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Expression through art not words - Manifesto

I have always been one to express my feelings and thoughts through drawings and paintings rather than using words. When I researched different styles and eras of architecture I was quite surprised and impressed to find out that architecture has always been used to symbolize the power and sophistication of a civiliation. Therefore, this manifesto focuses on how art and design can be used to express an individuals or groups feelings and thoughts. It will look at how an artist can express themselves through their art – by using specific colours, shapes and methods. This manifesto will also look at the different aspects of art and design in which an artist can express themselves, e.g. paintings, architecture and more.

Art can be used as a way of expressing an individuals or a groups feelings and thoughts through  the use of specific colours, shapes and detail. An example of using colour to highlight an emotion would be the use of the colour blue. Blue connotes the feelings of sadness and can prove the expression of ‘feeling blue’. By using this colour within art work, whether its in the background or even blue tints/ hues in a face or landscape, it can reflect the artist thoughts whilst they were creating the piece. An example of an artist using this method was when Hyung Koo created his piece ‘Vincent Van Gogh in blue’ in 2007. The artwork consisted of a portrait of Van Gogh with major blue hues throughout the dark background and his face – it gives off a gloomy, cold and sad image which almost causes you to feel the emotions connoted by this piece. The way the art affected me was intense and powerful in order to almost make the emotions rub off onto me.

Although architecture may seem simple to some it is about so much more than just structures and buildings. Architecture has always been used as a resource to highlight a civilisations / individuals power or wealth. This has been achieved over the years with many different methods. I researched this topic quite a lot throughout my blogs and learnt that for centuries architecture was used worldwide to represent power and wealth. Each time a new leader took over or a new era began, their structures became stronger and more complex in order to prove they were better than those previously. An example of architecture being used to mirror a civilisations power was through the use of columns. Due to the structural stability and the complexity of columns construction they were used to symbolize the power of civilizations.

References:

“Blue as a Representation of Sadness.” Google Arts & Culture, artsandculture.google.com/usergallery/CwKCGvAMadn-KQ.

Chris. 3 Colors That Represent Sadness (Blue, Gray, Black). 2 Jan. 2022, symbolismandmetaphor.com/colors-that-represent-sadness/#:~:text=%20Blue%20represents%20sadness%20because%20it%20can%20give.

“Connection: How Architecture Affects One’s Emotions.” Eacco, 12 Mar. 2022, eacco.ph/architecture-blogs/how-architecture-affects-emotions/#:~:text=Even%20the%20simplest%20details%20in%20architecture%2C%20like%20shapes%2C.

DiCrescenzo, Jacob. “Architecture Is a Deeply Emotional Experience.” ArchDaily, 23 July 2021, www.archdaily.com/965178/architecture-is-a-deeply-emotional-experience.

Ingram, Cindy . “Exploring the Self: 15 Identity Artworks to Show Students.” Art Class Curator, 4 May 2021, artclasscurator.com/identity-artworks/.

Mehlomakulu, Carolyn. “Expressing Emotions through Creativity: A 6-Step Art Process.” Creativity in Therapy, 25 June 2017, creativityintherapy.com/2017/06/expressing-emotions-creativity-6-step-art-process/.

Swann, Julia. “Self Expression Art - Thrive and Share Yourself with Others - Gone Minimal.” Gone Minimal, www.goneminimal.com/self-expression-art/.

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Deconstructivism

Gehry House

Definitions:

(Merriam webster) “An architectural movement or style influenced by deconstruction that encourages radical freedom of form and the open manifestation of complexity in a building rather than strict attention to functional concerns and conventional design elements (such as right angles or grids).”

(M Wigley)”A deconstructive architect is not one who dismantles buildings, but one who locates the inherent dilemmas within buildings”.

At some point between 1914 and 1918 (first world war) some Russian architects “broke the rules of classical architecture and composition”, as said on Arch daily. The designs they had drawn had abandoned the “geometric norm”(Arch daily). After lots of experimentating with shapes and forms, the architects “disturbed the traditional perception of architecture and opened people’s eys to the endless possibilities of breaking architecture rules”(Arch daily). Breaking the classic rules of architecture by ‘deconstructing’ the traditioal ways led to a revolution. People viewed construction and design differently, with open minds, as they saw the countless possibilities.

According to Owen Hopkins, Deconstructivism was “one of the most significant architecture style of the 20th century”. This is true due to the massess of change it brought along. The norms of architecture were broken - people could see that there isn’t just right or wrong anymore, things weren’t just black or white. It was clear then that things could change, they could be different - and if architecture and construction, out of all things, could be changed then surely anything could be. These new discoveries, of the 20th century, led to a philosophical movement around the world.

 “An architect has always dreamt of pure form… from which all instability and disorder have been excluded”, as highlighted by M Wigley. This is what created the rules of architecture known as ‘the norms’. The rules stuck around as they worked with civilisations knowledge – which provided stability for their designs and structures.

(Kadvacorp)Characteristics:

“Unrelated forms

Abstract in nature

Smooth exterior surfaces

Contrast of shapes and forms

Large expanses of a single material (e.g. glass, metal, etc)

Simple metal door frames

Exposed materials

Window frames hidden in the walls

The word deconstruction can be very easily misinterpreted due to the words usual meaning of deconstructing a structure and dismantling it/ knocking it down. It was and is very important that people understand that Deconstructive architecture isn’t about dismantling a building but rather the separation of a design to create impurity – as explained by M Wigley, “the dream of pure had been disturbed”.

References:

AJ. “Deconstructivism - Deconstructive Architecture Style Characteristic.” Kadva Corp, 19 Feb. 2015, www.kadvacorp.com/design/deconstructive-architecture-style/#:~:text=Key%20Features%20of%20Deconstructivism%20Architecture%20Style%3A%201%20Unrelated.

“Definition of DECONSTRUCTIVISM.” Www.merriam-Webster.com, www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/deconstructivism.

Dima Stouhi. “What Is Deconstructivism?” ArchDaily, 12 Aug. 2018, www.archdaily.com/899645/what-is-deconstructivism.

Hopkins, Owen. “Deconstructivist Architecture “Challenges the Very Values of Harmony, Unity and Stability” .” Dezeen, 3 May 2022, www.dezeen.com/2022/05/03/deconstructivist-architecture-introduction/.

Johnson, Philip, and Mark Wigley. Deconstructivist Architecture. New York, Moma, Cop, 1998, www.moma.org/documents/moma_catalogue_1813_300062863.pdf?_ga=2.145925044.1469358646.1683646190-646892538.1683646190.

Srivastava, Tulisha. “Gehry House,” Re-Thinkingthefuture, www.re-thinkingthefuture.com/2021/03/22/a3661-gehry-residence-by-frank-gehry-balance-between-old-and-new/.

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Art Deco

Eastern Columbia Building, Los Angeles

The arcitectural style Art Deco was also known as ‘Style Moderne’.

Art Deco originated in France in 1919 – it achieved admiration internationaly which allowed it to spread to more countries. Acccording to NYPL Art Deco was “initially known as ‘le style moderne’ or ‘jazz moderne” and it didn’t receive its current name until 1968. A few years after the Art Deco style started the designs started to reflect the “rapid artistic and technological innovations of the period between the two wars”(NYPL).

This style started in a time of experimentation within design. As said by NYPL their were current art movements within this experimentation era such as: “Bauhaus, Construtivism, Cubism, De stijl, Futurism, Orphism and Surrealism”. Each of these experimental designs and movements inspired the style of Art Deco and pushed the architects to incorportae, “chic elegance, eclectic historical and national imagery”(NYPL) into their designs. According to RIBA, the Art Deco style “became a favourite for building types associated with the modern age”, e.g. garages, airports, cinemas, swimming pools/leisure centers, offices, department shops and factories, etc. So it really did cover all bases of art, design and architecture.

(creativemarket)Characteristics:

Bold geometric shapes

Loud and vibrant colours

Clean, sleek lines

Zigzags

The Art Deco style didn’t only cover architecture, it seems as though it covered the majority of art and design aspects – furniture, textiles, ceramics, sculptures, etc. The style was so popular that art and design changed internationally. It was such a drastic change as it broke all traditions – yes there had been some complex and simpler styles before (some of which had included lots of colour), but the desire of bold shapes and colours seemed to be mesmirizing to the world.

As said by Britannica, the original intention of the Art Deco style was to “create a sleek and anti-traditional elegance to symbolize wealth and sophistication.” The intention to symbolize wealth and sophistication was mirrored through the significant use of colour, this is because at the time people who could afford the boldest and most colourful décor, art and clothes were usually the wealthiest.

References:

“Art Deco.” Www.architecture.com, www.architecture.com/explore-architecture/art-deco.

“Art Deco: A Research Guide.” The New York Public Library, 2009, www.nypl.org/node/171023.

Fox, Martin. “Eastern Columbia Building, Los Angeles,” Quora, 2020, www.quora.com/What-are-the-finest-examples-of-Art-Deco-in-architecture.

Ghisleni, Camilla. “What Is Art Deco Architecture?” ArchDaily, 18 Nov. 2021, www.archdaily.com/972018/what-is-art-deco-architecture.

Tate. “Art Deco – Art Term | Tate.” Tate, 2017, www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/a/art-deco.

The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Art Deco | Definition, Characteristics, History, & Facts.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 25 Oct. 2018, www.britannica.com/art/Art-Deco.

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Neoclassical Architecture

Neoclassical architecture was a style which evolved during the 18th century as part of the revival of Classical architecture, which thrived in both Europe and the USA. As said by Warbleton council, “Neoclassical architecture grew in parallel to Baroque.” This means that whilst Baroque architects were designing their diverse and complex buildings the Neoclassical architects were working on simpler designs in reaction – which worked as a “correction of the quirkiness characteristics” (Warbleton council) of Baroque.

The Neoclassical style was “perceived as a synonym of returning to purity” according to masterclass.com. This can be interpretated as the return to more simpler design methods as a return to “order and rationality” (Warbleton council) after the era of the Baroque designs and its complexity.

Characteristics:

Grand scales

Simple geometrics

Columns (mainly the Doric and Ionic styles from ancient Greece.)

Blank walls

Neoclassical architects were huge fans of columns, they used them on many different structure types – wealthy homes, halls, etc. The use of columns in designs symbolized great power and wealth - due to their clever structural abilities. Showing wealth and power through their architecture allowed other civilisations to interpret their power without witnessing their capabilities.

The evolved desire of simplicity after the excessive structures of the Baroque style greatly inspired the new design methods – with simpler geometrics forming structures as well as blank, white walls instead of many intricate and illusion pieces of art.

The British Museum, London.

The British museum in London is a prime example of Neoclassical architecture. According to Khan academy, “the commission was given to Robert Smirke, a well-established Neoclassical architect”. Robert was one of the many architects who originally led the revival of Greek and Classical architecture.

The construction of the museum took around 30 years to finish - the construction finished in 1753. The British museums elevation was originally styled to “mirror the expansion of the British Empire” (Khan academy). This idea follows the idea of using architecture and design as symbols of a civilisations power.

Refereneces:

Middleton, Robin, and David Watkin. Neoclassical and 19th Century Architecture. 1980. Milan, Electa ; New York, 1993.

---. Neoclassical and 19th Century Architecture. 1980. Milan, Electa ; New York, 1993.

“Neoclassical Architecture Guide: Examples of Neoclassicism.” Masterclass.com, MasterClass, 15 July 2021, www.masterclass.com/articles/neoclassical-architecture-explained.

“Neoclassical Architecture: Origin, Characteristics and Representatives - Science - 2023.” Warbletoncouncil, warbletoncouncil.org/arquitectura-neoclasica-723. Accessed 9 May 2023.

Overly Sarcastic Productions. “Neoclassical Architecture.” YouTube, 16 Apr. 2021, www.youtube.com/watch?v=4WJparOD6H8. Accessed 13 Sept. 2021.

rcarney. “Top 25 Examples of Neoclassical Architecture.” Architecture of Cities, 7 May 2022, architectureofcities.com/neoclassical-architecture#:~:text=What%20are%20the%20greatest%20examples%20of%20Neoclassical%20Architecture%3F.

“Robert Smirke | Artist | Royal Academy of Arts.” Www.royalacademy.org.uk, www.royalacademy.org.uk/art-artists/name/robert-smirke-ra. Accessed 10 May 2023.

“Smirke, the British Museum (Article).” Khan Academy, www.khanacademy.org/humanities/becoming-modern/victorian-art-architecture/early-victorian/a/smirke-the-british-museum#:~:text=The%20commission%20for%20the%20new%20building%20was%20given. Accessed 10 May 2023.

“The British Museum in London: Tickets, Opening Times, Exhibitions.” Planetofhotels.com, planetofhotels.com/guide/en/united-kingdom/london/british-museum.

The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Neoclassical Architecture.” Encyclopædia Britannica, 11 Apr. 2013, www.britannica.com/art/Neoclassical-architecture.

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Baroque Architecture

Peterhof Palace, Petergof

(the spruce) Definition:

“Baroque architecture is a highly opulent style of building, design and art.”

The Baroque style originated in the 17th century in Italy, before it spread throughout Europe and to the USA. According to thespruce.com, “Baroque architecture evolved in response to a tumultuous period that began in the 16th century”. After the chaos of the 16th century, leaders wanted to use buildings as a show of their power and wealth – they wanted to show off! The leaders’ desire was mainly prominent in the design of the Catholic churches. This style of architecture was inspired by the Romans, except they added modern aspects to create a “new fashion with an aim to show the might of the Catholic church” (world atlas).

“The emergence of Baroque architecture coincided with European colonialism” (world atlas), which works perfectly with the style’s specific aims. During this time lots of wealth was brought into art and design industries in order to help fund the development of the artistic styles and to help move forward towards a new era. These new funds helped to industrialize the economy and further support society.

The architects of the Baroque era were, as described by thespruce.com, “more theatrical” than those of the Renaissance.

(archute) Characteristics:

"Grandeur

Vivid ceilings with illusion effects

Contrast in design

Gilded statues

Pear-shaped domes

Irregular Shapes”

Diverse and complex

According to the Spruce the Baroque style had “subtle differences” within separate countries. Baroque was a popular style therefore, “locations altered the basic characteristics to suit their agenda and lifestyle” (thespruce). One of the particularly interesting characteristics of Baroque architecture is the deliberate unfinished look. This created confusion and question within viewers/ visitors’ minds – which leads further towards one of the aims of the Baroque style which was to “stimulate emotions and senses” (the collector) through its many designs.

For some more insight into the characteristics of Baroque architecture, check out this video: Baroque Architecture / Characteristics – famous buildings.

References:

“BAROQUE ARCHITECTURE / Characteristics - Famous Buildings.” Www.youtube.com, Apr. 2022, www.youtube.com/watch?v=tWd3d3SZQn0. Accessed 18 Mar. 2023.

Gilbert, Kimutai. “Petergof Palace, Petergof - an Excellent Example of Baroque Architecture.,” WorldAtlas, 13 June 2019, www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-is-baroque-architecture.html.

Iacob, Anisia. “9 Characteristics of Baroque Architecture (16th-18th Century).” TheCollector, 10 Aug. 2021, www.thecollector.com/baroque-architecture-characteristics/.

Mutuli, Ian. “Remarkable Baroque Buildings in Baroque Architecture.” Archute, 12 Apr. 2021, www.archute.com/baroque-architecture/#:~:text=Other%20notable%20features%20of%20Baroque%20architecture%20include%3A%201. Accessed 10 May 2023.

Thomann, Lauren. “What Is Baroque Architecture?” The Spruce, 2 Feb. 2022, www.thespruce.com/baroque-architecture-4797911.

WorldAtlas. “Characteristics of Baroque Architecture.” WorldAtlas, 3 Apr. 2017, www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-is-baroque-architecture.html.

---. “Characteristics of Baroque Architecture.” WorldAtlas, 3 Apr. 2017, www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-is-baroque-architecture.html.

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Modernism

Another 1930s Odeon

The Modernism architectural style originated in Germany in the 1920s.

The “modern movement” as explained by RIBA was “used to describe the rigorous modernist designs of the 1930s to 1960s”. This was a period where architects “abandoned past styles”(RIBA) and focused on the functuality of structures and rationing the use of materials rather than the look – “rejecting ornament and embracing minimalism”(RIBA).

Modernism was inspired by the Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century when art and design “embraced rationality and simplicity”(study.com) as a response to the Renaissance’s wealthiest who inhabitated homes of complexicity and luxury.

(archdaily)Definitions:

“Functionalism is based on the priniciple that the design of a building should reflect its purpose and function.

Minimalism emphasizes the use of simple design elements without ornamentation or decoration.”

During this era, characterized by inddustrialisation, there were many scientific advances (which led to a rapid change in society) as well as building technology advances. These building technology advances consisted of new construction methods, e.g. the steel frame and curtain walls, etc. The new methods were consistent with the modernism style as they were methods which kept material usage to a minimum as well as falling in line with the new desire for functional over aesthetic buildings. Lbuildings such as skyscrapers and mass housing (flats) were able to be built due to the advancement of knowledge and science, allowing the new methods to be structurally stable for such projects.

While previously the crafting of “furniture and décor”(study.com) was done indivdually and intricately, the new developments in technology meant that mass production was available and as said by study.com, “increaded affordability”.

(RIBA)Characteristics:

“Form follows function (function first)

Modern materials (e.g.steel)

Less is more (minimal)

Open plan interiors (spacious)”

During this time, society started to move away from being as materialistic and showing off money through excessively detailed and bright designs and towards function and minimalism. The departure of the extensive materialism allowed society to rebuild with a new order of equality between classes.

References:

“Another 1930s Odeon.” Art Deco Architecture, Sept. 2012, decoarchitecture.tumblr.com/post/31848938933/another-1930s-odeon-modernism-in-metroland.

Bowen, Kristy. “Modernism in Architecture: Definition & History | Study.com.” Study.com, 2019, study.com/academy/lesson/modernism-in-architecture-definition-history.html.

Kuiper, Kathleen. “Modernism.” Encyclopædia Britannica, 17 Jan. 2019, www.britannica.com/art/Modernism-art.

“Modernism in Architecture.” Dezeen, www.dezeen.com/tag/modernism/.

Olcayto, Rory. ““Housing for Dirty People’ Is Back and I Welcome It.”” Dezeen, 29 Mar. 2023.

Royal Institute of British Architects. “Modernism.” Architecture.com, Riba, 2019, www.architecture.com/explore-architecture/modernism.

Walsh, Niall Patrick. “12 Important Modernist Styles Explained.” ArchDaily, 18 Mar. 2020, www.archdaily.com/931129/12-important-modernist-styles-explained.

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Ancient Greek Architecture

The Parthenon – Ancient Greek temple

Characteristics: (worldhistory.org)

Simplicity

Proportion

Perspective

Harmony

According to worldhistory.org Greek architecture “includes some of the finest and most distinctive buildings ever built.” Their variety of temples, theatres and stadiums stand out among many architectural styles and ages. A lot of their structures still stand to this day and provide use – through their original purpose as well as tourist attractions and inspiration. The Greeks architectural style greatly influenced many civilisations architecture afterwards – e.g. the Romans.

The emphasis on proportion throughout Greece’s architecture shows that they largely communicated proportion through shapes and spaces – this was illustrated by Pythagoras the Greek mathematician. This meant that the Greek architectural style was massively based on the relationships between scale and dimension. The ancient Greeks, as said by archdaily.com, “wanted to reinforce the importance of having a balanced life and proper morals”, which they achieved by designing temples based off mathematical proportions – this clearly “reflected their culture and high held values”.

Thanks to the Aegean culture who resided by the Aegean Sea the Greeks adopted methods of using natural materials to trade with nearby countries. This eventually created a large trading system within the Mediterranean which would have come along with alliances and new outlooks. Every country would have started off with their own natural resources before the trading started, which then would developed due to the accessibility of different materials and methods from their neighbouring countries.

The Archaic period and columns

The Archaic period is well known by many art historians as the period of “artistic development”, as described by Britannica.com. During the Archaic period there was a big development in Greek art – it became more naturalistic. Vase decorations became representations of human figures to tell stories rather than geometric designs and sculptures were more proportional.

It was during this period that columns were introduced. Columns came in many different styles and sizes which made them useful for many different structures. The purposes and descriptions/ decor of the columns made it easy to separate them into three types:

(archdaily.com):

“Doric – no base and simple capital.

Inoic – a base with scroll like ‘volutes’ as capitals.

Corinthian – a base with highly elaborate and stylized capital.”

‘The column Orders of Ancient Greece.’

References:

“Archaic Period | Art History.” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/art/Archaic-period.

Cartwright, Mark. “Greek Architecture.” World History Encyclopedia, 6 Jan. 2013, www.worldhistory.org/Greek_Architecture/.

Hemingway, Colette. “Architecture in Ancient Greece.” Metmuseum.org, Oct. 2003, www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/grarc/hd_grarc.htm.

“History of Architecture: Ancient Greece.” ArchDaily, 3 July 2020, www.archdaily.com/942728/history-of-architecture-ancient-greece.

Khan Academy. “Introduction to Greek Architecture.” Khan Academy, 2017, www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/greek-art/beginners-guide-greece/a/introduction-to-greek-architecture.

“The Column Orders .” Archdaily, www.archdaily.com/942728/history-of-architecture-ancient-greece/5efe2167b357658c1f00029a-history-of-architecture-ancient-greece-photo.

“The Parthenon.” Breakforthejourneys, 1 Dec. 2015, breakforthjourneys.com/what-did-athens-parthenon-look-like-to-apostle-paul/.

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Gothic Architecture

York Minister, the largest medieval Gothic cathedral in Northern Europe

Gothic – Dictionary definition

The extinct language of the Goths.

The Gothic style of architecture.

Gothic type.

Gothic architecture was/ is a style which echoes the effect of the medieval Goths. The Gothic style developed in France in the 12th century and dispersed through Europe till the 16th century. According to Britannica.com Gothic architecture was wildly popular for its “picturesque and romantic qualities”, which does seem slightly controversial as when you hear the word ‘Gothic’ used to describe a style it can lead your mind to think its dark and scary rather than romantic. However, in many cases the Gothic architecture style does appear to have more of a romantic aesthetic.

As said by Britannica.com, several events led to the “change of direction from Neoclassicism to Gothic” – one of the main ones being the ‘Romantic revolution’. The literary taste at that time was medieval Gothic tales of romance. Authors would set their stories in medieval times to “create a sense of nostalgia” (Britannica.com) and an interest towards that time period. Britannica.com also highlighted that there were even paintings which contained “medieval castles depicted in the landscapes”, which further manifested the spirit of medieval styles. At this point, people were curious and had gained a taste of the style and romance of the medieval times – it almost became desired.

Gothic style characteristics: (as said on archeetect.com)

Pointed arches.

Ribbed vaults.

Rose and stained-glass windows.

Desire to ascend the sky.

Commonly used for religious buildings.

Despite the origins and common interpretations of the word ‘Gothic’, its actual architectural style and designs were created to allow more light into spaces – most commonly, churches. This was done through the use of large windows, especially stained-glass windows. The sunlight that was allowed into the churches would flood the rooms with pure light and hope – almost as if the light was coming down from the heavens. This interpretation fits well with the fact that the style and purpose was mainly used for churches and religious buildings.

If this topic interests you and you would like more information, look at the following video:

What is Gothic Architecture? https://youtu.be/vrdkL7Y8Who

References:

Archeetect. “Gothic Architecture Characteristics & 10+ Examples.” Archeetect, 9 Apr. 2023, archeetect.com/gothic-architecture/#:~:text=Characteristics%20of%20Gothic%20architecture%20at%20a%20glance%3A%201.

“Definition of GOTHIC.” Merriam-Webster.com, 2019, www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Gothic.

EASYarchitecture. “What Is Gothic Architecture?” YouTube, 27 Jan. 2016, www.youtube.com/watch?v=vrdkL7Y8Who.

Exploring Castles. “The Seven Key Characteristics of Gothic Architecture: From the Gargoyle to the Flying Buttress.” Exploring Castles, 2018, www.exploring-castles.com/castle_designs/characteristics_gothic_architecture/.

Overstreet, Kaley. “The Origins and Evolution of Gothic Architecture.” ArchDaily, 14 June 2022, www.archdaily.com/983605/the-origins-and-evolution-of-gothic-architecture.

The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Gothic Architecture.” Encyclopædia Britannica, 9 Nov. 2017, www.britannica.com/art/Gothic-architecture.

“York Minster, the Largest Medieval Gothic Cathedral in Northern Europe.” Uncover.travel, uncover.travel/york-minster-the-largest-medieval-gothic-cathedral-in-northern-europe/.

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Xchicalco ruins, Mexico

Aztec Architecture

Aztecs – also known as Culhua-Mexica, Mexica, Tenochca.

The Aztecs also known as Culhua-Mexica according to britannica.com , originated from nothern Mexico around the 13th century – “just after the fall of the previously dominant Mesoamerican civilisation, the Toltecs.

As said by history.com, some believe that the Aztecs started off as a “northern tribe of hunter-gatherers” who then evolved into the leaders and tribes we know them as today. The Aztecs are best known and remebered for being “the largest of the great Mesoamerican cultures before the Europeans arrived” as described by worldhistory.org. As one of the largest Mesoamerican civilisations they had a lot of power and millions of people/ followers. Aztecs were further renowned for their art and architecture.

The diversity of Aztec architecture is clearly shown through the different styles of the public buildings and regular homes. The two show very different ideas and seperation between public and personal structures. The temples and palaces of the Aztec empire were built with materials such as; basalt, tenzontle, andesite, etc. Whereas some homes were built from stone and others wood and clay. The Aztec period was a class society which meant that the seperation of the poor and rich wasn’t only narrowed down to temples/palaces and then regular homes but a difference within nobles’ homes and the ‘common’ homes too. The wealthier homes were “stone structures which were spacious and well decorated”, as described by aztecsandtenochtitlan.com whereas the common homes were “relatively smaller and simpler”. The difference between dust floors and stone floors is symbolic to how different the nobles and commons lived, the seperation within a society greatly known for its wealth and architectural style.

According to aztecsandtenochtitlan.com “the most important Aztec buildings were their temples and places of worship.” There were many different sized temples (smaller to larger) which defined their importance. The larger of the temples were built on top of the Aztec pyramids (which were copied from previous civilisations and architectural styles with their own Aztec touches). The Aztecs were extremely religious , hence the large temples for worship, so they called their temples “Teocalli” which meant “God houses”.

For some more information have a look at this video:

Aztec architecture introduction - https://youtu.be/RZsljGlDPTY

References:

“Amuzgo | People | Britannica.” Www.britannica.com, www.britannica.com/topic/Amuzgo. Accessed 4 May 2023.

“Aztec Architecture: Introduction.” Www.youtube.com, 2022, www.youtube.com/watch?v=RZsljGlDPTY. Accessed 2 May 2023.

“Aztec Buildings.” Aztecsandtenochtitlan.com, 2019, aztecsandtenochtitlan.com/aztec-architecture/aztec-buildings/.

Cartwright, Mark. “Aztec Civilization.” World History Encyclopedia, 26 Feb. 2014, www.worldhistory.org/Aztec_Civilization/.

History.com Editors. “Aztecs.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 27 Oct. 2009, www.history.com/topics/ancient-americas/aztecs.

Rogador, Christine. “10 Most Famous Aztec Temples in Mexico - Journey to Mexico.” Journey to Mexico, 7 Dec. 2022, journeytomexico.com/famous-aztec-temples-mexico/.

“Xochicalco Ruins in Mexico.” Www.Pinterest.jp, www.pinterest.jp/pin/376472850100787939/.

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Traditional Houses, Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa.

Indigenous African Architecture

Indigenous, Dictionary definition.

Originating or occurring naturally in a particular place; native.

Indigenous African architecture consists of multiple different structure types throughout Africa, including temples, pyramids, huts and clay structures. According to science.jrank.org the “tectonics of each structure depended on its geographical location”. For example, the pyramids were evolved within Egypt and desert regions whereas grass huts were used in areas with more plant growth.

As said in the Journal of Architectural Historians, “with the exception of Egypt... The subject of African architecture was not considered worthy of recognition.” I’m not sure the reason for the lack of recognition towards African architecture but if you focus on the resources used for all their known structures (and the diversity) it is more than impressive. From grass and reed huts to limestone, mud bricks and pink granite pyramids.

The evolution of African indigenous huts

Originally the structure of the indigenous huts was circular, also known as a cone on cylinder hut. This statement, ‘a cone on a cylinder hut’ explains the structure of the huts as a cylinder base with a cone shaped roof. The cylindrical shape worked both structurally and with the materials used (grass and sometimes mud). Even though the base shape was able to stand alone due to its structural stability, it was never particularly efficient for space usage due to the curve. The only way to expand these huts (for family growth, etc.) was to build more huts as there was no other way which would have been feasible.

Eventually, the huts architecture evolved into square shapes, similar to the standard house shapes we see today, rather than cylindrical. The now cube shaped huts provided more sufficient space within for furniture and residence, it was also easier to expand as you could quite easily extend and move walls or add a slightly smaller structure to the side. However, the cube shape alongside the available resources caused great limitations of the roof shape and construction.

After researching the indigenous African architecture, I realised that we really haven’t given this style or period as much recognition as it deserves. They used the materials they had to hand and constructed their homes and shelters to the best they could, sometimes they would even last years.

References:

“Architecture - Africa - the Roots of Indigenous African Architecture.” Science.jrank.org, science.jrank.org/pages/8352/Architecture-Africa-Roots-Indigenous-African-Architecture.html#:~:text=Thus%2C%20indigenous%20African%20architecture%20includes%20pyramids%2C%20temples%2C%20clay. Accessed 3 May 2023.

Maureen Nwando Onyejegbu, et al. “Traditional Architectural Mud Huts in Africa: Forms, Aesthetics, History and Preservation in South-Eastern Nigeria.” Cogent Arts & Humanities, vol. 10, no. 1, 19 Mar. 2023, https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2023.2188781. Accessed 27 Apr. 2023.

O’Gorman, James F. Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. University of California Press, 1974.

Sawe, Benjamin Elisha. “What Materials Were Used to Build the Pyramids of Giza?” WorldAtlas, 25 Oct. 2018, www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-materials-were-used-to-build-the-pyramids-of-giza.html#:~:text=What%20Materials%20Were%20Used%20To%20Build%20The%20Pyramids.

Taremwa, Alex. “The Wisdom of the African Hut.” This Is Africa, 21 Nov. 2016, thisisafrica.me/lifestyle/wisdom-african-hut/.

“Traditional Houses, Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa.” Pinterest, www.pinterest.fr/pin/80783387041462341/.

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Gloucester Cathedral, construction begun in 1089.

Romanesque Architecture

Romanesque architecture is an interesting topic to research as it is not often talked about due to being “overshadowed by Gothic and Renaissance architecture”, as said by Nanyoung Kim.

The Romanesque architecture style came around in the 11th century after the fall of Rome and the end of the Dark ages. The ‘Dark age’ refers to a period where there was very little cultural or scientific advancements. The Dark age was a period where there was no roman emperor ruling, Rome had in fact fallen. The lack of authority during this time made it very hard to keep order and prevent some of the many ‘barbaric’ behaviours at the time. As said by Britannica.com there was a “virtual disappearance of urban life”, which gives a good indication on how much society suffered.

There is lots of speculation on when exactly the Dark ages ended, however historians believe it was around the year 1066 (time of the crusades). The Battle of Hastings in 1066 was led by William the Conqueror after his claim to the English throne. Once William the Conqueror had established his rule over England society began to rebuild itself and the Dark age had come to an end.

EnglishHeritage.org states that “for more than a century after the Battle of Hastings, all substantial stone buildings in England were built in the Romanesque style.” The Romanesque style was very similar to the late Roman architecture, before the fall of Rome. This style continued to spread throughout Europe with its clear characteristics.

The very specific characteristics of Romanesque architecture included arches and thick stone walls. The arches used within Romanesque architecture were particularly geometrical as the semi-circles were constructed very precisely in order to spread and support the weight of the larger structures. The semi-circles were well calculated due to new advancements within construction techniques. The thick stone walls were a new option as at the time they were trying to turn away from timber construction and towards a more fire-resistant material. The thick stone walls and precise arches which supported the structures of the Romanesque style all support the change and uplift of society and culture during this period. Personally, I would take these structural techniques as a sign of power and strength shown by civilisation to move past their previous age of darkness.

References:

English Heritage. “Medieval Architecture.” English Heritage, 2019, www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/medieval/architecture/.

Hans Erich Kubach. Romanesque Architecture. Rizzoli International Publications, 1988.

Hughes, Tristan. “Why Was 900 Years of European History Called “the Dark Ages”?” History Hit, 26 Oct. 2022, www.historyhit.com/why-were-the-early-middle-ages-called-the-dark-ages/#:~:text=The%20%E2%80%98Dark%20Ages%E2%80%99%20were%20between%20the%205th%20and.

Kim. “Aesthetics of Romanesque Architecture.” The Journal of Aesthetic Education, vol. 55, no. 1, 2021, p. 90, https://doi.org/10.5406/jaesteduc.55.1.0090.

“Migration Period | European History | Britannica.” Www.britannica.com, www.britannica.com/event/Dark-Ages. Accessed 4 May 2023.

Spanswick, Valerie. “A Beginner’s Guide to Romanesque Architecture (Article) | Khan Academy.” Khan Academy, 2019, www.khanacademy.org/humanities/medieval-world/romanesque-art/beginners-guide-romanesque/a/a-beginners-guide-to-romanesque-architecture.

The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Romanesque Architecture.” Encyclopædia Britannica, 19 Dec. 2017, www.britannica.com/art/Romanesque-architecture.

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Mannerism

The dictionary definition of manner:

1 – a characteristic or customary mode of acting

2 – a mode of procedure or way of acting

3 – a method of artistic execution or mode of presentation

The mannerism doesn’t refer to a style or a time period necessarily but to a particular mood of an age and its events during the age. Mannerism is the word used to describe the transition between the High Renaissance to the Baroque developments.

According to Britannica.com the term, mannerism “was first used by Italian archaeologist Luigi Lanzi to define 16th century artists who were the followers of major Renaissance masters (Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, etc.) .

Following the focus on proportion in humanism and individualism, during the Renaissance, the age of Mannerism came along with a different approach to art. The new view on art and design during Mannerism turned away from the style of the Renaissance and towards more expressive and imaginative interpretations of the human body. According to theartstory.org “new science discoveries had led science away from humanist ideals, and art no longer posited man as the centre of the universe, but rather as isolated, peripheral participants in the great mysteries of life”. This explains why there was such a drastic change from the Renaissance’s art focusing on the importance of individualism to focusing less on the realistic views on man and rather abstracting man instead.

In his book, Leonardo Benevolo states that he believed “every attempt to localize the borderline between two cultures at a precise moment, …seems doomed to failure”. Here he emphasised the fact that throughout history, to try and “localize the borderline” between cultures will always fail. This is an interesting concept as lots of changes between the ages and their cultures have been quite dramatic. Many changes of age have begun with a crisis, e.g., the plague, so the changes in society and culture have sometimes seemed less dramatic at the time as they have helped society come back from their crisis.

References:

Benevolo, Leonardo. The Architecture of the Renaissance. New York, Routledge, 1978.

“Mannerism | Definition, Characteristics, Art, & Facts | Britannica.” Www.britannica.com, href.li/?www.britannica.com/art/Mannerism. Accessed 4 May 2023.

“Mannerism Movement Overview.” The Art Story, href.li/?www.theartstory.org/movement/mannerism/. Accessed 4 May 2023.

Rachlin, N., et al. “Mannerism, Baroque, and Modernism: Deleuze and the Essence of Art.” SubStance, vol. 43, no. 1, 1 Jan. 2014, pp. 166–190, https://doi.org/10.1353/sub.2014.0006. Accessed 9 Mar. 2021.

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The Renaissance

The renaissance was a cultural revolution which started in Italy in the early 15th century, which acted as a bridge between the middle ages and the modern era.

As said on www.britannica.co.uk, it was a “march of modernity and progress”, which came with a new awareness and an awakened interest in the material and natural world.

The renaissance had a massive effect on many things, e.g. humanist philosophy, astronomy, world exploration, painting and sculpture techniques, and architecture, etc. The effect on architecture shows a visible change in designs. The use of symmetry and more proportionate designs projected a sense of order and stability which indicated the new era.

Before the Renaissance Europe was dominated by buildings of Gothic Architecture. During the renaissance the awareness of humanism increased which led to a change in society as well as architectural designs. This change developed the importance of individualism. This new need of individualism and humanism led to a further attention to detail, especially within art and design.

During the renaissance there was a young architect by the name Filippo Brunelleschi. According to ItalianRenaissanceArt.com, Filippo led a group of young Italian renaissance artists who were all “intent on creating new art and to break with the ideas of the past”. In 1419 Filippo was tasked with designing the largest dome in the world.  This led to the design of ‘The Dome of Florence Cathedral’. The dome retained parts of the old gothic architecture style by including gothic pointed arches. The design was further inspired by the great domes of ancient Rome, e.g. the Pantheon.

The renaissance allowed major progress of modernism within art, architecture and design. However, it also played a massive part in the awareness of important issues in society, e.g. humanism and individualism. As said on www.worldhistory.org the renaissance humanism led to an “intellectual movement which focused not on religion but on what it is to be human”. This caused quite a jump from myths and legends to the leaders of the present and was a huge part in how society has evolved since.

References:

Cartwright, Mark. “Renaissance Humanism.” World History Encyclopedia, 4 Nov. 2020, www.worldhistory.org/Renaissance_Humanism/.

“Filippo Brunelleschi - Dome, Artwork & Facts.” Biography, 6 Apr. 2021, www.biography.com/artists/filippo-brunelleschi.

M. A., Medieval Studies, and Medieval Studies B. A. “A Beginner’s Guide to the Renaissance.” ThoughtCo, www.thoughtco.com/guide-to-the-renaissance-1221931#:~:text=The%20Renaissance%20was%20a%20cultural%20and%20scholarly%20movement.

The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Renaissance Architecture.” Encyclopædia Britannica, 8 July 2014, www.britannica.com/art/Renaissance-architecture.