#striosomes

[sunaleisocial]

Brain pathways that control dopamine release may influence motor control

New Post has been published on https://sunalei.org/news/brain-pathways-that-control-dopamine-release-may-influence-motor-control/

Brain pathways that control dopamine release may influence motor control

Within the human brain, movement is coordinated by a brain region called the striatum, which sends instructions to motor neurons in the brain. Those instructions are conveyed by two pathways, one that initiates movement (“go”) and one that suppresses it (“no-go”).

In a new study, MIT researchers have discovered an additional two pathways that arise in the striatum and appear to modulate the effects of the go and no-go pathways. These newly discovered pathways connect to dopamine-producing neurons in the brain — one stimulates dopamine release and the other inhibits it.

By controlling the amount of dopamine in the brain via clusters of neurons known as striosomes, these pathways appear to modify the instructions given by the go and no-go pathways. They may be especially involved in influencing decisions that have a strong emotional component, the researchers say.

“Among all the regions of the striatum, the striosomes alone turned out to be able to project to the dopamine-containing neurons, which we think has something to do with motivation, mood, and controlling movement,” says Ann Graybiel, an MIT Institute Professor, a member of MIT’s McGovern Institute for Brain Research, and the senior author of the new study.

Iakovos Lazaridis, a research scientist at the McGovern Institute, is the lead author of the paper, which appears today in the journal Current Biology.

New pathways

Graybiel has spent much of her career studying the striatum, a structure located deep within the brain that is involved in learning and decision-making, as well as control of movement.

Within the striatum, neurons are arranged in a labyrinth-like structure that includes striosomes, which Graybiel discovered in the 1970s. The classical go and no-go pathways arise from neurons that surround the striosomes, which are known collectively as the matrix. The matrix cells that give rise to these pathways receive input from sensory processing regions such as the visual cortex and auditory cortex. Then, they send go or no-go commands to neurons in the motor cortex.

However, the function of the striosomes, which are not part of those pathways, remained unknown. For many years, researchers in Graybiel’s lab have been trying to solve that mystery.

Their previous work revealed that striosomes receive much of their input from parts of the brain that process emotion. Within striosomes, there are two major types of neurons, classified as D1 and D2. In a 2015 study, Graybiel found that one of these cell types, D1, sends input to the substantia nigra, which is the brain’s major dopamine-producing center.

It took much longer to trace the output of the other set, D2 neurons. In the new Current Biology study, the researchers discovered that those neurons also eventually project to the substantia nigra, but first they connect to a set of neurons in the globus palladus, which inhibits dopamine output. This pathway, an indirect connection to the substantia nigra, reduces the brain’s dopamine output and inhibits movement.

The researchers also confirmed their earlier finding that the pathway arising from D1 striosomes connects directly to the substantia nigra, stimulating dopamine release and initiating movement.

“In the striosomes, we’ve found what is probably a mimic of the classical go/no-go pathways,” Graybiel says. “They’re like classic motor go/no-go pathways, but they don’t go to the motor output neurons of the basal ganglia. Instead, they go to the dopamine cells, which are so important to movement and motivation.”

Emotional decisions

The findings suggest that the classical model of how the striatum controls movement needs to be modified to include the role of these newly identified pathways. The researchers now hope to test their hypothesis that input related to motivation and emotion, which enters the striosomes from the cortex and the limbic system, influences dopamine levels in a way that can encourage or discourage action.

That dopamine release may be especially relevant for actions that induce anxiety or stress. In their 2015 study, Graybiel’s lab found that striosomes play a key role in making decisions that provoke high levels of anxiety; in particular, those that are high risk but may also have a big payoff.

“Ann Graybiel and colleagues have earlier found that the striosome is concerned with inhibiting dopamine neurons. Now they show unexpectedly that another type of striosomal neuron exerts the opposite effect and can signal reward. The striosomes can thus both up- or down-regulate dopamine activity, a very important discovery. Clearly, the regulation of dopamine activity is critical in our everyday life with regard to both movements and mood, to which the striosomes contribute,” says Sten Grillner, a professor of neuroscience at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden, who was not involved in the research.

Another possibility the researchers plan to explore is whether striosomes and matrix cells are arranged in modules that affect motor control of specific parts of the body.

“The next step is trying to isolate some of these modules, and by simultaneously working with cells that belong to the same module, whether they are in the matrix or striosomes, try to pinpoint how the striosomes modulate the underlying function of each of these modules,” Lazaridis says.

They also hope to explore how the striosomal circuits, which project to the same region of the brain that is ravaged by Parkinson’s disease, may influence that disorder.

The research was funded by the National Institutes of Health, the Saks-Kavanaugh Foundation, the William N. and Bernice E. Bumpus Foundation, Jim and Joan Schattinger, the Hock E. Tan and K. Lisa Yang Center for Autism Research, Robert Buxton, the Simons Foundation, the CHDI Foundation, and an Ellen Schapiro and Gerald Axelbaum Investigator BBRF Young Investigator Grant.

[medicomunicare]

Striatum and cerebellum as related and damaged partners in Huntington's disease: a matter of vulnerability

In patients with Huntington’s disease, neurons in a part of the brain called the striatum are among the hardest-hit. Degeneration of these neurons contributes to patients’ loss of motor control, which is one of the major hallmarks of the disease. As many as 10 years ahead of the motor diagnosis, Huntington’s patients can experience mood disorders, and one possibility is that the striosomes might…

[compneuropapers]

Interesting Papers for Week 38, 2022

Multiplexed action-outcome representation by striatal striosome-matrix compartments detected with a mouse cost-benefit foraging task. Bloem, B., Huda, R., Amemori, K., Abate, A. S., Krishna, G., Wilson, A. L., … Graybiel, A. M. (2022). Nature Communications, 13, 1541.

Human discrimination and modeling of high-frequency complex tones shed light on the neural codes for pitch. Guest, D. R., & Oxenham, A. J. (2022). PLOS Computational Biology, 18(3), e1009889.

Neurochemical and functional interactions for improved perceptual decisions through training. Jia, K., Frangou, P., Karlaftis, V. M., Ziminski, J. J., Giorgio, J., Rideaux, R., … Kourtzi, Z. (2022). Journal of Neurophysiology, 127(4), 900–912.

A computational model of neurodegeneration in Alzheimer’s disease. Jones, D., Lowe, V., Graff-Radford, J., Botha, H., Barnard, L., Wiepert, D., … Jack, C. (2022). Nature Communications, 13, 1643.

Decoding internally generated transitions of conscious contents in the prefrontal cortex without subjective reports. Kapoor, V., Dwarakanath, A., Safavi, S., Werner, J., Besserve, M., Panagiotaropoulos, T. I., & Logothetis, N. K. (2022). Nature Communications, 13, 1535.

Cortical oscillations support sampling-based computations in spiking neural networks. Korcsak-Gorzo, A., Müller, M. G., Baumbach, A., Leng, L., Breitwieser, O. J., van Albada, S. J., … Petrovici, M. A. (2022). PLOS Computational Biology, 18(3), e1009753.

Task-induced neural covariability as a signature of approximate Bayesian learning and inference. Lange, R. D., & Haefner, R. M. (2022). PLOS Computational Biology, 18(3), e1009557.

Simple model for encoding natural images by retinal ganglion cells with nonlinear spatial integration. Liu, J. K., Karamanlis, D., & Gollisch, T. (2022). PLOS Computational Biology, 18(3), e1009925.

Decoding cognition from spontaneous neural activity. Liu, Y., Nour, M. M., Schuck, N. W., Behrens, T. E. J., & Dolan, R. J. (2022). Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 23(4), 204–214.

Acquiring new memories in neocortex of hippocampal-lesioned mice. Luo, W., Yun, D., Hu, Y., Tian, M., Yang, J., Xu, Y., … Guan, J.-S. (2022). Nature Communications, 13, 1601.

Behavioral Timescale Cooperativity and Competitive Synaptic Interactions Regulate the Induction of Complex Spike Burst-Dependent Long-Term Potentiation. O’Dell, T. J. (2022). Journal of Neuroscience, 42(13), 2647–2661.

Great apes and human children rationally monitor their decisions. O’Madagain, C., Helming, K. A., Schmidt, M. F. H., Shupe, E., Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2022). Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 289(1971).

Thalamic bursts modulate cortical synchrony locally to switch between states of global functional connectivity in a cognitive task. Portoles, O., Blesa, M., van Vugt, M., Cao, M., & Borst, J. P. (2022). PLOS Computational Biology, 18(3), e1009407.

It makes sense, so I see it better! Contextual information about the visual environment increases its perceived sharpness. Rossel, P., Peyrin, C., Roux-Sibilon, A., & Kauffmann, L. (2022). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 48(4), 331–350.

Diverse modes of binocular interactions in the mouse superior colliculus. Russell, A. L., Dixon, K. G., & Triplett, J. W. (2022). Journal of Neurophysiology, 127(4), 913–927.

A window of subliminal perception. Sandberg, K., Del Pin, S. H., Overgaard, M., & Bibby, B. M. (2022). Behavioural Brain Research, 426, 113842.

Complex cognitive algorithms preserved by selective social learning in experimental populations. Thompson, B., van Opheusden, B., Sumers, T., & Griffiths, T. L. (2022). Science, 376(6588), 95–98.

Interactions between sensory prediction error and task error during implicit motor learning. Tsay, J. S., Haith, A. M., Ivry, R. B., & Kim, H. E. (2022). PLOS Computational Biology, 18(3), e1010005.

Morphology and Dendrite-Specific Synaptic Properties of Midbrain Neurons Shape Multimodal Integration. Weigel, S., Kuenzel, T., Lischka, K., Huang, G., & Luksch, H. (2022). Journal of Neuroscience, 42(13), 2614–2630.

Encoding time in neural dynamic regimes with distinct computational tradeoffs. Zhou, S., Masmanidis, S. C., & Buonomano, D. V. (2022). PLOS Computational Biology, 18(3), e1009271.

[neurosciencenews]

Reward and Punishment Take Similar Paths in the Mouse Brain Researchers found specific neurons in the striosome that help mice learn to avoid negative experiences.

[mpaulagarzon]

Why Motivation to Learn Declines with Age

entry 2 - week 7

I read an article called ‘Why motivation to learn delines with age’ and I thought it was very interesting. Neuroscientists study mices and identified a brain circuit called striosomes. They are basically for habit formation, addiction, emotion and control of voluntary movement. As we age it gets harder to have what they called a ‘get up and go’ attitude towards things, which is a problem because if you are unmotivated is harder to learn or be engaged to things, this can be a problem if you have a job, a family, if you are studying, etc. The researchers showed that they could boost older mices motivation by reactivating this circuit, they used drugs and it worked, so now they are working on posible drug treatments for humans

I think this is cool because this brain circuit plays an important role in approach-avoidance conflict, which is a type of decision making. It’s about either take the good and bad of a situation or to simply avoid it, and the thing is, this decision making is also linked with dopamine-producing centers so according to studies we tend to avoid the ‘hard’ decision, and this can cause us to have troubles in our day to day life. I find neuroscience very interesting, I wish I could study it, so I wanted to talk about this arcticle because altought I don’t thing we should implement drugs in our daily basis, if someone chooses to do it because they feel there is no other solution to their problems, I would like them to have the option to take this pills and feel better.

[azuritefoxgirl]

via Fight Aging!

[mmgnews]

Psychology: Motivation to learn declines with age due to reduction of activity in key brain circuit

Psychology: Motivation to learn declines with age due to reduction of activity in key brain circuit

Motivation to learn new things and engage with life declines with age due to falling activity in a brain circuit that weighs costs and benefits, a study on mice suggested.

US experts have been studying ‘striosomes’ — clusters of cells in the basal ganglia, a brain area linked to habit formation, movement control, emotion and addiction.

They team found that striosomes are key to the decision…

[successdigestonline]

Psychology: Motivation to learn declines with age due to reduction of activity in key brain circuit

Psychology: Motivation to learn declines with age due to reduction of activity in key brain circuit

Motivation to learn new things and engage with life declines with age due to falling activity in a brain circuit that weighs costs and benefits, a study on mice suggested.

US experts have been studying ‘striosomes’ — clusters of cells in the basal ganglia, a brain area linked to habit formation, movement control, emotion and addiction.

They team found that striosomes are key to the decision…

[get-knows]

'Striosome' neurons in the basal ganglia play a key role in learning

‘Striosome’ neurons in the basal ganglia play a key role in learning

[ad_1] Researchers have successfully isolated and recorded the activity of a subset of neurons in the striatum in the brain, shedding light on one mechanism underlying learning and decision making in animals. [ad_2] Source link

[compneuropapers]

Interesting Papers for Week 20, 2021

Differential Relation between Neuronal and Behavioral Discrimination during Hippocampal Memory Encoding. Allegra, M., Posani, L., Gómez-Ocádiz, R., & Schmidt-Hieber, C. (2020). Neuron, 108(6), 1103-1112.e6.

The Missing Link Between Memory and Reinforcement Learning. Balkenius, C., Tjøstheim, T. A., Johansson, B., Wallin, A., & Gärdenfors, P. (2020). Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 3446.

Online control of reach accuracy in mice. Becker, M. I., Calame, D. J., Wrobel, J., & Person, A. L. (2020). Journal of Neurophysiology, 124(6), 1637–1655.

Tracking prototype and exemplar representations in the brain across learning. Bowman, C. R., Iwashita, T., & Zeithamova, D. (2020). eLife, 9, e59360.

Heading perception depends on time-varying evolution of optic flow. Burlingham, C. S., & Heeger, D. J. (2020). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 117(52), 33161–33169.

Learning sparse and meaningful representations through embodiment. Clay, V., König, P., Kühnberger, K.-U., & Pipa, G. (2021). Neural Networks, 134, 23–41.

Testing the drift-diffusion model. Fudenberg, D., Newey, W., Strack, P., & Strzalecki, T. (2020). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 117(52), 33141–33148.

Incidental encoding of visual information in temporal reference frames in working memory. Heuer, A., & Rolfs, M. (2021). Cognition, 207, 104526.

Synaptic plasticity rules with physiological calcium levels. Inglebert, Y., Aljadeff, J., Brunel, N., & Debanne, D. (2020). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 117(52), 33639–33648.

Amplitude modulation encoding in the auditory cortex: comparisons between the primary and middle lateral belt regions. Johnson, J. S., Niwa, M., O’Connor, K. N., & Sutter, M. L. (2020). Journal of Neurophysiology, 124(6), 1706–1726.

Opposing Influence of Top-down and Bottom-up Input on Excitatory Layer 2/3 Neurons in Mouse Primary Visual Cortex. Jordan, R., & Keller, G. B. (2020). Neuron, 108(6), 1194-1206.e5.

A Disinhibitory Circuit for Contextual Modulation in Primary Visual Cortex. Keller, A. J., Dipoppa, M., Roth, M. M., Caudill, M. S., Ingrosso, A., Miller, K. D., & Scanziani, M. (2020). Neuron, 108(6), 1181-1193.e8.

Transforming task representations to perform novel tasks. Lampinen, A. K., & McClelland, J. L. (2020). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 117(52), 32970–32981.

Spatial readout of visual looming in the central brain of Drosophila. Morimoto, M. M., Nern, A., Zhao, A., Rogers, E. M., Wong, A. M., Isaacson, M. D., … Reiser, M. B. (2020). eLife, 9, e57685.

Dopamine Oppositely Modulates State Transitions in Striosome and Matrix Direct Pathway Striatal Spiny Neurons. Prager, E. M., Dorman, D. B., Hobel, Z. B., Malgady, J. M., Blackwell, K. T., & Plotkin, J. L. (2020). Neuron, 108(6), 1091-1102.e5.

Model-based detection of putative synaptic connections from spike recordings with latency and type constraints. Ren, N., Ito, S., Hafizi, H., Beggs, J. M., & Stevenson, I. H. (2020). Journal of Neurophysiology, 124(6), 1588–1604.

Learning speed and detection sensitivity controlled by distinct cortico-fugal neurons in visual cortex. Ruediger, S., & Scanziani, M. (2020). eLife, 9, e59247.

Perceptual decision confidence is sensitive to forgone physical effort expenditure. Turner, W., Angdias, R., Feuerriegel, D., Chong, T. T.-J., Hester, R., & Bode, S. (2021). Cognition, 207, 104525.

Neural mechanisms underlying expectation-dependent inhibition of distracting information. van Moorselaar, D., Lampers, E., Cordesius, E., & Slagter, H. A. (2020). eLife, 9, e61048.

Early stages of sensorimotor map acquisition: neurochemical signature in primary motor cortex and its relation to functional connectivity. van Vugt, F. T., Near, J., Hennessy, T., Doyon, J., & Ostry, D. J. (2020). Journal of Neurophysiology, 124(6), 1615–1624.

[ruggerorespigo]

'Striosome' neurons in the basal ganglia play a key role in learning

Researchers have successfully isolated and recorded the activity of a subset of neurons in the striatum in the brain, shedding light on one mechanism underlying learning and decision making in animals. Latest Science News -- ScienceDaily https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/04/180417115800.htm

[triznikllc]

Stress, Decisions and Faith

According to the results of research published in the scientific journal Cell, MIT neuroscientists have analyzed the mechanism and documented the results of making decisions while experiencing chronic stress. In the midst of a cost-benefit conflict, laboratory animals under stress were far likelier to choose high-risk, high-payoff options, rather than low-risk options that offer a smaller payoff and less satisfaction. This effect may be a root cause of some forms of addictive behavior in humans.

The MIT researchers determined that impairment of brain circuits underlie the abnormal decision-making process. The circuit begins in the medial prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for mood control, and extends into clusters of neurons called striosomes, which are located in the striatum, a region of the brain associated with habit formation, motivation, and reward reinforcement.

The researchers believe that this circuit integrates information about the good and bad aspects of possible choices, helping the brain to produce a decision. Normally, when the circuit is turned on, neurons of the prefrontal cortex activate certain neurons called high-firing interneurons, which then suppress striosome activity.

When test animals are stressed, these circuit dynamics shift and the cortical neurons fire too late to inhibit the striosomes, which then become overexcited. This results in abnormal decision making.

The researchers demonstrated that they could restore normal behavior by manipulating the microcircuit of neurons in the striatum in the brains in test animals. The researchers used optogenetics techniques, which involve the use of light to stimulate the neurons in patterns that can control or modify behavior. If a method can be developed to safely tune this circuit in humans, the MIT researchers believe that optogenetic treatment could help patients with addiction, depression, anxiety, and other disorders which feature poor decision-making.

Some bible scholars believe that the author of the Book of Ecclesiastes, probably King Solomon, exhibited the symptoms of depression, and it’s evident that he demonstrated high-risk behavior when he lived outside of God’s will. It’s also worth noting that the bible prescribes an effective treatment for these disorders. Psalm 43:5 asks, “Why are you cast down, O my soul? And why are you disquieted within me? Hope in God; For I shall yet praise Him, The help of my countenance and my God.” Of course, we recognize that addiction, depression, anxiety and other disorders often require professional therapy and medical intervention, but faith in God and an attitude of gratitude, along with fresh air, sunshine and aerobic exercise can be very effective for promoting mental and physical health and well-being.

Please share your thoughts, enjoy our podcast on Anchor, and be blessed.

Thank you for supporting us by shopping at Amazon.com

[silasjburke-blog]

Fentanyl: A Province in Crisis

Intro

Living in British Columbia, it is impossible to avoid this word. Declared a public health crisis in Canada in 2015, in 2016 fentanyl is believed to be the cause of 2 deaths per day in B.C. alone. From living downtown, I have had a lot of experience with the homeless and the drug addicts of Vancouver. The word fentanyl is plastered on billboards and comes from the mouth of everyone in the area. I decided to learn a little more about it.

The Science

Fentanyl is a potent opioid medication which is noted to be 50 to 100 times more potent than morphine. Invented in 1960 by Paul Janssen, fentanyl was designed as a general anaesthetic and was approved by the FDA and sold as Sublimaze where it was in use during the 1960s. Fentanyl is noted as a safe general anaesthetic when used with proper supervision and monitoring. Fentanyl binds to μ-opioid receptors and acts as an agonist to produce a response; Fentanyl binds to the same receptors as morphine. More fentanyl products were designed as its use moved into palliative care. The production of fentanyl patches began and these became available on the market. Here is a table which summarises the function of each of the opioid receptors in the brain, and for the purpose of the article, I will be looking at the mu receptors.

 ReceptorSubtypesLocation[13][14]Function[13][14]delta (δ) DOR OP1(I)δ1,[15] δ2

brain

pontine nuclei

amygdala

olfactory bulbs

deep cortex

peripheral sensory neurons

analgesia

antidepressant effects

convulsant effects

physical dependence

may modulate μ-opioid receptor-mediated respiratory depression

kappa (κ) KOR OP2(I)κ1, κ2, κ3

brain

hypothalamus

periaqueductal gray

claustrum

spinal cord

substantia gelatinosa

peripheral sensory neurons

analgesia

anticonvulsant effects

depression

dissociative/hallucinogenic effects

diuresis

dysphoria

miosis

neuroprotection

sedation

stress

mu (μ) MOR OP3(I)μ1, μ2, μ3

brain

cortex (laminae III and IV)

thalamus

striosomes

periaqueductal gray

rostral ventromedial medulla

spinal cord

substantia gelatinosa

peripheral sensory neurons

intestinal tract

μ1:

analgesia

physical dependence

μ2:

respiratory depression

miosis

euphoria

reduced GI motility

physical dependence

μ3:

possible vasodilation

Nociceptin receptor NOR OP4ORL1

brain

cortex

amygdala

hippocampus

septal nuclei

habenula

hypothalamus

spinal cord

anxiety

depression

appetite

development of tolerance to μ-opioid agonists

zeta (ζ) ZOR

heart

liver

skeletal muscle

kidney

brain

pancreas

fetal tissue

liver

kidney

tissue growth

embryonic development

regulation of cancer cell proliferation

 Why is it a problem?

Fentanyl has become a problem in recent years with the recreational use increasing rapidly between 2000 and 2015. Fentanyl produces similar effects to heroin and became available on the black market. The first available noted was with the fentanyl solution from the palliative care patches being removed and sold on the black market to be injected. The issues arise due to the potency of fentanyl, with a potency 50 to 100 times stronger than morphine even those with major opiate tolerance have issues with dosages and this leads to an increase in overdoses. However, a new crisis has arisen in Canada. The crisis is linked to the accidental use of fentanyl, this comes from the art of lacing. Drug dealers lace their heroin with the drug fentanyl because as far as they were aware it was cheaper, readily available and produced similar symptoms to heroin. However, they did not take into account  potency and dosage. Drug users take the same dose of heroin that they would usually take and this sends the receptors into overdrive, this sets into motion the stages of overdose. The fentanyl molecules overload the mu opioid receptors and cause respiratory depression and cause the user to become unconscious.

Recognising an overdose

There are a few key signs of overdose which are useful to recognize and it is often not taught in basic first aid. Firstly it is important to look at fingertips and lips and assess breathing. If the fingertips and lips are purple and the breath sounds are severely depressed or completely absent, it is likely that they have overdosed and it important set into motion the correct action. Other signs include lack of response to stimuli and small pupils.  

What is naloxone?

Naloxone is a commonly recognized treatment for opioid overdose and is especially effective in the example of fentanyl use. Naloxone is an antagonist at the mu opioid receptor and removes the fentanyl molecules from the receptor and hence reduce the effect of the opioid. However, naloxone is short lived and lasts less time than the average opioid therefore multiple doses are required. Naloxone is injected into the muscle on the either the arm or the leg. Here is a general timeline of naloxone intervention protocol.

1. Call 911

2. Inject the patient with the first dose of naloxone

3. Perform basic first aid to assist with breathing and heart rate

3. Wait and observe the patient for 5 minutes and look for signs of the treatment working

4.If no response is observed, inject another dose of naloxone

5. Continue this response until the ambulance arrives

6. Inform the paramedics that naloxone has been administered and tell them how many doses.

(Naloxone can have adverse effects for patients with heart conditions*)

What is government involvement and what can I do?

B.C. has a Take Home Naloxone program. Across the city are clinics and overdose centers. We picked up naloxone kits from the overdose center on East Hastings in Vancouver. Living in our area we felt it was important to have the kit in order that we may be able to help someone in need and prevent another death from overdose. We received training on how to use the kit. Each contains 3 safe needles, 3 vials of naloxone, latex gloves and a latex breathing masks for performing mouth to mouth. Drugs and homelessness tend to go together where we live and in my attempt to better understand the welfare system I stumbled across this part of the city. This program is good and more people should be aware of it, not just people who already have drug problems. The naloxone kits should be present in more areas of the city as they can save lives and are simple to use. Anyone can save a life in this city, you can find your nearest center here.

https://www.healthlinkbc.ca/healthlinkbc-files/naloxone

I felt that it was important to talk about this side of big cities as it has been a major reality check for me. Apologies for the scientific nature of the article but I would be happy to talk more about it if people are interested. Many thanks and see you soon,

Silas