite d) zero Ans:b 122. Dissolved oxygen in streams is a) maximum at noon b) minimum at noon c) maximum at midnight d) same throughout the day Ans:a 123. Facultative bacteria are able to work in a) presence of oxygen only b) absence of oxygen only c) presence as well as in absence of oxygen d) presence of water Ans:c 124. The means of access for inspection and cleaning of sewer line is known as a) inlet b) manhole c) drop manhole d) catch basin Ans:b 125. Sewerage system is designed for a) maximum flow only b) minimum flow only c) average flow only d) maximum and minimum flow Ans:d 126. Sewage treatment units are designed for a) maximum flow only b) minimum flow only c) average flow only d) maximum and minimum flow Ans:c 127. Laying of sewers is usually done with the help of a) a theodolite b) a compass c) sight rails and boning rods d) a plane table Ans:c 128. Corrosion in concrete sewers is caused by a) septic conditions b) dissolved oxygen c) chlorine d) nitrogen Ans:a 129. If the sewage contains grease and fatty oils, these are removed in a) grit chambers b) detritus tanks c) skimming tanks d) sedimentation tanks Ans:c 130. Generally the detention period for grit chambers is kept as a) 1 minute b) 5 minutes c) 2-4 hours d) 12 hours Ans:a 131. Which of the following unit works in anaerobic conditions? a) sludge digestion tank b) sedimentation tank c) activated sludge treatment d) trickling filters Ans:a 132. Septic tank is a i) settling tank ii) digestion tank iii) aeration tank The correct answer is a) only (i) b) (i) and (ii) c) (i) and (iii) d) only (iii) Ans:b 133. The maximum efficiency of BOD removal is achieved in a) oxidation pond b) oxidation ditch c) aerated lagoons d) trickling filters Ans:b 134. The working conditions in imhoff tanks are a) aerobic only b) anaerobic only c) aerobic in lower compartment and anaerobic in upper compartment d) anaerobic in lower compartment and aerobic in upper compartment Ans:d 135. In facultative stabilization pond, the sewage is treated by a) aerobic bacteria only b) algae only c) dual action of aerobic bacteria and anaerobic bacteria d) sedimentation Ans:c 136. The detention period for oxidation ponds is usually kept as a) 4-8 hours b) 24 hours c) 10 to 15 days d) 3 months Ans:c 137. Composting and lagooning are the methods of a) sludge digestion b) sludge disposal c) sedimentation d) filtration Ans:b 138. The main disadvantage of oxidation pond is that a) large area is required for construction b) maintenance and operation cost are high c) BOD removal is very low d) none of the above Ans:a 139. For satisfactory working of a sludge digestion unit, the pH range of digested sludge should be maintained as a) 4.5 to 6.0 b) 6.5 to 8.0 c) 8.5 to 10.0 d) 10.5 to 12.0 Ans:b 140. Sludge volume index is defined as the ratio of a) percentage of sludge by volume to percentage of suspended solids by weight b) percentage of sludge by volume to percentage of total solids by weight c) percentage of suspended solids by weight to percentage of sludge by volume d) percentage of total solids by weight to percentage of sludge by volume Ans:a 141. For normal sludge, the value of sludge index for Indian conditions is a) 0 to 50 b) 50 to 150 c) 150 to 350 d) 350 to 500 Ans:c 142. When there is no recirculation of sewage, then recirculation factor is a) 0 b) 1 c) infinity d) none of the above Ans:b 143. For the same solid content, if the quantity of sludge with moisture content of 98% is X, then the quantity of sludge with moisture content of 96% will be a) X/4 b) X/2 c) X d) 2X Ans:b 144. A pipe which is installed in the house drainage to preserve the water seal of traps is called a) vent pipe b) antisiphonage pipe c) waste pipe d) soil pipe Ans:b 145. In the two-pipe system of house plumbing, the pipes required are a) one soil pipe, one waste pipe and one vent pipe b) one soil pipe, two waste pipes and one vent pipe Ans:c 146. The pipe which is used to carry the discharge from sanitary fittings like bath rooms, kitchens etc. is called a) waste pipe b) soil pipe c) vent pipe d) antisiphonage pipe Ans:a 147. The gas from sludge digestion tank is mainly composed of a) nitrogen b) carbon dioxide c) hydrogen sulphide d) methane Ans:d 148. Most of the bacteria in sewage are a) parasitic b) saprophytic c) pathogenic d) anaerobic Ans:b 149. The process of lagooning is primarily a means of a) reducing the excessive flow in sewers b) disposing of sludge c) increasing the capacity of storage re-servoirs d) increasing flow of sewage through imhoff tanks Ans:b 150. The biochemical treatment of sewage effluents is essentially a process of a) oxidation b) dehydration c) reduction d) alkalinization Ans:a ENVIRONMENTAL Engineering Questions and Answers pdf free download :: Read the full article

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Hematological and Physiological Effects of Ketamine with and without Xylazine in Dogs- Juniper Publishers

Abstract

An experimental study was conducted to evaluate the effects of ketamine alone and with xylazine combination on anesthetic parameters; on physiological and hematological parameters so as to choose a suitable general anesthetic combination for use in surgical procedures in local breed of dogs in Mekelle, Ethiopia. The experimental study was carried out on ten local breed of dogs and were randomly divided in to two groups with five dogs in each group. Data was collected for analyzing physiological effects of anesthetic combinations; anesthetic effects and hematological effects using physical recording and laboratory analysis. The results of this study showed duration of general anesthesia was (91±6.28min) and animal recovered (101.2±6.5min) and was longer in xylazine-ketamine combination, whereas duration of general anesthesia was (30±1.05min) was shorter in ketamine alone. The result also showed that the physiological and hematological parameters remained significantly unchanged during the anesthesia in both groups. Therefore, relation duration of action, xylazine and ketamine combination was a suitable choice for undertaking of surgical operations in dogs of local breed for longer duration of action i.e. (91±6.28min) whereas ketamine alone was a suitable choice for shorter duration of action i.e. (30±1.05min) but increases significantly the heart rate. Further studies on several other anesthetic combinations i.e. (acepromazine + xylazine + ketamine and acepromazine + diazepam + ketamine) on local breed of dogs and several other anesthetic combinations may be conducted.

Keywords: General anesthesia; Hematological parameter; ketamine; Local breed of dogs; Mekelle; Xylazine

Abbreviations: ANOVA: Analysis of Variance; CSA: Central Statistical Agency; DLC: Differential Leukocyte Counts; EDTA: Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic Acid; GABAA: Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid Type A Receptors; Hbc: Hemoglobin Concentration; IM: Intramuscular; Kg: Kilogram; Mg: Milligram; PCV: Packed Cell Volume; SD: Standard Deviation; SPSS: Statistical Package for Social Sciences; TEC: Total Erythrocyte Count; TLC: Total Leukocyte Count; XK: Xylazine – Ketamine

Introduction

Ketamine hydrochloride is a dissociative anesthetic of the cyclohexylamine group used for chemical restraint and for the induction and maintenance of anesthesia in a number of species. Unlike many anesthetics, ketamine usually stimulates cardiovascular function in normal animals, causing increase in heart rate (HR) and mean arterial pressure (MAP). The use of ketamine as a sole anesthetic has been limited by muscle hypertonicity and myoclonus, violent recovery and occasional occurrence of convulsions [1]. Ketamine is combined with an alpha-2-agonist (e.g. xylazine), a benzodiazepine (e.g. diazepam) or a phenothiazine tranquillizer (e.g. acepromazine) to enhance muscle relaxation, analgesia, to prevent seizures/convulsions and prolong the duration of anesthetic effect. It is associated with a rapid onset, good to excellent sedation of one to two hours duration, excellent analgesia and smooth recovery. The analgesia and sedation are due to central nervous system depression and the muscle relaxation is due to the central inhibition of intraneural transmission [2].

Ketamine is poor in visceral analgesia. However, it can be used in combination with xylazine or diazepam to provide good visceral analgesia in case of abdominal surgery (including ovariohysterectomy) and thoracic surgery. Pain is an unpleasant sensory or emotional experience most commonly associated with potential tissue damage. The sensation of pain is a consequence of the activation of specialized receptors and neurological pathways after such pain stimuli [3,4]. Xylazine, an alpha-2 agonist used in animal experiments, stimulates alpha-2 adrenergic receptor in cerebral presynaptic nerve ends, inhibits release of catecholamines and dopamine resulting in analgesic and sedative eff ects, and hinders nerve conduction in the central nervous system leading to relaxation of striated muscles. Xylazine is usually used in combination with ketamine during anesthetic applications [5].

The combination of ketamine hydrochloride and xylazine HCl usually result in a smooth induction and recovery with cataleptic effects of ketamine HCl get ameliorated by the sedative and myorelaxing effects of xylazine HCl. [6,7]. Studies on acute pain in clinical cases have most often evaluated the effects of surgical trauma on animals, while prevention and pain management are the key issues in anesthesia [8,9]. When pain is not appropriately managed, it is not only an animal welfare issue, but it can also have many detrimental effects which can impact the patient recovery [10]. A variety of physiological changes also occur in response to pain such as increases in heart rate, respiratory rate, blood pressure and body temperature [9,11,12]. Ketamine is rarely used alone because of its association with poor muscle relaxation, tachycardia and catalepsy or muscle rigidity. Therefore, it is commonly used in combination with xylazine, diazepam and acepromazine to minimize the adverse effects. Moreover, there are different breed of dogs which require proper anesthetic medicament combination. However, there are limited or no experiments carried out to determine a specific anesthetic combination in relation to the local breed of dogs in the study area. Hence, determining the effects of the ketamine in combination with other sedative agents may help to come out with the safest combination for surgical procedures in local breed of dogs. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to evaluate the hematological and physiological effects of ketamine with and without xylazine, for use in surgical procedures in local breed of dogs in Mekelle, Ethiopia.

Materials and Methods

Study area

The present study was conducted from November 2016 to April 2017 in Mekelle, Tigray, Ethiopia. Mekelle is the capital of Tigray region located about 783 kilometers north of Addis Ababa with a total area of approximately 102,000 square kilo meters. Its geographic location is 13° 32`N latitude and 39°33`E longitude with human population of about 215,546. It has an average altitude of 2200 meter above sea level with a mean minimum and maximum monthly temperature of 8.7 degree Celsius and 26.8 degree Celsius respectively. The annual average rainfall of Mekelle is 600 millimeters and more than 70 percent of it falls between the months July and August. The long dry season extends from October to May [13].

Study population

The present study was carried out on mature and apparently healthy local breed of dogs weighing between 10-15kg and aged between 2-4 years. Dogs were declared healthy based on physiologically normal parameters i.e. rectal temperature, heart rate, respiratory rate, and capillary refill time.

Sample size

The present study was carried out on ten mature and apparently healthy local breed of dogs (six males and four females).

Sampling technique

Ten dogs were randomly divided in to two groups, an experimental group with five dogs (three males and two females) in each group and one control group with five dogs (three males and two females) in each group.

Experimental design and procedure

Ten (10) local breed of dogs were purchased, of which five dogs were randomly assigned to an induction regimen of ketamine alone (control group) and the other five dogs were assigned to ketamine with xylazine (experimental group). The dogs were housed individually in a kennel, fed meat and bread. Prior to anesthesia, each dog was withheld of food and water for 12 and 6 hours respectively. These dogs were placed in a quiet kennel and left undisturbed. Heart rate, respiratory rate and temperature were recorded prior to premedication. Blood samples were taken prior to premedication. All dogs were premedicated with atropine sulphate at 0.04mg/kg body weight subcutaneously for the reduction of salivary and bronchial secretions fifteen minutes before induction of anesthesia with ketamine alone and with xylazine.

Administration of Drugs

Group 1-control group (ketamine alone)

First all dogs were premedicated with atropine sulphate at 0.04mg/kg body weight subcutaneously. After fifteen minutes of premedication, a combination of xylazine and ketamine were administered at two different doses of ketamine at 5mg/kg and 10mg/kg IM with one-week interval between trials.

Group 2- experimental group (ketamine with xylazine)

First all dogs were premedicated with atropine sulphate at 0.04mg/kg body weight subcutaneously. After fifteen minutes of premedication, a combination of xylazine and ketamine at two different doses diazepam and ketamine at 1mg/kg and 5mg/kg respectively and again at 2mg/kg and 10mg/kg intramuscularly respectively with one week interval between trials.

Monitoring of post intervention

After administration of the ketamine alone and with xylazine, dogs of all groups were kept under close observation. Induction period, duration of anesthesia and recovery period were recorded. Rectal temperature, respiratory rate, and heart rate were recorded every 5 minutes interval after administration of the anesthetic combinations.

Hematological and physiological parameters

Three ml of blood sample were collected from cephalic vein of each experimental dog prior to administration of the premedication (atropine sulphate) and 30-45 minutes after administration of the anesthetic agents; because maximum effects occurred at 30-45 minutes. Immediately after collection, the blood samples were transferred in a sterile test tube containing Ethylene Diamine Tetra acetic acid (EDTA) as anticoagulant for estimation of Packed Cell Volume, White blood cells, Hemoglobin concentration, red blood cells and differential leukocyte counts according to the procedures of [14]. Physiological parameters like heart rate, respiratory rate and rectal temperature were measured every five minutes after administration of the anesthetic combinations.

Data collection

Data were collected on physiological effects (heart rate, respiratory rate and rectal temperature), anesthetic effects (induction period, duration of anesthesia, recovery period,) and hematological effects (packed cell volume, red blood cells, white blood cells, hemoglobin concentration and differential leukocyte counts.

Data analysis

The recorded data was entered into Microsoft excel sheet and analyzed to Mean±SD (Standard Deviation) using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 17.0. Paired t-test was used to compare physiological and hematological parameters taken before and during the administration of the drug combination for each group. One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) at 95% confidence interval (CI) was used to determine the level of significant difference in mean values among three groups; to compare the means of induction time, duration of anesthesia and recovery time between the groups. Values of p≤0.05 were considered as statistically significant and Values of p>0.05 was considered as non-significant.

Results

Anesthetic effects of ketamine alone and ketamine with xylazine

In this study, the duration of action ketamine alone at a respective dose of 5mg/kg and 10mg/kg body weight given intramuscularly were 30±1.05 minutes, 25±1.05 minutes, respectively, whereas in ketamine with xylazine, the duration of action was 68±6.28, 91±6.28 minutes at lower and higher doses respectively (Table 1). So, in this study, the duration of anesthesia was longer in ketamine with xylazine combination as compared with ketamine alone.

Body Reflexes Activity

Rightening reflex

In the current study, the different body reflexes activities were assessed during the anesthesia for the sake of assessing the depth of anesthesia. The rightening reflex was elicited by squeezing or pinching a digit of fore limb and observed whether the dog flexes the leg or withdraws the digit from the investigator during the examination after administration of the anesthetic combinations. In ketamine with xylazine the rightening reflex was lost at 8±2.12 minutes in xylazine-ketamne at dose rate of 1mg/kg and 5mg/kg, respectively, 6 ± 2.12 minutes in xylazineketamne at 2mg/kg and 10mg/kg, respectively (Table 2). In this study, the rightening reflex remained unchanged throughout the anesthesia in both groups.

Palpebral reflex

The palpebral reflex was tested by lightly taping the lateral canthus or medial canthus of the eye and observed whether the dog blinks in response after administration of the anesthetic combinations. In ketamine with xylazine the palpebral reflex was lost at 8.1±2.12 minutes in xylazine-ketamne at 1mg/kg and 5mg/kg, respectively, 6.1±2.12 minutes in xylazine-ketamne at 2mg/kg and 10mg/kg, respectively (Table 2). In this study, the palpebral reflex remained unchanged throughout the anesthesia in both groups.

Corneal reflex, eye position and pupil size

Corneal reflex was tested by touching the cornea with a drop of sterile water and noted whether the dog blinks in response and withdraws the eye into the orbital fossa. In this observation, the time for corneal reflex loss was the same as to the time loss for palpebral reflex in both groups. In ketamine with zylazine the corneal reflex was lost at 8.1±2.12 minutes in xylazine-ketamne administered at dose rate of 1mg/kg and 5mg/kg, respectively, 6.1±2.12 minutes in xylazine-ketamne at 2mg/kg and 10mg/kg, respectively (Table 2) In both groups the eyes remained opened, with a central and dilated pupil during the anesthesia. In this study, the corneal reflex remained unchanged throughout the anesthesia in both groups.

Pedal reflex

The pedal reflex was elicited by squeezing or pinching a digit of hind limb and observed whether the dog flexes the leg or withdraws the digit from the investigator during the examination after administration of the anesthetic combinations. In group 1 the pedal reflex was lost at 8.6±2.12 minutes in xylazineketamne at 1mg/kg and 5mg/kg, respectively, 6.6±2.12 minutes in xylazine-ketamne at 2mg/kg and 10mg/kg, respectively (Table 2). In this study, the pedal reflex remained unchanged throughout the anesthesia in both groups.

Physiological Effects of Ketamine alone and ketamine with xylazine

Heart rate, respiratory rate and rectal temperature were recorded every 5 minutes after administration of the anesthetic combination of xylazine and ketamine up to the time of recovery. The recorded heart rate, respiratory rate and rectal temperature at 60 minutes after administration of xylazine and ketamine were the same as to the recorded values before administration of the xylazine and ketamine so not analyzed; only those values recorded up to 60 minutes were analyzed. In this study, the heart rate was decreased non- significantly (P = 0.061) from 30 minutes up to 45 minutes after administration of the combination of xylazine – ketamine (Table 3). The recorded respiratory rate was decreased non- significantly (P = 0.065) from 10 minutes up to 45 minutes following administration of the combination of xylazine – ketamine (Table 3). The recorded rectal temperature was also decreased non- significantly (P = 0.063) from 20 minutes up to 45 minutes after administration of the combination of xylazine – ketamine on both doses (Table 3).

Ketamine alone and ketamine with xylazine

In the current study, blood samples were taken before and during administration of ketamine alone (Table 4) and the anesthetic combinations of xylazine-ketamine for evaluating of hemoglobin concentration, packed cell volume, total erythrocyte count, total leukocyte count, neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils and basophils. In group 1 hemoglobin concentration (P = 0.066), packed cell volume (P = 0.073), total erythrocyte count (P = 0.069), total leukocyte count (P = 0.079), lymphocyte (P = 0.064), monocyte (P = 0.061), eosinophil (P = 0.074) and basophils (P= 0.084) were decreased non-significantly, Neutrophils (P = 1.000) were increased nonsignificantly from 58.8±0.39 to 64±0.68 (Table 5).

HBC = Hemoglobin concentration, PCV = Packed cell volume, TEC = Total erythrocyte count, TLC = Total

leukocyte count, NTP = Neutrophil, LYM = Lymphocyte, MN = Monocyte, EOS = Eosinophil, BAS = Basophil

In group 2 hemoglobin concentration (P = 0.062), packed cell volume (P = 0.065), total erythrocyte count (P = 0.067), total leukocyte count (P = 0.078), lymphocyte (P= 0.084), monocyte (P = 0.071), eosinophil (P = 0.0614) and basophils (P= 0.083) were decreased non-significantly, on the other hand, neutrophils (P = 1.0211) were increased non-significantly from 58.8±0.39 to 66.5±0.34 (Table 5).

Discussion

Ketamine is rarely used alone because of its association with poor muscle relaxation, tachycardia and catalepsy or muscle rigidity and it is therefore commonly used in combination with xylazine, diazepam and acepromazine to minimize the untoward effects. The highest duration of anesthesia was observed in the dogs of Group 2 (experimental group) as compared to group 1 (control group). This might be due to wide-distribution of xylazine and ketamine combination in the body, because they are highly soluble in lipid and can be redistributed into muscles and adipose tissues [15]. The results obtained here were relatively in line with the findings of [16] who found 8.3 minutes onset of action after administration of xylazine at dose rate of 1mg/kg and ketamine at dose rate of 10mg/kg body weight intramuscularly and [17] who reported 96 minutes duration of action after administration of xylazine at dose rate of 1mg/kg and ketamine at dose rate of 5mg/kg body weight intramuscularly.

In this study, the onset of action of xylazine and ketamine combination was relatively 6 minutes rapid when compared to the studies by [18] who found 12 minutes after administration of xylazine at dose rate of 1mg/kg and ketamine at dose rate of 15mg/kg body weight intramuscularly. The duration of action of xylazine and ketamine combination was relatively 35.75 minutes longer when compared to the studies by Sindak et al. [16] reported 55.25 minutes. The duration of action of xylazine and ketamine combination was relatively 19.4 minutes longer when compared to the studies by Emami et al. [18] found 71.60±3.07 minutes. The recovery time of xylazine and ketamine combination in the present finding was relatively 27.85 minutes longer when compared to the study by Sindak et al. [16] reported 73.15 minutes. This finding difference in the present study from previous studies might be due to difference in breed and physiological status of the dogs or might be due to difference in dose of the anesthetic agents.

In this study, heart rate was increased significantly at 15-35 minutes after administration of ketamine alone but decreased non- significantly at 30-45 minutes, respiratory rate was decreased non-significantly at 10-45 minutes and rectal temperature was decreased non- significantly at 20-45 minutes after administration of xylazine and ketamine combination. The decrease in heart rate, respiratory rate and rectal temperature in this study were in agreement with the studies by Sindak et al. [16] reported decreased heart rate at 30- 45 minutes after administration of xylazine and ketamine combination, decrease in respiratory rate and decrease in rectal temperature at 20- 45 minutes after administration of xylazine and ketamine; Mwangi et al. [19] reported decreased rectal temperature at 30 minutes and Emami et al. [18] reported decreased respiratory rate at 5-55 minutes following administration of xylazine and ketamine combination. On the other hand, Afshar et al. [20] reported significant decrease in heart rate at 15-60 minutes after administration of xylazine and ketamine combination; Kul et al. [21] reported significant decreased in respiratory rate at 15-60 minutes after administration of xylazine and ketamine combination; Demirkan et al. [22] reported significantly remained lower respiratory rate than the baseline throughout the xylazine and ketamine anesthesia and rectal temperature remained significantly decreased at 30-60 minutes after administration of xylazine and ketamine combination.

The decreases in rectal temperature after administration of xylazine and ketamine combination found in the present study were in contrary with the findings of Wyatt et al. [23] reported unchanged in rectal temperature after administration of xylazine at 1mg/kg and ketamine at 10mg/kg body weight intramuscularly in dogs. The decrease in body temperature after the administration of ketamine alone and xylazineketamine, could be explained by blocking of the hypothalamic thermoregulatory center. The decrease in heart rate could be attributed to inhibition of the release of the neurotransmitter noradrenalin or depression of the sympathetic activity.

The decrease in respiratory rate could be attributed to depression of the respiratory center by the ketamine alone, xylazine-ketamine, [24]. The non-significant decrease in heart rate, respiratory rate and rectal temperature in the present study when compared to other studies might be due to difference in breed and physiological status of the dogs or might be due to difference in dose of the sedative agents. After administration of ketamine alone, and xylazine - ketamine combinations, the hemoglobin concentration, packed cell volume, total erythrocyte count, total leukocyte count, lymphocyte, monocyte, eosinophil and basophils were decreased non-significantly, but neutrophils were increased non-significantly. Pooling of circulating blood cells in the spleen and other reservoirs secondary to decreased sympathetic activity could be the reason for a decrease in hemoglobin concentration, packed cell volume, total erythrocyte count, total leukocyte count, lymphocyte, monocyte, eosinophil and basophils [25]. The decrease in hemoglobin concentration, packed cell volume, total erythrocyte count, total leukocyte count, lymphocyte, monocyte, eosinophil and basophils after administration of ketamine alone, xylazine and ketamine combination might be attributed to the shifting of fluid from extravascular compartment to intravascular compartment in order to maintain normal cardiac output in the dogs [26].

This finding is in agreement with the findings of Mahmud et al. [27] who had reported decreased the hemoglobin concentration, packed cell volume, total erythrocyte count, total leukocyte count, lymphocyte, monocyte, eosinophil and basophils and increased neutrophils after administration of xylazine at 0.4mg/kg and ketamine at 10mg/kg combination in dogs. In the current study, heart rate was decreased nonsignificantly at 30-45 minutes, respiratory rate decreased nonsignificantly at 10-45 minutes after administration of ketamine alone, the xylazine-ketamine, intramuscularly and rectal temperature decreased non-significantly at 20-45 minutes after administration of ketamine alone, and xylazine-ketamine, combinations intramuscularly [28-30].

Conclusion

Ketamine is rarely used alone because of its association with poor muscle relaxation, visceral analgesia, tachycardia and catalepsy or muscle rigidity. Therefore, it is commonly used in combination with xylazine, diazepam and acepromazine to enhance muscle relaxation, to provide good visceral analgesia in case of abdominal surgery (including ovariohysterectomy) and thoracic surgery, to prevent seizures/convulsions and to prolong the duration of anesthetic effect. The study was conducted on 10 mature and apparently healthy local breed of dogs which were randomly grouped in to Group I and Group II. All dogs were premedicated using atropine (0.04mg/kg BW, S.C). After 15 mints premedication, anesthesia induced with ketamine a lone, and xylazine-ketamine (1.0mg /kg/BW+10.0mg/kg BW, I.M) for Group I, and Group II respectively. The anesthetic parameters; induction time, duration of anesthesia recovery period, the physiological parameters; temperature, heart rate, respiratory rate, and the hematological parameters; packed cell volume, total erythrocyte count, total leukocyte count, hemoglobin determination were recorded and analyzed in all both groups and all the anesthetic parameters were found statistically significant but the physiological and hematological parameters were statistically non-significant in both groups. The results of the present study concluded that xylazine-ketamine combination is useful anesthetic protocol for rapid induction, prolonged duration of anesthesia; diazepam-ketamine combination is useful anesthetic protocol for short duration of anesthesia and rapid recovery. All drug combinations do not affect the physiological and hematological parameters of the animals during the study time and all of them can be safe for surgical procedures if used safely and appropriately. However, further studies on several other anesthetic combinations i.e. (acepromazine + xylazine + ketamine and acepromazine + diazepam + ketamine) on local breed of dogs and several other anesthetic combinations may be conducted.

Acknowledgements

A special gratitude goes to Mekelle University, without its support; the study would not have been possible. Great thanks go to Dr. H. for all his help in analyzing the research data and Mr. Yisehak, T. the surgery technician for his help and cooperation rendered during the experimental study. I never forget to say thanks to Mr. Kane, W. the pathology laboratory staff worker for his help, patience, permission and full information during my working period.

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