artifacts-and-arthropods

[artifacts-and-arthropods]

Ram's Head Pendant from the Eastern Mediterranean, c.500-300 BCE: this adorable glass pendant was made nearly 2,500 years ago

The pendant measures about 2.22 cm (7/8ths of an inch) across, and it depicts a ram's head, with a pair of twisting, caramel-colored horns framing its face.

According to The Walters Art Museum:

Miniature glass pendants in a large variety of colors and shapes can be found all over the Mediterranean world and were probably produced in several glassmaking centers, including Carthage, Iran, and Syria. These objects were distributed through the expansive, widespread trade routes established by the Phoenicians. Rams were considered fertility symbols, and this pendant likely also had a protective function and was intended to ward off evil.

Above: another ram's head pendant made in the Eastern Mediterranean (possibly Carthage) during roughly the same period, c.400-300 BCE

And the Smithsonian adds:

Small amulets made of faience, stone, ceramic, metal, or glass were common personal possessions in ancient Egypt. They were most frequently fashioned in the form of gods and goddesses or of animals sacred to them. Amulets were believed to give their owners magical protection from a wide variety of ills and evil forces, including sickness, infertility, and death in childbirth. They were often provided with loops so they could be strung and worn as a necklace. Some amulets were made to place on the body of the deceased to protect the soul in the hereafter.

Above: two more ram's head pendants from the Eastern Mediterranean, c.500-300 BCE (top) and c.100-50 BCE (bottom)

There is evidence to support those explanations, of course, but I always feel the need to point out that some ancient artifacts were also made for reasons other than practical or ritualistic/spiritual purposes -- sometimes they were just decorative or artistic. These particular pendants may or may not have had any spiritual significance...but either way, they're adorable.

Sources & More Info:

The Walters Art Museum: Pendant in the Shape of a Ram Head

Corning Museum of Glass: Ram's Head Pendant

Smithsonian: Glass Pendant

The Walters Art Museum: Pendant in the Shape of a Ram's Head

McClung Museum of Natural History: Glass of the Ancient Mediterranean (PDF)

Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism: The History of Ancient Glass

[artifacts-and-arthropods]

"Ram in the Thicket" Statuette from Ur (Iraq), c.2600-2400 BCE: this statuette is made of lapis lazuli, shells, gold, silver, limestone, copper, and wood

This sculpture is about 4,500 years old. It was unearthed back in 1929, during the excavation of the "Great Death Pit" at the Royal Cemetery of Ur, located in what was once the heart of Mesopotamia (and is now part of southern Iraq).

Sir Leonard Woolley, who led the excavations at the site, nicknamed the statuette "ram caught in a thicket" as a reference to the Biblical story in which Abraham sacrifices a ram that he finds caught in a thicket. The statuette is still commonly known by that name, even though it actually depicts a markhor goat feeding on the leaves of a flowering tree/shrub. Some scholars refer to it as a "rampant he-goat" or "rearing goat," instead.

It was carved from a wooden core; gold foil was then carefully hammered onto the surface of the goat's face and legs, and its belly was coated in silver paint. Intricately carved pieces of shell and lapis lazuli were layered onto the goat's body in order to form the fleece. Lapis lazuli was also used to create the goat's eyes, horns, and beard, while its ears were crafted out of copper.

The tree (along with its delicate branches and eight-petaled flowers) was also carved from a wooden base, before being wrapped in gold foil.

The goat and the tree are both attached to a small pedestal, which is decorated with silver paint and tiny mosaic tiles made of shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone.

This artifact measures 42.5cm (roughly 16 inches) tall.

A second, nearly-identical statuette was also found nearby. That second sculpture (which is also known as the "ram in the thicket") is pictured below:

There are a few minor differences between the two sculptures. The second "ram" is equipped with gold-covered genitals, for example, while the first one has no genitals at all; researchers believe that the other sculpture originally had genitals that were made out of silver, but that they eventually corroded away, just like the rest of the silver on its body.

The second "ram" is also slightly larger than the first, measuring 45.7cm (18 in) tall.

Both statuettes have a cylindrical socket rising from the goats' shoulders, suggesting that these sculptures were originally used as supports for another object (possibly a bowl or tray).

The depiction of a goat rearing up against a tree/shrub is a common motif in ancient Near Eastern art, but few examples are as stunning (or as elaborate) as these two statuettes.

Sources & More Info:

Penn Museum: Collections Highlight

Penn Museum: Ram in the Thicket

Expedition Magazine: Rescue and Restoration: a History of the Philadelphia "Ram Caught in a Thicket" (PDF version)

The British Museum: Ram in the Thicket

A Companion to Ancient Near Eastern Art: Statuary and Reliefs

World Archaeology: Ram in the Thicket

Cambridge Scholars Publishing: Colour in Sculpture: a Survey from Ancient Mesopotamia to the Present (PDF excerpt)

Goats (Capra) from Ancient to Modern: Goats in the Ancient Near East and their Relationship with the Mythology, Fairytale, and Folklore of these Cultures

[artifacts-and-arthropods]

2,300-year-old Horse Headdress from Siberia, c.350-250 BCE: this ceremonial headdress/mask was found on the body of a horse that had been buried in the frozen tombs of Pazyryk

The elaborate headdress features a pair of "antlers" that were crafted from wood, leather, fur, and dyed horsehair, with a mask made of blue-colored felt and gold foil. This is just one part of a larger ceremonial costume that was made by Scythians/Altaic nomads. It was found in the Pazyryk barrows, located in the Altai mountains of Siberia, where many other Scythian artifacts have been preserved in the permafrost.

The term "Scythian" refers to the nomadic cultures that once roamed across Eurasia. The Scythians were among the very first people to begin using horses as mounts, and they invented the earliest form of saddle; with their mastery of horseback riding and mounted warfare, the Scythians quickly gained control over vast sections of Eurasia. Their nomadic lifestyle also meant that they were deeply dependent upon their horses, and many traditions and beliefs were developed around that relationship, ultimately giving rise to a very prominent "horse culture."

Scythian warriors were often buried alongside their horses, which would be dressed in elaborate ceremonial costumes that included special masks, headdresses, antlers or horns, decorative bridles, harnesses, and/or saddle covers.

Few of those costumes were as elaborate as this one, however.

Above: a full reconstruction of the costume that was found with the headdress

This particular costume (and the horse that was wearing it) was found in a tomb that also contained the bodies of nine other horses; all of them had been buried with ceremonial bridles, harnesses, and saddle blankets, but this horse had the most elaborate costume by far, and it was the only horse that was actually wearing its costume when it was buried.

It was also the oldest horse at the burial site, with researchers estimating that it was about 20 years old when it died. The second-oldest horse (which was about 18 years old) was also buried with a costume that included an elaborate headdress and horns/antlers. Those features were not found on any of the younger horses, however.

As this article notes:

At Pazyryk-1, the size and complexity of each horse’s saddle decorations were generally correlated with age; the horses who wore the most elaborate costumes with headdresses were the oldest.

It is clear the costumes were not made specifically for the burial: all horse costumes, even the most elaborate, were well-worn and in some places mended, indicating regular use. Because these costumes are impractical for everyday use, they probably were reserved for ceremonial use – and due to their being well-worn, such use was common. As with contemporary Mongol pastoralists, perhaps these costumes were reserved for the Pazyryk’s seasonal changes of camp, or perhaps for other alternate or additional ceremonies significant to the community.

Sources & More Info:

Hermitage Museum: Mask with Antlers for a Horse's Head

Perspectives and Studies in Ethnozooarchaeology: Killing (constructed) Horses: interspecies elders, empathy, emotion, and the Pazyryk horse sacrifices

British Museum: Introducing the Scythians

Journal of World Archaeology: Do the Clothes Make the Horse? Relationality, roles, and statuses in Iron Age Inner Asia

Arts: Deer or Horses with Antlers? Wooden figures adorning herders in the Altai

Fashion Theory: Glittering Bodies: the Politics of Mortuary Self-Fashioning in Eurasian Nomadic Cultures (700 BCE-200 BCE)

Archaeology, Ethnology, and Anthropology of Eurasia: Manufacturing Wooden Horns for the Ceremonial Masks of Horses from the Pazyryk Tombs (PDF)

The Silk Road: Korea and the Silk Roads (p.6)

[artifacts-and-arthropods]

The Common Whistling Moth: the males of this species produce a "whistling" sound to attract potential mates

The common whistling moth (Hecatesia fenestrata) is able to "whistle" with a set of castanet-like structures located on the leading edges of the forewings.

Above: the forewing of a male whistling moth, with the transparent "castanet" structure clearly visible

These unique structures are basically just curved, transparent patches of cuticle with a pleated/ridged texture and a knob-like protrusion; when the moth claps its wings together, the knob-like protrusion from one wing rubs up against the cuticle ridges on the opposite wing, and a distinctive "clicking-whistling" sound is produced.

Male whistling moths typically "whistle" during courtship rituals and territorial displays. In some cases, they will fly in circles around one another as they whistle competitively, in a behavior known as "buzz-bumping." As this article explains:

Only a few [noctuid moth species] have proved to use sound during courtship. Among these are males of the Australian whistling moths Hecatesia exultans, H. fenestrata and H. thyridion.

The signals function primarily in a mate-attraction mode. Females approach calling males and solicit copulations. The mating system of Hecatesia appears to be an example of lek polygyny. Males defend territories that lack resources or oviposition sites.

Above: female whistling moth

Male–male agonistic interactions are also mediated by acoustic signals. Males frequently approach males calling nearby, and territorial ‘buzz-bumping’ matches result in which vigorous calls are interspersed with attempts to butt the intruder.

H. thyridion and H. fenestrata have similar acoustically mediated mating systems. Males in these species call during special upwind zigzagging display flights over their territories. Instead of ‘buzz-bumping,’ territorial males participate in buzzing aerial ‘dogfights’ with intruding males.

The genus Hecatesia contains several different species of "whistling moth," all of which are endemic to Australia. Each species produces its own unique whistle; the exact social context/role of that behavior also differs slightly from one species to the next.

Sources & More Info:

Journal of Experimental Biology: 'Un chant d'appel amoureux': Acoustic Communication in Moths

Australian Lepidoptera: Hecatesia fenestrata

Field Guide to the Insects of Tasmania: Genus Hecatesia

Journal of Experimental Biology: Moths are not Silent, but Whisper Ultrasonic Courtship Songs

Communicative and Integrative Biology: Private Ultrasonic Whispering in Moths

[artifacts-and-arthropods]

The Madagascan Sunset Moth: these moths are often mistaken for butterflies, thanks to their colorful, iridescent appearance

The scientific name of this species is Chrysiridia rhipheus, but it's commonly known as the Madagascan sunset moth. These gorgeous day-flying moths can be found only in Madagascar.

Above: a dorsal view of the same species

The Madagascan sunset moth has a strikingly colorful appearance, especially when its underwings are exposed, as a rainbow-like effect is produced by the iridescent scales that cover the underwings (and appear in smaller sections on the dorsal side of the wing).

Above: some of the iridescent scales on the underwings of Chrysiridia ripheus, as seen through a scanning electron microscope

The markings on the dorsal side are primarily black, with some patches of iridescent green, blue, and red. A "fringe" of white scales can also be seen along the edge of each wing; these are especially prominent on the hindwings.

Above: the dorsal patterns are visible only when the wings are left open

Like most day-flying moths, the adults of this species will often feed on nectar. Their caterpillars are known to consume Omphalea plants, which are toxic; those toxins are sequestered by the caterpillar and then retained through the pupal and adult stages of development, which means that the adult moth is toxic. Their colorful appearance is likely aposomatic, deterring predators by signaling that the moth itself is toxic.

Above: a magnified view of the white scales that outline the hindwings

Sources & More Info:

Navsari Agricultural University: Sunset Moth: the most beautiful insect

Oxford University Museum of Natural History: Madagascar

Moth Identification Guide: Madagascan Sunset Moth

California Academy of Sciences: Sunset Moth

Optica: Polarization-Sensitive Color Mixing in the Wing of the Madagascan Sunset Moth

Wikipedia: Chrysiridia rhipheus

[artifacts-and-arthropods]

Skeletorus Spider: this species of jumping spider was named after the cartoon villain, Skeletor, because the males are covered in black-and-white markings that resemble the bones of a skeleton

This species is found only in Queensland, Australia, where it was first discovered by a PhD student named Madeline Girard back in 2015. Inspired by the black-and-white markings that cover the spider's body, Girard decided to give it the name "Skeletorus," after the cartoon villain known as Skeletor. The scientific name of this species is Maratus sceletus.

According to Dr. Jürgen Otto, who co-authored the article in which this species was first described:

[Skeletorus] looks dramatically different from all other peacock spiders known to date, making me think that this group is perhaps much more diverse than we had thought.

Jumping spiders of this genus (Maratus) are commonly referred to as "peacock spiders," and they're famous for their charming and elaborate courtship dances, which differ from one species to the next. You can watch footage of the mating dance for this particular species here.

About a year ago, I was doing background research for some of my other animal posts when I started noticing that there are a lot of interesting (but often obscure) animals that have "Halloween-like" features, including orange-and-black patterns and markings that look just like skulls, jack-o-lanterns, skeletons, or ghosts; I started keeping track of those "Halloween animals" so that I could post the most unique examples in the weeks leading up to Halloween, and over the course of the last year, I've added more than 150 different species to that list, including moths, beetles, birds, spiders, bats, squirrels, and snails, among other things.

So far, I've written posts about the painted woolly bat (Kerivoula picta) and the skeletorus spider (Maratus sceletus), but I'll be posting more "Halloween animals" throughout the month of October.

Sources & More Info:

Sci News: Two New Species of Peacock Spiders Discovered in Australia

Peckhamia Scientific Journal: Two New Peacock Spiders of the Calcitrans Group from Southern Queensland (PDF)

National Geographic: Behold Sparklemuffin and Skeletorus, New Peacock Spiders

Animal Diversity Web: Genus Maratus

[artifacts-and-arthropods]

The Painted Woolly Bat (Kerivoula picta): this bat species has a stunning orange-and-black appearance

Kerivoula picta is commonly known as the painted woolly bat, thanks to its strikingly colorful appearance and thick, curly fur. Researchers believe that its orange coloration might actually serve as camouflage, to some extent, as it has been reported that the bats can easily blend in with dried leaves and flowers when they are roosting.

For several months each year, these bats form small family units that generally contain two adults and one pup. They often reconnect with the same reproductive partner over multiple breeding seasons.

This species is increasingly threatened by the international demand for so-called "bat décor:"

... painted woolly bats (Kerivoula picta) are collected and killed in their native habitat in South and Southeast Asia and sold as décor globally. The United States is a major and growing market for this trade: The U.S. has imported hundreds of painted woolly bats over recent years. As this species is not bred in captivity, all the bats are taken from the wild.

Painted woolly bat populations are declining. The International Union for Conservation of Nature assessed the species as “near threatened,” yet few nations within the species’ range offer the bats effective protection from killing. The bats live in China, India, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Viet Nam.

Given that they only produce one offspring at a time, painted woolly bats are particularly vulnerable to trade. Scientists have been raising concerns about the potential harms of the bat décor trade for nearly a decade, yet the market has only grown. Online listings offering painted woolly bats for sale are plentiful on major ecommerce websites.

This article provides more information about the threats that this species is currently facing and the ongoing efforts to protect it.

Sources & More Info:

Bat Conservation International: Kerivoula picta

Thai National Parks: Painted Bat

Mammal Study: The Ecology and Monogamous System of the Painted Woolly Bat, Kerivoula picta

Ecology and Evolution: Bat Mating Systems

Cambridge University Press: Growing Concern Over Trade in Bat Souvenirs from Southeast Asia

European Journal of Wildlife Research: Dying for Décor

Center for Biological Diversity: Endangered Species Act Protections Sought for Painted Woolly Bats

Center for Biological Diversity: Going to Bat for Painted Woolly Bats

UC Davis: E-Sales of a Wild Bat Sold as Décor Threaten Species

[artifacts-and-arthropods]

Poplar Lappet Moths: these moths are able to mimic the dead leaves of a poplar tree (there is at least one moth in each of the photos below)

Above: the photo at the top shows two poplar lappet moths disguised as foliage (the two "leaves" on the left-most end of the branch are actually moths) and the photo on the bottom shows another poplar lappet moth clinging to a leaf

The scientific name of this species is Gastropacha populifolia, but it's more commonly referred to as the poplar lappet moth. It's also known as pappelglucke in German and feuille-morte du peuplier in French.

The moths are distributed across large sections of Europe, Russia, China, Korea, and Japan, but they're regarded as a rare species throughout most of Europe.

The shape, color, wing pattern, and resting position of this species all contribute to its unique disguise, as it bears an uncanny resemblance to a dead leaf. It even has a dark, snout-like projection (the labial palpi) that mimics the stem of a leaf, and its wing pattern completes the illusion with a dark, raised line forming the central "vein" of the leaf; the soft ridges and scalloped edges of its wings also add to the effect.

There are many other leaf-mimicking moths out there, but this species is particularly impressive.

The caterpillars also have a knack for blending in -- thanks to their cryptic coloration and fuzzy, setae-lined sides, they are easily camouflaged against the bark of a poplar tree.

Above: the photos at the top show Gastropacha populifolia caterpillars blending in by pressing their bodies flat up against twigs/branches, and the photo at the bottom shows one of the caterpillars in a more conspicuous setting

These moths are defended by more than just mimicry, though; they can also produce ultrasonic clicks that interfere with the echolocation signals of predatory bats, which allows the moths to avoid being detected (and ultimately eaten) by bats.

Above: the adorable face of a poplar lappet moth

Sources & More Info:

Nota Lepidopterologica: Continuous Long-Term Monitoring of Daily Foraging Patterns in Three Species of Lappet Moth Caterpillars

Catalogue of the Lepidoptera of Belgium: Gastropacha populifolia

Moths and How to Rear Them: Gastropacha populifolia

Wikipedia (German): Pappelglucke

Moths and Butterflies of Europe and North Africa: G. populifolia

EurekaMag: Effect of the Scale Coverage of the Moth Gastropacha populifolia on the Reflection of Bat Echolocation Signals

[artifacts-and-arthropods]

Magical amulets were relatively common during the Middle Ages, particularly in the Jewish communities of the Near East (though they were also fairly common in Europe). The amulets from the Cairo Genizah collection would be textual amulets -- brief ritual texts that were usually written on paper, stored in a pendant case, and then worn around the neck or wrist.

This article provides a more detailed explanation:

For the most part, an amulet has a specific purpose: to ease childbirth, facilitate recovery from illness, improve one’s livelihood, and so on. ...

The texts of amulets usually include holy names that are believed to have the ability to affect reality, along with incantations summoning angels or other magical powers.

These amulets, which date back to about 1000 CE, are from the Cairo Genizah collection:

Above: an amulet to protect against scorpions, banishing them "in the name of Aphrodite," with a drawing of a scorpion at the bottom

Above: an amulet to be used in case of extreme illnesses, featuring the Tetragrammaton and the names of the angels Azriel and Seraphiel, along with instructions for a preparation containing saffron, myrrh from Soqotra and hyssop to be dissolved in white vinegar

Above: an amulet to protect against "demons and afflictions" (left) and an amulet to facilitate childbirth (right)

Sources & More Info:

Cambridge University Library: Magical Amulet to Protect Against Scorpions, Amulet for Extreme Illnesses, Amulet Against Demons and Afflictions, Amulet to Facilitate Childbirth

YIVO Encyclopedia of the Jews in Eastern Europe: Amulets and Talismans

Child's Writing Exercises and Doodles, from Egypt, c. 1000-1200 CE: this was made by a child who was practicing Hebrew, creating doodles and scribbles on the page as they worked

This writing fragment is nearly 1,000 years old, and it was made by a child who lived in Egypt during the Middle Ages. Several letters of the Hebrew alphabet are written on the page, probably as part of a writing exercise, but the child apparently got a little bored/distracted, as they also left a drawing of a camel (or possibly a person), a doodle that resembles a menorah, and an assortment of other scribbles on the page.

This is the work of a Jewish child from Fustat (Old Cairo), and it was preserved in the collection known as the Cairo Genizah Manuscripts. As the University of Cambridge Library explains:

For a thousand years, the Jewish community of Fustat placed their worn-out books and other writings in a storeroom (genizah) of the Ben Ezra Synagogue ... According to rabbinic law, once a holy book can no longer be used (because it is too old, or because its text is no longer relevant) it cannot be destroyed or casually discarded: texts containing the name of God should be buried or, if burial is not possible, placed in a genizah.

At least from the early 11th century, the Jews of Fustat ... reverently placed their old texts in the Genizah. Remarkably, however, they placed not only the expected religious works, such as Bibles, prayer books and compendia of Jewish law, but also what we would regard as secular works and everyday documents: shopping lists, marriage contracts, divorce deeds, pages from Arabic fables, works of Sufi and Shi'ite philosophy, medical books, magical amulets, business letters and accounts, and hundreds of letters: examples of practically every kind of written text produced by the Jewish communities of the Near East can now be found in the Genizah Collection, and it presents an unparalleled insight into the medieval Jewish world.

Sources & More Info:

Cambridge Digital Library: Writing Exercises with Child's Drawings

Cambridge Digital Library: More About the Cairo Genizah Manuscripts

[artifacts-and-arthropods]

Brush Jewel Beetles (Genus Julodis): these distinctive beetles are covered in tufts of brightly-colored bristles

Above: Julodis cirrosa (top) and Julodis viridipes (bottom)

These beetles are found only in southern Africa. They generally measure about 20-30mm (roughly 1 inch) long, and they are covered in tufts of wax-coated bristles that sprout up through their metallic, bluish-green shell. The bristles are usually a vivid shade of orange, yellow, or red.

Above: close-up images of the bristles on a brush jewel beetle, Julodis viridipes, which has a metallic blue shell that makes the bright orange bristles stand out

It's believed that the beetles' colorful appearance is aposomatic, meaning that it likely deters predators by signaling that the beetle is chemically defended (i.e. toxic).

Above: Julodis cirrosa (top and bottom right) and Julodis viridipes (bottom left)

Sources & More Info:

Smithsonian Magazine: The World's Most Interesting Insects

Transactions of the South African Philosophical Society: Insects Injurious to Forest Trees in South Africa

Biodiversity Journal: Caption Regarding Genus Julodis

[artifacts-and-arthropods]

The Giant Wood Moth: these rat-sized moths have a wingspan of up to 23cm (about 10 inches) and can weigh as much as 30 grams, making them the heaviest moths in the world

This species (Endoxyla cinereus) is found only in Australia and New Zealand. It has a larval stage that can last 2-3 years, and the larvae spend most of that time eating and tunneling into the wood of eucalyptus trees. Once they are finally ready to pupate, they transform their tunnel into a pupation chamber, and they eventually emerge from the chamber as adult moths.

Above: the enormous pupa of a giant wood moth

The adult moths can only survive for a few days after that; like many other lepidopterans, the adults of this species are incapable of feeding, because they do not have any functional mouthparts, so their lifespan is extremely brief. They spend their entire adult lives (which last only a matter of days) searching for a mate and reproducing. In order to accomplish that goal, they must rely on the energy afforded by the fat reserves that they accumulated when they were larvae.

Above: the adult moths

Giant wood moths display a significant degree of sexual dimorphism, as the females are roughly twice the size of the males; they can weigh up to 30 grams, which makes this the heaviest moth species in the world.

In fact, the females are so heavy that they can barely even fly. In order to find a mate, they must crawl to the top of a tree trunk or fence post, release their pheromones, and then simply wait for the males to find them.

Sources & More Info:

Australian Museum: The Giant Wood Moth

Austral Ecology: Life History, Ecology and Ethnoentomology of the Giant Wood Moth

Australian Geographic: Giant Wood Moth

Moth Identification Guide: Endoxyla cinereus

The Guardian: Giant Wood Moth: 'very heavy’ insect rarely seen by humans spotted at Australian school

[artifacts-and-arthropods]

Bomber Flies: these flies launch their own eggs into the nests of wasps and bees, hovering in mid-air as they do so; the females also have a unique perivaginal pouch that is known as a "sand chamber" because it is filled with sand

Above: Anastoechus sp. (top) and Anastoechus nitidulus (bottom)

The flies of this family (Bombyliidae) are generally referred to as "bee flies," because they are known to mimic bees and bumblebees, but many of them are also known as "bomber flies," thanks to their unusual ovipository technique.

Above: a bomber fly of the genus Anastoechus

As the female bomber fly is preparing to lay her eggs, she will usually look for a soil-hidden nest that already contains the eggs/larvae of another insect. Most bomber flies lay their eggs in the nests of wasps and bees, but there are a few species that are known to target beetles, grasshoppers, locusts, other flies, and/or caterpillars, instead. Once the bomber fly has found a suitable nest, she will hover over the entrance to the burrow and rapidly flick her abdomen up and down until she has launched a single egg into the nest. She must then go searching for more nests in which to lay her other eggs.

Above: Anastoechus sp.

After hatching, the parasitoid larvae of the bomber fly feeds on the eggs/larvae of the host species (i.e. the nest's original occupants). As this article explains:

When a bee fly egg hatches, a tiny larva called a planidium emerges. The planidium is quite unlike most fly larvae (also known as maggots); they are adapted for moving quickly in search of a host. Once the planidium finds a host, it will attach itself to the host’s exterior, like a leech or sea lamprey, and begin to feed. Yes folks, this is the stuff of nightmares.

Female bomber flies also have another peculiar trait: their abdomen contains a specialized perivaginal pouch known as a "sand chamber." During the ovipository process, the fly fills this pouch with fine grains of sand, and her eggs are then coated in the sand as they pass through the perivaginal pouch. The pouch is also lined with elongated setae ("hairs") and enlarged spikes that prevent the grains of sand from spilling back out.

The overall purpose of the "sand chamber" is still unclear, but many researchers believe that coating the eggs in a layer of sand may help to improve the viability of the eggs by preventing them from being damaged as they are launched to the ground, and that it also provides them with some camouflage after they have landed. Some researchers have argued that it prevents the eggs from becoming dehydrated, because the barrier helps to improve fluid retention, while others believe that it improves the mother's aim by increasing the weight of each egg. There is some evidence to suggest that it could also prevent the eggs from being detected (and then destroyed, abandoned, or ejected) by the host species, because the sand helps to mask/mute the egg's biochemical signals.

Above: Anastoechus barbatus

Adult bomber flies tend to feed on pollen and nectar. They are excellent pollinators, and their parasitoid larvae may also help to keep wasp and bee populations in check.

This article notes that bee flies (particularly Anastoechus nitidulus) likely served as the inspiration for the Pokémon known as cutiefly:

Sources & More Info:

USGS: Bombyliidae Fly

Biological Journal of the Linnean Society: The Evolutionary Pattern of Host Use in the Bombyliidae (Diptera) Family

YouTube: Video of a Bomber Fly (Bombylius major) Selecting a Nest and then Launching her Egg into the Burrow

Smithsonian Institution Press: Bee Flies of the World (pages 6 and 27)

Michigan State University: Bee Flies

Animal Diversity Web: Genus Bombylius

Animal Diversity Web: Anthrax albofasciatus

Journal of Geek Studies: The Entomological Diversity of Pokémon

[artifacts-and-arthropods]

Brenthia Moths: these moths can mimic the appearance and mannerisms of a jumping spider so convincingly that actual jumping spiders will sometimes attempt to court them

The markings, posture, and movements of a Brenthia moth (genus Brenthia, also known as a metalmark moth) all contribute to its disguise; the moths move around in short, jerky motions that mimic the movements of a jumping spider, and their hindwings are covered in black-and-white bands that strongly resemble the tucked-in legs of a salticiid spider, especially when the moth displays its unique wing position. The disguise serves as a defensive strategy, enabling the moth to avoid being preyed upon by actual jumping spiders.

In some cases, that disguise may work a little too well, as jumping spiders may actually mistake the moth for a potential mate and then attempt to engage it in a courtship/mating dance (which must be a pretty awkward and bizarre experience for the moth, tbh).

The resemblance between a Brenthia moth and a jumping spider may not seem terribly convincing to us, as human beings, but as this article explains:

When discussing animals mimicking their predator, it is important to remember that we humans are not the target audience. This means that the imitator may not look too convincing in its mimicry to us, but still manages to trigger a desired response from said predator.

Jumping spiders have also been known to respond to Brenthia moths by exhibiting a territorial display, which is yet another behavior that the spiders generally reserve for other spiders.

This study expands on the adaptive benefits of the moth's disguise:

In controlled trials, Brenthia had higher survival rates than other similarly sized moths in the presence of jumping spiders and jumping spiders responded to Brenthia with territorial displays, indicating that Brenthia were sometimes mistaken for jumping spiders, and not recognized as prey.

The illustration below shows the basic/general resemblance between a Brenthia moth and a jumping spider:

Sources & More Info:

New Scientist: Moth's Disguise is so Good, Spiders Love it Instead of Eating it

Animal Behaviour: Sheep in Wolf's Clothing

Science: This Moth Could Pass for a Spider

PLOS ONE Journal: Metalmark Moths Mimic their Jumping Spider Predators

Gil Wizen: Jumping Spider Mimicry in Brenthia Moths

Moths of North Carolina: Brenthia pavonacella

[artifacts-and-arthropods]

Green Shell Semi-Slug: the researchers who discovered this species originally wanted to name it "Ibycus felis," because it often rests with its tail curled around its body, which reminded them of a sleeping cat

The Latin name of this species is Ibycus rachelae, but it's also known as a green-shelled or long-tailed semi-slug. The species was first described in 2008, and it is found only in the montane forests of Sabah (Borneo) and Peninsular Malaysia.

The term "semi-slug" refers to an intermediate stage of evolution as a snail evolves into a slug. These snails still have shells that are at least partially visible, but they have been reduced to the point where the shell can no longer accommodate the snail's whole body. There are many different species of semi-slug, but most of them have a noticeably reduced, receding, and/or transparent shell that is partially concealed beneath the mantle.

This article describes another peculiar characteristic of semi-slugs (including Ibycus rachelae):

... semi-slugs don’t just look weird, they act weird, too. They employ sharp projectiles called love darts in their courtship rituals, by shooting several of them at a prospective mate. The mate, in turn, shoots several love darts right back.

Researchers have found that if semi-slugs are able to lodge love darts into one another, the subsequent copulation tends to be much more successful. It’s thought that the mucus distributed by the love dart ensures greater survivability of the sperm

This is what the "love darts" look like (when magnified under SEM):

The tiny, harpoon-like structures are made of calcium carbonate, and they transmit certain hormones (via mucus) that help to increase the likelihood of reproductive success. Semi-slugs are not the only gastropods that use "love darts," however; they are also used by some other land snails and slugs.

Sources & More Info:

World Wildlife Fund: Borneo's New World (PDF)

Basteria (Journal): The Slugs and Semislugs of Sabah, Malaysian Borneo (PDF)

Forest Research Institute Malaysia: Introduction to the Land Snails and Slugs of Malaysia (PDF)

Malay Peninsular Terrestrial Molluscs: Ibycus rachelae

Live Science: World's Longest Bug and 'Ninja' Slug Discovered in Borneo

Australian Geographic: Meet the Semi-Slug, a Snail without a Home

[artifacts-and-arthropods]

Thank you for running this blog and providing such thoughtful commentary and sources! I don’t know how long it takes you to make these posts, but your efforts are very appreciated :D

Thank you! I do spend a lot of time putting these posts together, but it's worth it, because I really enjoy researching unique/obscure topics and then sharing that stuff with other people.

It's also a welcome distraction for me, tbh. I developed some disabilities a few years ago (including a traumatic brain injury, PTSD, and severe depression) which forced me to put my career on hold; I'm still trying to recover from those issues, and this blog helps to keep me occupied.

Anyway...I really appreciate your comments! Thank you again.

[artifacts-and-arthropods]

Brandt's Bat: researchers once documented a case in which a Brandt's bat had survived in the wild for more than 40 years, making this the longest-living bat species in the world

In 1964, a wild Brandt's bat (Myotis brandtii) was captured, banded, and released by researchers in the Biryusa region of Siberia. The very same bat was eventually recaptured by another team of researchers in 2005; it would have been at least 41 years old by then, making it the oldest bat ever recorded.

The previous record-holder was also a Siberian Brandt's bat (with an estimated age of 38 years).

There are twelve other species within the genus Myotis that have been documented living past the age of 20, but the lifespan of the Brandt's bat is exceptionally long, especially compared to other small mammals.

This species (and the longevity of a few other bat species) defies our conventional understanding of the relationship between an animal's size and its lifespan -- smaller animals normally have a much shorter lifespan compared to large animals, partly due to their higher metabolic demands, but these bats represent a rare exception to that rule. In fact, with an average weight of just 4 to 8 grams (which is roughly the combined weight of 2 or 3 pennies), the Brandt's bat has the longest lifespan of any mammal relative to its size.

Research suggests that its increased lifespan may be at least partially linked to a mutation in two of the genes that are related to growth. This article describes the results of one particular study:

Genes for two proteins involved in growth — called growth hormone receptor (GHR) and insulinlike growth factor 1 receptor (IGF1R) — showed changes that also appear among other long-lived bat species. Previous studies in mice and other animals suggest genetic changes in GHR and IGF1R are linked with longevity. For instance, mice with mutations in GHR live twice as long as normal mice, said study researcher Vadim Gladyshev, a geneticist at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston.

These same genetic changes also may be responsible for the bats' small size ...

"We think the bat's life span is, in part, an unintended consequence of its small body size."

There are a few other factors that may also play a role:

Brandt's bats also hibernate and roost in caves — behaviors that may help them avoid predators and extreme weather conditions, and contribute to their longer life span, the researchers said. The Brandt's bat also takes a relatively long time to reach maturity, and it does not produce many offspring — two characteristics seen in larger, longer-living mammals.

Note: nearly all of the articles that I came across refer to the 41-year-old bat as a "Brandt's bat," but at least one other source uses the term "Siberian whiskered myotis," instead. That term simply refers to the Siberian variety of the Brandt's bat (subspecies Myotis brandtii sibiricus) in particular.

Sources & More Info:

The Journals of Gerontology: A New Field Record for Bat Longevity

Bat Conservation International: Myotis brandtii

Nature: Genome Analysis Reveals Insights into Physiology and Longevity of the Brandt's Bat, Myotis brandtii

Nature: DNA Methylation Predicts Age and Provides Insight Into Exceptional Longevity of Bats

New Scientist: Gene Clues May Explain Why Brandt's Bat Lives So Long

[artifacts-and-arthropods]

2,000-Year-Old Fayum Portraits from Roman Egypt: also known as "mummy portraits," these funerary paintings were often fastened to the coffins of the people they depicted

Above: Fayum portrait of a woman from Roman-occupied Egypt, c.100-110 CE

Fayum portraiture was a popular funerary practice among the upper-class families of Roman Egypt from about 50 CE to 250 CE. Given the high mortality rates for children during this period, many of these portraits depict children and youths, but adults were often featured, too.

Above: portrait of a youth wearing a golden wreath, c.130-150 CE; the wreath and the background of the portrait are both gilded

The population of the Faiyum Delta, where most of these portraits were found, largely contained individuals with both native Egyptian/North African and Greek heritage. The Greek lineages can be traced back to the Ptolemaic period, when the Greeks gained control of Egypt and began to establish settlements throughout the region, gradually leading to a cultural diffusion between the Greek and Egyptian populations. The Romans eventually took control of Egypt in 31 CE, absorbing it into the Roman Empire and colonizing much of North Africa, but the demographics of the Faiyum Delta remained largely unchanged.

Above: portrait of a man with a mole on his nose, c.130-150 CE

Many of these Fayum portraits reflect the same blend of ethnic and cultural roots, depicting individuals with both Greek and native Egyptian heritage (a claim that is supported by both archaeological and genetic evidence). Some portraits may also depict native Egyptians who did not have any European ancestry, but had been integrated into Greco-Roman society.

Above: portrait of a bearded man, c.170-180 CE

These representations of native Egyptians provide us with unique insights into the actual demographics of Roman-occupied Egypt (and the ancient world at large). Non-European peoples are rarely included in depictions of the classical world; it's also interesting to see the blend of cultural elements that these portraits represent.

Above: portrait of a priest of Serapis, c.140-160 CE; the man in this portrait is shown wearing a fillet/crown that bears the seven-pointed star of the Greco-Egyptian god, Serapis

As this article explains:

In the 1800s and early 1900s, Western art historians didn’t know what to make of these portraits. Scholars of Roman history labeled them Egyptian. Scholars of Egyptian history labeled them Greco-Roman. These binary academic classifications failed to capture the true complexity of the ancient (or, indeed, modern) Mediterranean. In reality, Fayum portraits are a syncretic form, merging Egyptian and Greco-Roman art and funerary practices. They reflect the cosmopolitanism of both Roman and Egyptian history.

Above: portrait of a man, c.80-100 CE (left); portrait of a bearded officer, sometimes referred to as "Perseus," c.130-175 CE (right)

Above: portrait of a young woman in red, c.90-120 CE

Nearly 1,000 of these portraits are currently known to exist.

Above: portrait of a man wearing a gilded ivy wreath, c.100-150 CE

Above: portrait of a bearded man, c.150-170 CE

Sources & More Info:

Curationist: Fayum Portraits

Harvard Art Museums: Giving the Dead their Due: an Exhibition Re-Examines Funerary Portraits from Roman Egypt

Getty Museum: APPEAR Project

Getty Museum: Faces of Roman Egypt

National Geographic: Ancient Egypt's Stunning, Lifelike Mummy Portraits

The Athens Centre: The Myth of Whiteness in Classical Sculpture

Forbes: Whitewashing Ancient Statues: Whiteness, Racism and Color in the Ancient World