#silicate hydroxyls

[ianmiller42]

Water on Rocks in Space

You will be aware of the famous line, “Water water everywhere, and not a drop to drink.” In fact it appears that water IS, if not everywhere, it is fairly close to it. The latest discovery, according to Physics World, is that water has been found on two stony S-type asteroids, which have been considered to have been formed dry. “Hydrated minerals” have been detected on hundreds of asteroids, but…

[spacetimewithstuartgary]

Sources of Water and Hydroxyl are Widespread on the Moon

A new analysis of maps of the near and far sides of the Moon shows that there are multiple sources of water and hydroxyl in the sunlit rocks and soils, including water-rich rocks excavated by meteor impacts at all latitudes.

“Future astronauts may be able to find water even near the equator by exploiting these water-rich areas. Previously, it was thought that only the polar region, and in particular, the deeply shadowed craters at the poles were where water could be found in abundance,” said Roger Clark, Senior Scientist at the Planetary Science Institute and lead author of “The Global Distribution of Water and Hydroxyl on the Moon as Seen by the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3)” that appears in the Planetary Science Journal. “Knowing where water is located not only helps to understand lunar geologic history, but also where astronauts may find water in the future.”

Clark and his research team, which includes PSI scientists Neil C. Pearson, Thomas B. McCord, Deborah L. Domingue, Amanda R. Hendrix and Georgiana Kramer, studied data from the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) imaging spectrometer on the Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft, which orbited the Moon from 2008 to 2009, mapping water and hydroxyl on the near and far sides of the Moon in greater detail than ever before.

Locating water in the sunlit parts of the Moon uses infrared spectroscopy to search for the fingerprints of water and hydroxyl (a functional chemical group with one hydrogen and one oxygen atom) in the spectrum of reflected sunlight in the infrared. While a digital camera records three colors in the visible part of the spectrum, the M3 instrument recorded 85 colors from the visible spectrum and into the infrared. Just like we see different colors from different materials, the infrared spectrometer can see many (infrared) colors to better determine the composition, including the water (H2O) and hydroxyl (OH). The water may be directly harvested by heating rocks and soils.  Water might also be formed by chemical reactions liberating hydroxyl and combining four hydroxyls to create oxygen and water (4(OH) -> 2H2O + O2).

By studying the location and geologic context, Clark and his team were able to show that water in the lunar surface is metastable, meaning H2O is slowly destroyed over millions of years, but with hydroxyl, OH, remaining. A cratering event that exposes sub-surface water-rich rocks to the solar wind will degrade with time, destroying H2O and creating a diffuse aura of hydroxyl, OH, but the destruction is slow, taking thousands to millions of years. Elsewhere on the lunar surface, there appears a patina of hydroxyl, probably created from solar wind protons impacting the lunar surface, destroying silicate minerals where the protons combine with oxygen in the silicates to create hydroxyl, in a process called space weathering.

“Putting all the evidence together, we see a lunar surface with complex geology with significant water in the sub-surface and a surface layer of hydroxyl.  Both cratering and volcanic activity can bring water-rich materials to the surface, and both are observed in the lunar data,” Clark said.   The Moon is made up of primarily two kinds of rocks: the dark mare which are basaltic (lava like that seen in Hawaii), and andesitic rocks, which are lighter (the lunar highlands). The andesites contain a lot of water, the basalts very little.  The two rock types also contain hydroxyl bonded to different minerals, shown in the figure below.

This study sheds new light on previously known mysteries.  When the Sun is shining on the lunar surface at different times of day, the strength of water and hydroxyl absorptions change.  That led to the calculation that a lot of water and hydroxyl had to be moving around the Moon on a daily cycle. However, this new study showed that very stable mineral absorptions of water and hydroxyl show the same daily effect, but on minerals, like pyroxene, a common igneous silicate mineral in the lunar soils, they do not evaporate at lunar temperatures. The reason for this effect is instead due to a thin layer of enriched composition and/or soil particle size that is different from deeper into the soil. When the Sun is low in the lunar sky, light transmits through more of the top layer, strengthening the infrared absorptions, compared to when the Sun is high in the sky.  There may still be water moving around, but to quantify how much, new studies will need to quantify the layering effects too. Lunar rover tracks are darker in images from the Apollo era rovers, another indicator the surface layer is thin and different.

Related to the thin surface layer are the expressions of enigmatic features on the Moon called lunar swirls, diffuse patterns in visible light in several areas on the Moon. Magnetic fields are thought to play a role in swirl formation by diverting solar wind, which would also reduce hydroxyl production. A previous study led by PSI Senior Scientist Georgiana Kramer and co-authored by R. Clark showed lunar swirls are deficient in hydroxyl. The new study confirms that but also shows more complexity in that swirls are also low in water content but are sometimes higher in pyroxene content. This new study with global hydroxyl maps also shows never before seen areas that are similar to known swirls, but have no diffuse patterns seen in visible light, thus can only be seen in hydroxyl absorption. These new features may be old eroded swirls and include new types, including arcs and linear features. By mapping the Moon in new  ways like this, the lunar surface is showing it is more complex than we imagined.

TOP TWO IMAGES: Top: Black and white image of the Moon from Moon Mineralogy Mapper data. Bottom: Map of water on the Moon. The different colors represent different shapes to the water absorption and correlate with rock type. The dark Mare tend to have check-marked shape absorptions that are shallow. The blue are broader and deeper absorptions characteristics of feldspars with water absorption strength increasing toward the poles. The center portion of the image is the Earth facing part of the Moon. The left and right quarters are the far side of the Moon (-180 to +180 degrees longitude). The bottom of the image is the south polar region and the top is the north polar region. The vertical striping is due to different orbits of the Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft viewing the surface in different geometries. Credit: NASA/PSI/R. Clark.

LOWER IMAGE: Map of hydroxyl on the Moon. The color correlates with absorption band position with blue at shorter wavelengths and red at longer wavelengths (from 2.72 to 2.83 microns in the infrared). For comparison the visible spectrum ranges from 0.4 micron (blue) to about 0.7 micron (red). The shorter wavelength OH positions correlate with clay minerals and the longer ones with sulfate minerals, although these positions are not unique. Higher spectral resolution data than the M3 instrument delivered are needed to make definitive identification of the hydroxyl-bearing minerals. Credit: NASA/PSI/R. Clark.

[suns-water]

Asteroids, especially carbonaceous chondrites, provide crucial insights into the Earth's water history and the dynamics of planet formation. These meteorites are rich in hydrous minerals, such as clays and hydrated silicates, as well as complex organic molecules. Formed in the outer regions of the Solar System, where water ice and organic compounds remained stable, these asteroids migrated inward and encountered the early Earth, playing an important role in its evolution. The rocky bodies orbiting the Sun, mainly in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter, contain significant amounts of hydrated minerals, indicating the presence of water. Carbonaceous chondrites are particularly important because their isotopic composition is very close to that of water on Earth. Interstellar dust particles, tiny grains of material found in the space between stars, can contain water ice and organic compounds that can be incorporated into the forming Solar System. During the evolution of the Solar System, these particles contributed to the water inventory of planetesimals and planets.

Comets, which have long fascinated astronomers with their spectacular phenomena, also play a crucial role in supplying the Earth with water. Comets are composed of water ice, dust and various organic compounds and originate from the outer regions of the Solar System, such as the Kuiper Belt and Oort Cloud. These pristine materials, remnants of the early solar nebula, offer a glimpse into the conditions that prevailed during the formation of the Solar System over 4.6 billion years ago. Comets, with their highly elliptical orbits, occasionally come close to the Sun, sublimating volatile ice and releasing gas and dust into space. Isotopic compositions of water in comets, such as comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko studied by the Rosetta mission, are slightly different from Earth's oceans, suggesting that comets are not the only source of terrestrial water, but probably made a significant contribution to early Earth formation. Impacts from comets on during the Late Heavy Bombardment period about 3.9 billion years ago are thought to have deposited significant amounts of water and volatile compounds that supplemented Earth's early oceans and created a favorable environment for the emergence of life. The founder of Greening Deserts and the Solar System Internet project has developed a simple theory about Earth's main source of water, called the "Sun's Water Theory", which has explored that much of space water was generated by our star. According to this theory, most of the planet's water, or cosmic water, came directly from the Sun with the solar winds and was formed by hydrogen and other particles. Through a combination of analytical skills, a deep understanding of complex systems and simplicity, the founder has developed a comprehensive understanding of planetary processes and the Solar System. In the following text you will understand why so much space water was produced by the Sun and sunlight.

Helium and Oxygen From the Sun

While hydrogen is the main component of the solar wind, helium ions and traces of heavier elements are also present. The presence of oxygen ions in the solar wind is significant because it provides another potential source of the constituents necessary for water formation. When oxygen ions from the solar wind interact with hydrogen ions from the solar wind or from local sources, they can form water molecules.

The detection of oxygen from the solar wind together with hydrogen on the Moon supports the hypothesis that the Sun contributes to the water content of the lunar surface. The interactions between these implanted ions and the lunar minerals can lead to the formation of water and hydroxyl compounds, which are then detected by remote sensing instruments.

Magnetosphere and Atmospheric Interactions

The Earth's magnetosphere and atmosphere are a complex system and are significantly influenced by solar emissions. The magnetosphere deflects most of the solar wind particles, but during geomagnetic storms caused by solar flares and CMEs, the interaction between the solar wind and magnetosphere can become more intense. This interaction can lead to phenomena such as auroras and increase the influx of solar particles into the upper atmosphere. In the upper atmosphere, these particles can collide with atmospheric constituents such as oxygen and nitrogen, leading to the formation of water and other compounds. This process contributes to the overall water cycle and atmospheric chemistry of the planet. Interstellar dust particles also provide valuable insights into the origin and distribution of water in the Solar System. In the early stages of the formation of the Solar System, the protoplanetary disk picked up interstellar dust particles containing water ice, silicates and organic molecules. These particles served as building blocks for planetesimals and larger bodies, influencing their composition and the volatile inventory available to terrestrial planets like Earth.

NASA's Stardust mission, which collected samples from comet Wild 2 and interstellar dust particles, has demonstrated the presence of crystalline silicates and hydrous minerals. The analysis of these samples provides important data on the isotopic composition and chemical diversity of water sources in the Solar System.

Solar Wind and Solar Hydrogen

The theory of solar water states that a significant proportion of the water on Earth originates from the Sun and came in the form of hydrogen particles through the solar wind. The solar wind, a stream of charged particles consisting mainly of hydrogen ions (protons), constantly flows from the Sun and strikes planetary bodies. When these hydrogen ions hit a planetary surface, they can combine with oxygen and form water molecules. This process has been observed on the Moon, where the hydrogen ions implanted by the solar wind react with the oxygen in the lunar rocks to form water. Similar interactions have taken place on the early Earth and contributed to its water supply. Studying the interactions of the solar wind with planetary bodies using missions such as NASA's Parker Solar Probe and ESA's Solar Orbiter provides valuable data on the potential for water formation from the Sun.

Theoretical Models and Simulations

Advanced theoretical models and simulations can play a crucial role to understand the processes that contribute to the formation and distribution of water in the Solar System. Models of planet formation and migration, such as the Grand Tack hypothesis, suggest that the motion of giant planets influenced the distribution of water-rich bodies in the early Solar System. These models help explain how water may have traveled from the outer regions of the Solar System to the inner planets, including Earth. Simulations of the interactions between solar wind and planetary surfaces shed light on the mechanisms by which solar hydrogen could contribute to water formation. By recreating the conditions of the early system, these simulations help scientists estimate the contribution of solar-derived hydrogen to Earth's water supply.

The journey of water from distant cosmic reservoirs to planets has also profoundly influenced the history of our planet and its potential for life. Comets, asteroids and interstellar dust particles each offer unique insights into the dynamics of the early Solar System, providing water and volatile elements that have shaped Earth's geology and atmosphere. Ongoing research, advanced space missions, and theoretical advances are helping to improve our understanding of the cosmic origins of water and its broader implications for planetary science and astrobiology. Future studies and missions will further explore water-rich environments in our Solar System and the search for habitable exoplanets, and shed light on the importance of water in the search for the potential of life beyond Earth.

Theoretical models and simulations provide insights into the processes that have shaped Earth's water reservoirs and the distribution of volatiles. The Grand Tack Hypothesis states that the migration of giant planets such as Jupiter and Saturn has influenced the orbital dynamics of smaller bodies, including comets and asteroids. This migration may have directed water-rich objects from the outer Solar System to the inner regions, contributing to the volatile content of the terrestrial planets. Intense comet and asteroid impacts about billions of years ago, likely brought significant amounts of water and organic compounds to Earth, shaping its early atmosphere, oceans, and possibly the prebiotic chemistry necessary for the emergence of life.

To understand the origins of water on Earth, the primary sources that supplied our planet with water must be understood. The main hypotheses focus on comets, asteroids and interstellar dust particles. Each of these sources is already the subject of extensive research, providing valuable insights into the complex processes that brought water to planets. Comets originating in the outer regions of the Solar System, such as the Kuiper Belt and the Oort Cloud, are composed of water ice, dust and organic compounds. As comets approach the sun, they heat up and release water vapor and other gases, forming a visible coma and tail. Comets have long been seen as potential sources of Earth's water due to their high water content.

The Sun's Contribution to the Earth's Water

Further exploration and research are essential to confirm and refine the theory of solar water or sun's water. Future missions to analyze the interactions of the solar wind with planetary bodies and advanced laboratory experiments will provide deeper insights into this process. Integrating the data from these endeavors with theoretical models will improve our understanding of the formation and evolution of water in the Solar System. Recent research in heliophysics and planetary science has begun to shed light on the possible role of the Sun in supplying water to planetary bodies. For example, studies of lunar samples have shown the presence of hydrogen transported by the solar wind. Similar processes have occurred on the early Earth, particularly during periods of increased solar activity when the intensity and abundance of solar wind particles was greater. This hypothesis is consistent with observations of other celestial bodies, such as the Moon and certain asteroids, which show signs of hydrogen transported by the solar wind. Solar wind, which consist of charged particles, mainly hydrogen ions, constantly emanate from the Sun and move through the Solar System. When these particles encounter a planetary body, they can interact with its atmosphere and surface. On the early Earth, these interactions may have favored the formation of very much water molecules. Hydrogen ions from the solar wind have reacted with oxygen-containing minerals and compounds upon reaching the surface, leading to a gradual accumulation of water. Although slow, this process occurred over billions of years, contributing to the planet's water supply. Theoretical models simulate the early environment of the Solar System, including the flow of solar wind particles and their possible interactions with the planet. By incorporating data from space missions and laboratory experiments, these models can help scientists estimate the contribution of solar-derived hydrogen to Earth's water inventory. Isotopic analysis of hydrogen in ancient rocks and minerals on Earth provides additional clues. If a significant proportion of the planetary hydrogen has isotopic signatures consistent with solar hydrogen, this would support the idea that the Sun played a crucial role in providing water directly by solar winds.

The Sun's Water Theory assumes that a significant proportion of the water on Earth and other objects in space originates from the Sun and was transported in the form of hydrogen particles. This hypothesis states that the solar hydrogen combined with the oxygen present on the early Earth to form water. By studying the isotopic composition of planetary hydrogen and comparing it with solar hydrogen, scientists can investigate the validity of this theory. Understanding the mechanisms by which the Sun have contributed directly to Earth's water supply requires a deep dive into the processes within the Solar System and the interactions between solar particles and planetary bodies. This theory also has implications for our understanding of water distribution in the Solar System and beyond. If solar-derived hydrogen is a common mechanism for water formation, other planets and moons in the habitable zones of their respective stars could also have water formed by similar processes. This expands the possibilities for astrobiological research and suggests that water, and possibly life, may be more widespread in our galaxy than previously thought.

To investigate the theory further, scientists should use a combination of observational techniques, laboratory simulations and theoretical modeling. Space missions to study the Sun and its interactions with the Solar System, such as NASA's Parker Solar Probe and the European Space Agency's Solar Orbiter, provide valuable data on the properties of the solar wind and their effects on planetary environments. Laboratory experiments recreate the conditions under which the solar wind interacts with various minerals and compounds found on Earth and other rocky bodies. These experiments aim to understand the chemical reactions that could lead to the formation of water under the influence of the solar wind.

The Sun's Water Theory for Space and Planetary Research

Understanding the origin of water on Earth not only sheds light on the history of our planet, but also provides information for the search for habitable environments elsewhere in the galaxy. The presence of water is a key factor in determining the habitability of a planet or moon. If solar wind-driven water formation is a common process, this could greatly expand the number of celestial bodies that are potential candidates for the colonization of life. The study of the cosmic origins of water also overlaps with research into the formation of organic compounds and the conditions necessary for life. Water in combination with carbon-based molecules creates a favorable environment for the development of prebiotic chemistry. Studying the sources and mechanisms of water helps scientists understand the early conditions that could lead to the emergence of life. Exploring water-rich environments in our Solar System, such as the icy moons of Jupiter and Saturn, is a priority for future space missions. These missions, equipped with advanced instruments capable of detecting water and organic molecules, aim to unravel the mysteries of these distant worlds. Understanding how the water got to these moons and what state it is in today will provide crucial insights into their potential habitability.

The quest to understand the role of water in our galaxy also extends to the study of exoplanets. Observing exoplanets and their atmospheres with telescopes such as the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) allows scientists to detect signs of water vapor and other volatiles. By comparing the water content and isotopic composition of exoplanets with those of Solar System bodies, researchers can draw conclusions about the processes that determine the distribution of water in different planetary systems.

Most of the water on planet Earth was most likely emitted from the Sun as hydrogen and helium. For many, it may be unimaginable how so much hydrogen got from the Sun to the Earth. In the millions of years there have certainly been much larger solar flares and storms than humans have ever recorded. CMEs and solar winds can transport solid matter and many particles. The solar water theory can certainly be proven by ice samples! Laboratory experiments and computer simulations continue to play an important role in this research. By recreating the conditions of early Solar System environments, scientists can test various hypotheses about the formation and transport of water. These experiments help to refine our understanding of the chemical pathways that lead to the incorporation of water into planetary bodies.

In summary, the study of the origin of water on Earth and other celestial bodies is a multidisciplinary endeavor involving space missions, laboratory research, theoretical modeling, and exoplanet observations. The integration of these approaches provides a comprehensive understanding of the cosmic journey of water and its implications for planetary science and astrobiology. Continued exploration and technological advances will further unravel the mysteries of water in the universe and advance the search for life beyond our planet.

Solar Flares and Coronal Mass Ejections

Solar flares are intense bursts of radiation and energetic particles caused by magnetic activity on the Sun. Coronal mass ejections (CMEs) are violent bursts of solar wind and magnetic fields that rise above the Sun's corona or are released into space. Both solar flares and CMEs release significant amounts of energetic particles, including hydrogen ions, into the Solar System.The heat, high pressure and extreme radiation can create water molecules of space dust or certain particles.

When these high-energy particles reach our planet or other planetary bodies, they can trigger chemical reactions in the atmosphere and on the surface. The energy provided by these particles can break molecular bonds and trigger the formation of new compounds, including water. On Earth, for example, the interaction of high-energy solar particles with atmospheric gases can produce nitric acid and other compounds, which then precipitate as rain and enter the water cycle. On moons, comets and asteroids the impact of high-speed solar particles can form water isotopes and molecules. Some particles of the solar eruptions can be hydrogen anions, nitrogen and forms of space water. This can be proven by examples or solar particle detectors.

More Theoretical Models and Simulations

It should be clear to everyone that many space particles in space can be - and have been - guided to the poles of planets by magnetic fields. Much space water and hydrogen in or on planets and moons has thus reached the polar regions. Magnetic, polar and planetary research should be able to confirm these connections. Many of the trains of thought, ideas and logical connections to the origin of the water in our Solar System were explored and summarized by the researcher, physicist and theorist who wrote this article. Simulations of solar-induced water formation can also be used to investigate different scenarios, such as the effects of planetary magnetic fields, surface composition and atmospheric density on the efficiency of water production. These models provide valuable predictions for future observations and experiments and help to refine our understanding of space water formation.

The development of sophisticated theoretical models and simulations is essential for predicting and explaining the processes by which solar hydrogen contributes to water formation. Models of the interactions between solar wind and planetary surfaces, incorporating data from laboratory experiments and space missions, help scientists understand the dynamics of these interactions under different conditions.

The advanced theory shows that the Sun is a major source of space water in the Solar System through solar hydrogen emissions and provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the origin and distribution of water. This theory encompasses several processes, including solar wind implantation, solar flares, CMEs, photochemistry driven by UV radiation, and the contributions of comets and asteroids. By studying these processes through space missions, laboratory experiments and theoretical modeling, scientists can unravel the complex interactions that have shaped the water content of planets and moons. This understanding not only expands our knowledge of planetary science, but also aids the search for habitable environments and possible life beyond Earth. The Sun's role in water formation is evidence of the interconnectedness of stellar and planetary processes and illustrates the dynamic and evolving nature of our Solar System

The sun's influence on planetary water cycles goes beyond direct hydrogen implantation. Solar radiation drives weathering processes on planetary surfaces and releases oxygen from minerals, which can then react with solar hydrogen to form water. On Earth, the interaction of solar radiation with the atmosphere contributes to the water cycle by influencing evaporation, condensation and precipitation processes. The initiator of this theory has spent many years researching and studying the nature of things. In early summer, he made a major discovery and documented the formation and shaping process of an element and substance similar to hydrogen, which he calls solar granules. A scientific name for the substance was also found: "Solinume". The Sun's Water Theory was developed by the founder of Greening Deserts, an independent researcher and scientist from Germany. The innovative concepts and specific ideas are protected by international laws.

The introducing article text is a scientific publication and a very important paper for further studies on astrophysics and space exploration. We free researchers believe that many answers can be found in the polar regions. This is also a call to other sciences to explore the role of cosmic water and to rethink all knowledge about planetary water bodies and space water, especially Arctic research and ancient ice studies. This includes evidence and proof of particle flows with hydrogen or space water to the poles. Gravity and the Earth's magnetic field concentrate space particles in the polar zones. The theory can solve and prove other important open questions and mysteries of science - such as why there is more ice and water in the Antarctic than in the Arctic.

Very Important Article Updates

The pre-publication of some article drafts formed the basis for the final preparation of the study papers and subsequent publication in July. The translations were done with the help of DeepL and some good people. Everyone who really contributed will of course be mentioned in the future.

Updates and corrections can be done here and for further editions. You can find the most important sources and references at the end, they are not directly linked in this research study, this can be done in the second edition.

Sun's Water Theory – Chapter 2

Solar System Science and Space Water

Another approaches and summaries of the most important findings for the ongoing study you can read here and in attached papers for the theory.

Can solar winds be the main source for water formation in space, on comets, asteroids, moons and planets?

Carbonaceous chondrites are especially important because their isotopic composition closely matches that of Earth's water. Interstellar dust particles, tiny grains of material found in the space between stars, can contain water ice and organic compounds, which can be incorporated into the forming Solar System. As the Solar System evolved, these particles contributed to the water inventory of planetesimals.

Comets, long fascinating to astronomers for their spectacular appearances, also played a crucial role in delivering water to Earth. Composed of water ice, dust, and various organic compounds, comets originate from the outer regions of the Solar System, such as the Kuiper Belt and the Oort Cloud. These pristine materials, remnants from the early solar nebula, offer a window into the conditions prevailing during the Solar System's formation over 4.6 billion years ago. The impacts of comets on Earth during the Late Heavy Bombardment period, around 3.9 billion years ago, are believed to have deposited significant amounts of water and volatile compounds, supplementing the early oceans and creating a conducive environment for the emergence of life.

Interstellar and interplanetary dust particles offer valuable insights into the origins and distribution of water across the Solar System. During the early stages of the Solar System's formation, the protoplanetary disk captured interstellar dust particles containing water ice, silicates, and organic molecules. These particles served as building blocks for planetesimals and larger bodies, influencing their compositions and the volatile inventory available for terrestrial planets.

Earth's Water Budget and Origins

Understanding the current distribution and budget of water on Earth helps contextualize its origins. The water is distributed among oceans, glaciers, groundwater, lakes, rivers, and the atmosphere. The majority of the water, about 97%, is in the oceans, with only 3% as freshwater, mainly locked in glaciers and ice caps. The balance of water between these reservoirs is maintained through the hydrological cycle, which includes processes such as evaporation, precipitation, and runoff. This cycle is influenced by various factors, including solar radiation, atmospheric dynamics, and geological processes.

Water formation in the Solar System occurs through several processes:

Comet and Asteroid Impacts: Impact events from water-rich comets and asteroids deliver water to planetary surfaces. The kinetic energy from these impacts can also induce chemical reactions, forming additional water molecules.

Grain Surface Reactions: Water can form on the surfaces of interstellar dust grains through the interaction of hydrogen and oxygen atoms. These grains act as catalysts, facilitating the formation of water molecules in cold molecular clouds.

Solar Wind Interactions: Hydrogen ions from the solar wind can interact with oxygen in planetary bodies, forming water molecules. This process is significant for bodies like the Moon and potentially early Earth.

Volcanism and Outgassing: Volcanic activity on planetary bodies releases water vapor and other volatiles from the interior to the surface and atmosphere. This outgassing contributes to the overall water inventory. High pressure and heat can push chemical reactions.

Future Research and Exploration

To further investigate the origins and distribution of water in the Solar System, future missions and research endeavors are essential. Key areas of focus include:

Isotopic Analysis: Advanced techniques for isotopic analysis of hydrogen and oxygen in terrestrial and extraterrestrial samples. Isotopic signatures help differentiate between water sources and understand the contributions from different processes.

Laboratory Experiments: Simulating space conditions in laboratory settings to study water formation processes, such as solar wind interactions and grain surface reactions. These experiments provide controlled environments to test theoretical models and refine our understanding of water chemistry in space.

Lunar and Martian Exploration: Missions to the Moon and Mars to study their water reservoirs, including polar ice deposits and subsurface water. These studies provide insights into the processes that have preserved water on these bodies and their potential as resources for future exploration.

Sample Return Missions: Missions that return samples from comets, asteroids, and other celestial bodies to Earth for detailed analysis. These samples provide direct evidence of the isotopic composition and water content, helping to trace the history of water in the Solar System.

Theoretical Models and Simulations: Continued development of theoretical models and simulations to study the dynamics of the early Solar System, planet formation, and water delivery processes. These models integrate observational data and experimental results to provide comprehensive insights.

Heliophysics Missions:

Solar Observatories: Missions like the Parker Solar Probe and ESA's Solar Orbiter are studying the solar wind and its interactions with planetary bodies. These missions provide critical data on the composition of the solar wind and the mechanisms through which it can deliver water to planets.

Space Weather Studies: Understanding the impact of solar activity on Earth's magnetosphere and atmosphere helps elucidate how solar wind particles contribute to atmospheric chemistry and the water cycle. There are great websites and people who providing daily news on these topics.

Implications for Astrobiology

The study of water origins and distribution has profound implications for astrobiology, the search for life beyond Earth. Water is a key ingredient for life as we know it, and understanding its availability and distribution in the Solar System guides the search for habitable environments. Potentially habitable exoplanets are identified based on their water content and the presence of liquid water. The study of water on Earth and other celestial bodies informs the criteria for habitability and the likelihood of finding life elsewhere.

The Sun's Water Theory offers a compelling perspective on the origins of planetary water, suggesting that the Sun, through solar wind and hydrogen particles, played a significant role in delivering water to our planet. This theory complements existing hypotheses involving comets, asteroids, and interstellar dust, providing a more comprehensive understanding of water's cosmic journey. Ongoing research, space missions, and technological advancements continue to unravel the complex processes that brought water to Earth and other planetary bodies. Understanding these processes not only enriches our knowledge of planetary science but also enhances our quest to find habitable environments and life in space.

Hydrogen Transport and Water Formation

Hydrogen ions from solar winds and CMEs play a crucial role in the formation of water molecules in Earth’s atmosphere. This process can be summarized in several key steps:

Chemical Reactions: Once in the atmosphere, hydrogen ions engage in chemical reactions with oxygen and other atmospheric constituents. A significant reaction pathway involves the combination of hydrogen ions with molecular oxygen to form hydroxyl radicals:

H++O2→OH+OH++O2→OH+O

Further reactions can lead to the formation of water:

OH+H→H2OOH+H→H2O

Hydrogen Anions in Atmospheres: The hydrogen anion is a negative hydrogen ion, H−. It can be found in the atmosphere of stars like our sun.

Hydrogen Influx: Hydrogen ions carried by solar winds and CMEs enter Earth’s atmosphere primarily through the polar regions where the geomagnetic field lines are more open. This influx is heightened during periods of intense solar activity.

Water Molecule Formation: The newly formed water molecules can either remain in the upper atmosphere or precipitate downwards, contributing to the overall water cycle. In polar regions, this process is particularly significant due to the higher density of incoming hydrogen ions – negative + positive.

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Hydrogen is the primary component of the solar wind, helium ions, oxygen and traces of heavier elements are also present. The presence of oxygen ions in the solar wind is significant because it provides another potential source of the necessary ingredients for water formation. When oxygen ions from the solar wind interact with hydrogen ions, either from the solar wind or from local sources, they can form water molecules.

Hydration of Earth's Mantle

Much of the solar hydrogen and many solar storms contributed to the water building on planet Earth but also on other planets like we know now. One of the significant challenges in understanding the water history is quantifying the amount of water stored in the planet's mantle. Studies of mantle-derived rocks, such as basalt and peridotite, have revealed the presence of hydroxyl ions and water molecules within mineral structures. The process of subduction, where oceanic plates sink into the mantle, plays a critical role in cycling water between Earth's surface and its interior.

Water carried into the mantle by subducting slabs is released into the overlying mantle wedge, causing partial melting and the generation of magmas. These magmas can transport water back to the surface through volcanic eruptions, contributing to the surface and atmospheric water budget. The deep Earth water cycle is a dynamic system that has influenced the evolution of the geology and habitability over billions of years.

Impact on Earth's Polar Regions

During geomagnetic storms and periods of high solar activity, the polar regions experience increased auroral activity, visible as the Northern and Southern Lights (aurora borealis and aurora australis). These auroras are the result of charged particles colliding with atmospheric gases, primarily oxygen and nitrogen, which emit light when excited.

The Earth's polar regions are particularly sensitive to the influx of solar particles due to the configuration of the magnetic field. The geomagnetic poles are areas where the magnetic field lines converge and dip vertically into the Earth, providing a pathway for charged particles from the solar wind, CMEs, and SEPs to enter the atmosphere.

The increased particle flux in these regions can lead to enhanced chemical reactions in the upper atmosphere, including the formation of water and hydroxyl radicals. These processes contributed to the overall water budget of the polar atmosphere and influence local climatic and weather patterns.

Implications for Planetary Water Distribution

For planets and moons with magnetic fields and atmospheres, the interaction with solar particles could influence their water inventories and habitability. Studying these processes in our Solar System provides a foundation for exploring water distribution and potential habitability in exoplanetary systems.

Understanding the role of CMEs, solar winds, and solar eruptions in water formation has broader implications for planetary science and the study of exoplanets. If these processes are effective in delivering and generating water on Earth, they may also play a significant role in other planetary systems with similar stellar activity.

Interplanetary Dust and Its Contribution to Water

Interplanetary dust particles (IDPs), also known as cosmic dust, are small particles in space that result from collisions between asteroids, comets, and other celestial bodies. These particles can contain water ice and organic compounds, and they continually bombard Earth and other planets. The accumulation of IDPs over geological timescales could have contributed to Earth's water inventory.

As IDPs enter Earth's atmosphere, they undergo thermal ablation, a process in which the particles are heated to high temperatures, causing them to release their volatile contents, including water vapor. This water vapor can then contribute to the atmospheric and hydrological cycles on Earth. This process, albeit slow, represents another potential source of water.

Magnetospheric and Atmospheric Interactions

Geomagnetic storms, triggered by interactions between CMEs and Earth’s magnetosphere, result in enhanced auroral activity and increased particle precipitation in polar regions. These storms are critical in modulating the upper atmosphere's chemistry and dynamics.

Auroral Precipitation: During geomagnetic storms, energetic particles are funneled into the polar atmosphere along magnetic field lines. The resulting auroras are not just visually spectacular but also chemically significant, leading to increased production of reactive species such as hydroxyl radicals (OH) and hydrogen oxides (HOx).

Ionization and Chemical Reactions: The increased ionization caused by energetic particles alters the chemical composition of the upper atmosphere. Hydrogen ions, in particular, interact with molecular oxygen (O2) and ozone (O3) to produce water and hydroxyl radicals. This process is especially active in the polar mesosphere and lower thermosphere.

The Earth’s magnetosphere and atmosphere serve as a complex system that mediates the impact of solar emissions. The magnetosphere deflects most of the solar wind particles, but during geomagnetic storms caused by solar flares and Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs), the interaction between the solar wind and the magnetosphere can become more intense. This interaction can lead to phenomena such as auroras and can enhance the influx of solar particles into the upper atmosphere. In the atmosphere, these particles can collide with atmospheric constituents, including oxygen and nitrogen, leading to the formation of water and other compounds. This process contributes to the overall water cycle and atmospheric chemistry of the planet.

Moon and Solar Wind Interactions

On the Moon, the detection of solar wind-implanted oxygen, along with hydrogen, further supports the hypothesis that the Sun contributed and still contributes to the Moon’s surface water content. The interactions between these implanted ions and lunar minerals can lead to the production of water and hydroxyl compounds, which are then detected by remote sensing instruments. Similar interactions could have occurred on early Earth, contributing to its water inventory. The study of solar wind interactions with planetary bodies using space missions, orbiter, probes and satellites can provide more valuable data on the potential for solar-derived water formation.

Solar Wind and Solar Hydrogen

Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs) are massive bursts of solar wind and magnetic fields rising above the solar corona or being released into space. They are often associated with solar flares and can release billions of tons of plasma, including protons, electrons, and heavy ions, into space. When CMEs are directed towards Earth, they interact with the planet's magnetosphere, compressing it on the dayside and extending it on the nightside, creating geomagnetic storms.

These geomagnetic storms enhance the influx of solar particles into Earth's atmosphere, particularly near the polar regions where Earth's magnetic field lines converge and provide a direct path for these particles to enter the space atmosphere. The hydrogen ions carried by CMEs can interact with atmospheric oxygen, potentially contributing to the formation of water and hydroxyl radicals (OH).

Summary: Water is essential for life as we know it, and its presence is a key indicator in the search for habitable environments beyond Earth. If the processes described by the Sun's Water Theory and other mechanisms are common throughout the galaxy, then the likelihood of finding water-rich exoplanets and moons increases significantly.

The quest to understand the origins and distribution of water in the cosmos is a journey that spans multiple scientific disciplines and explores the fundamental questions of life and habitability. The Sun's Water Theory, along with other hypotheses, offers a promising framework for investigating how water might have formed and been distributed across the Solar System and beyond. Through these efforts, we move closer to answering the profound questions of our origins and the potential for life beyond Earth, expanding our knowledge and inspiring wonder about the vast and mysterious cosmos.

The Sun, as the primary source of energy and particles in our Solar System, has a profound impact on planetary environments through its emissions. Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs), solar winds, and solar eruptions are significant contributors to the delivery of hydrogen to Earth's atmosphere, particularly influencing the polar regions where the magnetic field lines converge.

Solar wind is a continuous flow of charged particles from the Sun, consisting mainly of electrons, protons, and alpha particles. The solar wind varies in intensity with the solar cycle, which lasts about 11 years. During periods of high solar activity, the solar wind is more intense, and its interactions with Earth's magnetosphere are more significant.

At the polar regions, the solar wind can penetrate deeper into the atmosphere due to the orientation of Earth's magnetic field. This influx of hydrogen from the solar wind can combine with atmospheric oxygen, contributing to the water cycle in these regions. The continuous flow by solar wind particles plays a role in the production of hydroxyl groups and parts of water molecules, especially in upper parts of the atmosphere.

Space Dust, Fluids, Particles and Rocks

Space dust, including micrometeoroids and interstellar particles, is another important source of material for atmospheric chemistry. These particles, often rich in volatile compounds, ablate upon entering Earth’s atmosphere, releasing their constituent elements, including hydrogen.

Ablation and Chemical Release: As space dust particles travel through the atmosphere, frictional heating causes them to ablate, releasing hydrogen and other elements. This process is particularly active in upper parts of the atmosphere and contributes to the local chemical environment.

Catalytic Surfaces: Space dust particles can also act as catalytic surfaces, facilitating chemical reactions between atmospheric constituents. These reactions can enhance the formation of water and other compounds, particularly in regions with high dust influx, such as during meteor showers.

Fluid Dynamics in Space: In astrophysics, the behavior of fluids is critical in the study of stellar and planetary formation. The movement of interstellar gas and dust, driven by gravitational forces and magnetic fields, leads to the birth of stars and planets. Simulations of these processes rely on fluid dynamics to predict the formation and evolution of celestial bodies.

Flux in Physical Systems: The concept of flux, the rate of flow of a property per unit area, is fundamental in both physical and biological systems. In physics, magnetic flux and heat flux describe how magnetic fields and thermal energy move through space. In biology, nutrient flux in ecosystems determines the distribution and availability of essential elements for life.

Plus and Minus Charged Hydrogen Particles: More about magnetic fields, particles flows, solar hydrogen and other space particles are attached in additional papers. +-_-+

Potential Sources of Planetary Water

The discovery of water in the form of ice on asteroids and other celestial bodies indicates that water was present in the early Solar System and has been transported across different regions. This evidence supports the idea that multiple processes, including solar hydrogen interactions, delivery by asteroids and comets, and interstellar dust particles, have collectively contributed to the water inventory of Earth and other planetary bodies.

The theory that much of the planetary water could have originated from solar hydrogen is an intriguing proposition that aligns with several key observations. The isotopic similarities between Earth's water and the water found in carbonaceous chondrites and comets suggest a common origin – they were charged by the sun. Additionally, the presence of water in the lunar regolith, generated by solar wind interactions, supports the notion that solar particles can contribute to water formation on planetary surfaces.

Scientific Observations and Evidence

Scientific observations have provided evidence supporting the role of solar particles in contributing to water formation on Earth and other planetary bodies. For instance, measurements from lunar missions have detected hydroxyl groups and water molecules on the lunar surface, particularly in regions exposed to the solar wind. This suggests that similar processes could be occurring on our planet.

Studies of isotopic compositions of hydrogen in Earth's atmosphere also indicate contributions from solar wind particles. The distinct isotopic signatures of solar hydrogen can be traced and compared with terrestrial sources, providing insights into the relative contributions of solar wind and other sources to Earth's waters.

Understanding the origins of Earth's water and the dynamics of planetary formation has long been a focus of scientific inquiry. A critical part of this investigation involves the study of asteroids, particularly carbonaceous chondrites, which provide essential insights into Earth's water history. These meteorites, rich in water-bearing minerals such as clays and hydrated silicates, and complex organic molecules, formed in the outer regions of the Solar System where water ice and organic compounds remained stable. As these asteroids migrated inward and impacted early Earth, they played a significant role in its development.

The text here is an extract of the ongoing study and very important papers were published in the first preprint version some time ago. There you can find also further information, links, references and sources.

[sanan97norozi]

Talc

Talc is a kind of hydrated magnesium silicate found in nature as metamorphosed rocks. Micronized powder of this mineral is used in the paint industry.Talc consumes as a Filler, in rubber industry (filler, paper industry filling and leveling) and ceramic industries (sound elasticity high permeability and cost-effective coefficient), cosmetic industry, ink baby powder, textile and also in medicine.Softness, good permeability coefficient, neutrality against solution and specific weight are the main qualities of talc in paint industry, which have caused it to rival titan dioxide.Talc is practically insoluble in water and in alkalis and weak acids. It is the the world’s softest mineral and neither explosive nor flammable. Although it has very little chemical reactivity with a marked affinity for certain organic chemicals, i.e. it is organophilic. More than 900°C, talc progressively loses its hydroxyl groups and above 1050°C, it re-crystallizes into different shape of enstatite (anhydrous magnesium silicate). Talc’s melting point is at 1500°C.

Talc or talcum powder, a naturally occurring mineral, has a long and fascinating history. From its formation deep within the Earth to its versatile applications in various industries, talc is a substance that deserves our attentio

Source

[lalsingh228-blog]

Acidic Colloidal Silica Market May Set New Growth Story

The Latest research coverage on Acidic Colloidal Silica Market provides a detailed overview and accurate market size. The study is designed considering current and historical trends, market development and business strategies taken up by leaders and new industry players entering the market. Furthermore, study includes an in-depth analysis of global and regional markets along with country level market size breakdown to identify potential gaps and opportunities to better investigate market status, development activity, value and growth patterns. Access Sample Report + All Related Graphs & Charts @: https://www.advancemarketanalytics.com/sample-report/40909-global-acidic-colloidal-silica-market

Major & Emerging Players in Acidic Colloidal Silica Market:- Nissan Chemicals (Japan), FUSO CHEMICAL CO., LTD (Japan), Bee Chems (India), Grace (United States), Nouryon (Netherlands), Guangdong Well-Silicasol (China), Remet (United States), Nyacol (United States), Qingdao Haiyang Chemical (China), Evonik (Germany). The Acidic Colloidal Silica Market Study by AMA Research gives an essential tool and source to Industry stakeholders to figure out the market and other fundamental technicalities, covering growth, opportunities, competitive scenarios, and key trends in the Acidic Colloidal Silica market. Acidic Colloidal Silica is also known as Silica sol, is a stable suspension of spherical silicon dioxide nanoparticles in liquid, that is hydroxylated on the surface. It is found in almost all industrial sectors. Their preparation happens in a multi-step process where an alkali-silicate solution is partially neutralized, leading to the formation of silica nuclei. pH is reduced below so it starts to show acidic properties. With increasing manufacturing activities all over the world, this essential chemical has risen in demand.

The titled segments and sub-section of the market are illuminated below: by Application (Papermaking, Nanomedicine, Binders, Silicon Wafers, Catalysts, Ceramic Coatings, Others), Distribution Channel (Online, Offline), Form (Powder, Liquid) Market Trends: Surging Use of Acidic Colloidal Silica as a Strength-Enhancing Additive to Plastics, Mortar, and Concrete

Rise as an Ingredient in Scratch Resistant Coatings

Opportunities: Application of Acidic Colloidal Silica is Increasing in Construction Sector

Rising Demand from Emerging Economies

Market Drivers: Extensive Demand as a Rheological Additive in Personal Care Products to Control Flowability

Increasing Role in Electronics Industry as a Polishing Agent

Challenges: Decreasing Margins Due to Steep Competition in Acidic Colloidal Silica Enquire for customization in Report @: https://www.advancemarketanalytics.com/enquiry-before-buy/40909-global-acidic-colloidal-silica-market Some Point of Table of Content: Chapter One: Report Overview Chapter Two: Global Market Growth Trends Chapter Three: Value Chain of Acidic Colloidal Silica Market Chapter Four: Players Profiles Chapter Five: Global Acidic Colloidal Silica Market Analysis by Regions Chapter Six: North America Acidic Colloidal Silica Market Analysis by Countries Chapter Seven: Europe Acidic Colloidal Silica Market Analysis by Countries Chapter Eight: Asia-Pacific Acidic Colloidal Silica Market Analysis by Countries Chapter Nine: Middle East and Africa Acidic Colloidal Silica Market Analysis by Countries Chapter Ten: South America Acidic Colloidal Silica Market Analysis by Countries Chapter Eleven: Global Acidic Colloidal Silica Market Segment by Types Chapter Twelve: Global Acidic Colloidal Silica Market Segment by Applications What are the market factors that are explained in the Acidic Colloidal Silica Market report?

– Key Strategic Developments: Strategic developments of the market, comprising R&D, new product launch, M&A, agreements, collaborations, partnerships, joint ventures, and regional growth of the leading competitors.

– Key Market Features: Including revenue, price, capacity, capacity utilization rate, gross, production, production rate, consumption, import/export, supply/demand, cost, market share, CAGR, and gross margin.– Analytical Tools: The analytical tools such as Porter’s five forces analysis, SWOT analysis, feasibility study, and investment return analysis have been used to analyze the growth of the key players operating in the market. Buy This Exclusive Research Here: https://www.advancemarketanalytics.com/buy-now?format=1&report=40909 Definitively, this report will give you an unmistakable perspective on every single reality of the market without a need to allude to some other research report or an information source. Our report will give all of you the realities about the past, present, and eventual fate of the concerned Market. Thanks for reading this article; you can also get individual chapter wise section or region wise report version like North America, Europe or Asia. Contact US : Craig Francis (PR & Marketing Manager) AMA Research & Media LLP Unit No. 429, Parsonage Road Edison, NJ New Jersey USA – 08837 Phone: +1 201 565 3262, +44 161 818 8166 sales@advancemarketanalytics.com

[fillerboy]

Prime Manufacturer & Supplier of Best Quality Soapstone

We Fillerboy Pvt Ltd manufacture Soapstone in accordance with client specifications. We are a major supplier of soapstone to the cosmetic, detergent, dal mills, textile, printing ink, rubber, and other industries in Rajasthan. Fillerboy Pvt Ltd provides Soapstone minerals at the most competitive prices in India and around the world.

Fillerboy Pvt Ltd , one of the leading Soapstone suppliers in India, supplies high-quality Soapstone to various industries worldwide

What is Soapstone:

The world's softest mineral is soapstone. Despite the fact that all soapstone ores are soft, platy, water-repellent, and chemically inert, no two pieces of talc are the same. Soapstone is an essential component of daily life. A few things enhanced by soapstone are the periodicals we read, the plastics in our automobiles and homes, the paints we use, and the tiles we step on. We purchase our talc from some of India's top soapstone producers. Mg3Si4010(0H)2 is the scientific name for soapstone, a hydrated magnesium sheet silicate. Soapstone is essentially insoluble in water, mild acids, and alkalis. It is neither explosive nor flammable. Talc is an organophilic substance because some organic molecules strongly attract it despite having low chemical reactivity. At temperatures exceeding 900°C, soapstone begins to shed its hydroxyl groups, and at temperatures above 1050°C, it re-crystallizes into various types of statues (anhydrous magnesium silicate). The melting point of soapstone is 1500 °C.

[diphex]

What are the common uses and applications of a sodium hydroxide solution?

Beginning: Chemicals have both good and bad sides if handled the wrong way. Take, for example, a sodium hydroxide solution, which is a common chemical with lots of applications in both industrial and domestic settings. But what is it anyway? And what makes it special? Let us find out more below.

What is sodium hydroxide solution?

Sodium hydroxide is a highly versatile chemical that results from chlorine. Also known as caustic soda and lye, sodium hydroxide has several uses.

Basic Formula of Sodium Hydroxide

Sodium hydroxide’s chemical formula is NaOH. It has one sodium atom linked with a hydroxyl ion, forming an alkali. Sodium is highly reactive with water. And yet still finds lots of applications and uses. These may include:

Common Uses of Sodium Hydroxide Solution

- Soap making and manufacturing: Sodium hydroxide is used in the soap-making industry as it is a major part of the soap manufacturing process. Also known as lye or caustic soda, the solution is usually mixed with fats and oils to create a chemical reaction known as saponification.

- Daily cleaning tasks: As a corrosive solution, it easily cleans different utensils and tools. Most cleaning products have sodium hydroxide.

- Kitchen and house cleaning: It is efficient in drain, oven, faucet, and tile cleaning tasks. It erases fat, grease, and grime on the floor, kitchen countertops, and appliances.

- Home disinfection and bacteria prevention: It helps keep homes and commercial and business establishments neat and clean while keeping pests and bacteria far away.

- Pharmaceutical industry: It is applicable in the formulation of various medicines and drugs.

- Paper and pulp making industry: It is applied in paper making and helps make pulp and manufacture paper.

Medical applications and uses: A special additive to most pain relief medications and in anticoagulants. It is also added to cholesterol maintenance prescriptions. And some common drugs with sodium hydroxide include aspirin, diclofenac sodium, and divalproex, among others.

- Beauty and grooming products: In diluted amounts of up to 5%, sodium hydroxide is used in beauty products like hairsprays, perfumes, beauty soaps, allergic care creams, foot talc, hair dye, makeup, nail care polish, shampoo, shaving cream, etc. It helps stabilise pH levels in beauty products.

- Aluminum products manufacturing: It is used to make aluminium products.

Physical Properties of Sodium Hydroxide

- Has colourless and crystalline pure form.

- Melts a high point of 318 °C.

- Boils at a high point of 1388 °C.

- Creates aqueous base easily, yet is non-soluble in methanol and ethanol.

- Absorbs moisture from the air.

Chemical Properties of Sodium Hydroxide

- Reacts vigorously with acids to form salts and water.

- Reacts with glass to form soluble silicates, which is why it's stored in bottles made of a non-reactive material.

- Reacts with other salts of metals in the lower electrochemical series, like copper and iron.

Conclusion: There are so many uses of sodium hydroxide solution in commercial, domestic, and industrial products. Today, keeping homes and business places safe is of paramount importance. Most home and business cleaning chemicals have sodium hydroxide components.

For More Info:- Chemical Splash Decontamination chemical spills

[calcinedclay]

Prime Manufacturer & Supplier of Best Quality Soapstone

We Fillerboy Pvt Ltd manufacture Soapstone in accordance with client specifications. We are a major supplier of soapstone to the cosmetic, detergent, dal mills, textile, printing ink, rubber, and other industries in Rajasthan. Fillerboy Pvt Ltd provides Soapstone minerals at the most competitive prices in India and around the world.

Fillerboy Pvt Ltd , one of the leading Soapstone suppliers in India, supplies high-quality Soapstone to various industries worldwide

What is Soapstone:

The world's softest mineral is soapstone. Despite the fact that all soapstone ores are soft, platy, water-repellent, and chemically inert, no two pieces of talc are the same. Soapstone is an essential component of daily life. A few things enhanced by soapstone are the periodicals we read, the plastics in our automobiles and homes, the paints we use, and the tiles we step on. We purchase our talc from some of India's top soapstone producers. Mg3Si4010(0H)2 is the scientific name for soapstone, a hydrated magnesium sheet silicate. Soapstone is essentially insoluble in water, mild acids, and alkalis. It is neither explosive nor flammable. Talc is an organophilic substance because some organic molecules strongly attract it despite having low chemical reactivity. At temperatures exceeding 900°C, soapstone begins to shed its hydroxyl groups, and at temperatures above 1050°C, it re-crystallizes into various types of statues (anhydrous magnesium silicate). The melting point of soapstone is 1500 °C.

Uses and Applications of Soapstone :

Cosmetic

Detergent

Printing ink

Dal mills

Rubber

[wingcrystal]

A Brief Introduction of Sodalite

The main identification features of sodalite: dark blue, polycrystalline structure, low RI1.48, low SG2.28 floating in a heavy liquid of 2.65, turning red under the Charles color filter, magnifying and observing the distribution of visible white matter in it. The color is closer to that of lapis lazuli. The main distinguishing point is that lapis lazuli is a variety of mineral combinations, with pyrite particles and calcite distributed in star dots or lumps. Sodalite is a kind of feldspar minerals. It is a chloride-containing sodium aluminosilicate. Sodalite is similar in color to lapis lazuli, and it is also called “Canadian lapis lazuli”or “bluestone”commercially.

Introduction of sodalite

Sodalite is a kind of feldspar minerals. It is a chloride-containing sodium aluminosilicate. Sodalite includes hydroxyl sodalite, tetrazite, bluesite, etc. Different types of sodalite have different colors. The shadow of tetrazite is often seen in volcanic eruptions. Its colors are gray, brown, and blue. In addition to blue, blue ashlar also has white, gray, green, etc. It is a common gem and is produced in France, Brazil, Greenland, Russia, Myanmar, Romania and North America.

Appearance characteristics of sodalite

Sodalite is usually blue, a few are white, green, red, purple or gray. Crystals are quite rare, and are mostly produced in the form of lumps, grains or nodules in nature. Generally glassy luster, on the cleavage surface, it is greasy luster. Sodalite is a silicate mineral containing sodium, aluminum and chlorine. When nitric acid is added and silver nitrate is added, white silver chloride will be precipitated. If chlorine in the composition is replaced by sulfur, sodalite (Hackmanite) is formed. Sodalite is rare in nature, and its appearance is quite similar to that of lapis lazuli (Lazurite). Therefore, it is often used as a substitute for lapis lazuli in the gem market, but sodalite rarely contains the characteristic pyrite inclusions of lapis lazuli.

Physical Properties of Sodalite

Crystal system: equiaxed crystal system

Crystals: rhombic dodecahedron, cubic dodecahedron, octahedron

Aggregates: granular, massive, nodule

Hardness: 5.5~6

Decomposition/Fracture:{110} Decomposition: Poor to Clear; Jagged to Shell Fracture

Gloss: Glass Gloss

Color: blue, gray, white, green or red

Streaks: white or very light blue

Specific gravity: 2.14~2.30g/cm3

Others:(1) Under ultraviolet radiation, orange or orange-red fluorescence is often produced

(2) with brittleness

(3) Translucent to opaque

(4) When heated and melted, it will foam and become colorless glass

Field production of sodalite

Sodalite is relatively rare in nature. It is mainly produced in alkaline rocks rich in sodium and poor in silicon, such as nepheline syenite, trachyte and xanyan and other igneous rocks or contact metamorphic silicite, often with nepheline, leucite, feldspar, zircon and other minerals symbiosis.

Maine in the United States and Ontario in Canada produce high-quality blue sodalite. In addition, the Ural Mountains in Russia, the Vesuvius Mountains in Italy, Norway, Germany and Bolivia all produce sodalite. A bright blue almost transparent sodalite was found in Southwest Africa.

Important Origin of Sodalite

(1) Litchfield and West Gardiner in Maine in the United States, Red Hill in New Hampshire, Salem in Massachusetts, Magnet Cove in Arkansas, Cripple Creek in Colorado and other places

(2) Mt. St.-Hilaire in Quebec in Canada, Davis quarry in Ontario and quarry in eastern and Princess Bancroft, and Ice River complex in Columbia in British

(3) Greenland Kangerdluarssuk, Tunugdliarfik fjords

(4) Norway’s Langesundfjord area

(5) Scarrupata and Mte. Somma in Campania, Italy, Val di Noto in Sicily

(6) Laacher See area of Eifel, Germany

(7) Miask, Kola Penin of Ilmen Mts, Russia.

(8) Kishengar of Indian Rajputana

(9) North Korea Ham Gyong North Prov. Gil Ju Co.

(10) Tiahuanaco in Bolivia

[gemselections-stuff]

Blue Topaz- the birthstone for December.

December is a month of giving, so it's no surprise that it boasts three lovely birthstones. Blue Topaz is the most well-known, but there are also turquoise and tanzanite to pick from. All three are both energetically and artistically strong. Blue topaz is the birthstone for the month of December this year. It's like taking a soothing plunge in a pool of warm spring water when you look at its gorgeous pale blue colour.

GEM SELECTIONS BLUE TOPAZ

The Silicate family's Blue Topaz is an uncommon and eye-catching member. Its chemical formula is Al2Si04 (F,OH)2, which stands for Aluminum Fluoro-Hydroxyl-Silicate. It has a Mohs hardness rating of 8, making it an excellent gem for carving and jewellery. Buy this bright blue stone only at GEM SELECTIONS at the best price with high quality.

It's a translucent to opaque stone that ranges in hue from extremely light to a dark, inky blue. Heat treatment is mainly used on the darker blue topaz. The Orthorhombic Crystal System includes Blue Topaz.

Blue Topaz may be found in the Ural Mountains of Russia, Brazil, Pakistan, Zimbabwe, and Mason County, Texas, in the United States. Blue Topaz is the state jewel of Texas, which is where our store is located. Brazil produces the bulk of blue topaz.

Many blue topaz stones on the market have been heat treated and may have been irradiated. The sale of heat-treated colourless topaz as Blue Topaz is considered permissible. Rest assured, if they've been irradiated, the market requires that they be held until the radiation levels are deemed safe to deal with and sell. Heat-treated blue topaz, such as London Blue and Swiss Blue Topaz, are highly sought after and popular. Their hues are more brilliant, deeper, and brighter.

Please treat your Blue Topaz with care. The cleavage of this stone is exceedingly fragile, despite the fact that it is generally a fairly hard stone. To minimize fading, store it softly and away from direct sunlight. Ultrasonic or steam cleaners should not be used since they will harm the stone. Use alternative ways of purification, such as sound or smudging, instead.

If you wish to buy, hit our website or contact us directly for further assistance for blue topaz or any other stone.

[suns-water]

Cosmic Origins of Space Water - Suns Water Theory

Cosmic Origins of Space Water: Sun's Water Theory

Asteroids, particularly carbonaceous chondrites, provide crucial insights into Earth's water history and the dynamics of planetary formation. These meteorites are rich in water-bearing minerals, such as clays and hydrated silicates, as well as complex organic molecules. Formed in the outer regions of the solar system, where water ice and organic compounds remained stable, these asteroids migrated inward and impacted early Earth, playing a significant role in its development. The rocky bodies that orbit the Sun primarily in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter can contain significant amounts of hydrated minerals, indicating the presence of water. Carbonaceous chondrites are especially important because their isotopic composition closely matches that of Earth's water. Interstellar dust particles, tiny grains of material found in the space between stars, can contain water ice and organic compounds, which can be incorporated into the forming solar system. As the solar system evolved, these particles contributed to the water inventory of planetesimals and eventually Earth.

Comets, long-fascinating astronomers for their spectacular appearances, also play a crucial role in delivering water to Earth. Composed of water ice, dust, and various organic compounds, comets originate from the outer regions of the solar system, such as the Kuiper Belt and the Oort Cloud. These pristine materials, remnants from the early solar nebula, offer a window into the conditions prevailing during the solar system's formation over 4.6 billion years ago. Comets, with their highly elliptical orbits, occasionally venture close to the Sun, undergoing sublimation of volatile ices and releasing gas and dust into space. The isotopic compositions of water in comets, such as Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko studied by the Rosetta mission, differ slightly from Earth's oceans, suggesting comets may not be the sole source of terrestrial water but likely contributed significantly during early Earth's formation. The impacts of comets on Earth during the Late Heavy Bombardment period around 3.9 billion years ago are believed to have deposited significant amounts of water and volatile compounds, supplementing Earth's early oceans and creating a conducive environment for the emergence of life.

Greening Deserts founder has developed a simple theory about the main water source, called "Sun's Water Theory" which proposes that much of the space water was created by our star. According to this theory, most of the planetary water came directly from the Sun as hydrogen particles. Combining analytical skills, a deep understanding of complex systems, and simplicity, the founder of Greening Deserts formed a comprehensive understanding of planetary processes and the solar system.

Helium and Oxygen from the Sun

While hydrogen is the primary component of the solar wind, helium ions and traces of heavier elements, including oxygen, are also present. The presence of oxygen ions in the solar wind is significant because it provides another potential source of the necessary ingredients for water formation. When oxygen ions from the solar wind interact with hydrogen ions either from the solar wind or from local sources, they can form water molecules.

On the Moon, the detection of solar wind-implanted oxygen along with hydrogen further supports the hypothesis that the Sun contributes to the Moon’s surface water content. The interactions between these implanted ions and lunar minerals can lead to the production of water and hydroxyl compounds, which are then detected by remote sensing instruments.

Magnetospheric and Atmospheric Interactions

The Earth’s magnetosphere and atmosphere serve as a complex system that mediates the impact of solar emissions. The magnetosphere deflects most of the solar wind particles, but during geomagnetic storms caused by solar flares and CMEs, the interaction between the solar wind and the magnetosphere can become more intense. This interaction can lead to phenomena such as auroras and can enhance the influx of solar particles into the upper atmosphere.

In the upper atmosphere, these particles can collide with atmospheric constituents, including oxygen and nitrogen, leading to the formation of water and other compounds. This process contributes to the overall water cycle and atmospheric chemistry of the planet.

Interstellar dust particles also offer valuable insights into the origins and distribution of water across the solar system. During the early stages of the solar system's formation, the protoplanetary disk captured interstellar dust particles containing water ice, silicates, and organic molecules. These particles served as building blocks for planetesimals and larger bodies, influencing their compositions and the volatile inventory available for terrestrial planets like Earth. NASA's Stardust mission, which collected samples from Comet Wild 2 and interstellar dust particles, revealed the presence of crystalline silicates and water-bearing minerals. Analysis of these samples provides essential data on the isotopic compositions and chemical diversity of water sources within the solar system.

Solar Wind and Solar Hydrogen

The Sun's Water Theory proposes that a significant portion of Earth's water originated from the Sun, delivered in the form of hydrogen particles through the solar wind. The solar wind, a stream of charged particles primarily composed of hydrogen ions (protons), constantly flows from the Sun and interacts with planetary bodies. When these hydrogen ions encounter a planetary surface, they can combine with oxygen to form water molecules.

This process has been observed on the Moon, where hydrogen ions implanted by the solar wind react with oxygen in lunar rocks to produce water. Similar interactions could have occurred on early Earth, contributing to its water inventory. The study of solar wind interactions with planetary bodies, using missions like NASA's Parker Solar Probe and ESA's Solar Orbiter, provides valuable data on the potential for solar-derived water formation.

Theoretical Models and Simulations

Advanced theoretical models and simulations can play a crucial role in understanding the processes that contribute to water formation and distribution in the solar system. Models of planetary formation and migration, such as the Grand Tack Hypothesis, suggest that the movement of giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn influenced the distribution of water-rich bodies in the early solar system. These models help explain how water from the outer regions of the solar system could have been delivered to the inner planets, including Earth.

Simulations of solar wind interactions with planetary surfaces provide insights into the mechanisms through which solar hydrogen could contribute to water formation. By replicating the conditions of the early solar system, these simulations help scientists estimate the contribution of solar-derived hydrogen to Earth's water inventory.

The journey of water from distant cosmic reservoirs to Earth has profoundly impacted our planet's history and its potential for life. Comets, asteroids, and interstellar dust particles each provide unique insights into the early solar system's dynamics, delivering water and volatile elements that shaped Earth's geology and atmosphere. Ongoing research, advanced space missions, and theoretical advancements continue to refine our understanding of water's cosmic origins and its broader implications for planetary science and astrobiology. Future studies and missions will further explore water-rich environments within our solar system and the search for habitable exoplanets, illuminating the significance of water in the quest to understand life's potential beyond Earth.

Theoretical models and simulations offer insights into the processes that shaped Earth's water reservoirs and the distribution of volatiles. The Grand Tack Hypothesis suggests that the migration of giant planets, like Jupiter and Saturn, influenced the orbital dynamics of smaller bodies, including comets and asteroids. This migration could have directed water-rich objects from the outer solar system toward the inner regions, contributing to the volatile content of terrestrial planets. The Late Heavy Bombardment period, characterized by intense comet and asteroid impacts around 3.9 billion years ago, likely delivered significant amounts of water and organic compounds to Earth, shaping its early atmosphere, oceans, and potentially the prebiotic chemistry necessary for the emergence of life.

Understanding the origins of Earth's water involves exploring the primary space sources that delivered water to our planet. The main hypotheses focus on contributions from comets, asteroids, and interstellar dust particles. Each of these sources has been the subject of extensive research, providing valuable insights into the complex processes that brought water to Earth. Comets, originating from the outer regions of the solar system, such as the Kuiper Belt and the Oort Cloud, are composed of water ice, dust, and organic compounds. When comets approach the Sun, they heat up and release water vapor and other gases, forming a visible coma and tail. Comets have long been considered potential sources of Earth's water due to their high water content.

The Sun's Contribution to Earth's Water

Continued exploration and research are essential to validate and refine the Sun's Water Theory. Future missions targeting the analysis of solar wind interactions with planetary bodies, along with advanced laboratory experiments, will provide deeper insights into this process. The integration of data from these endeavors with theoretical models will enhance our understanding of the origins and evolution of water in the solar system.

Recent research in heliophysics and planetary science has begun to shed light on the potential role of the Sun in delivering water to planetary bodies. Studies of lunar samples, for instance, have revealed the presence of hydrogen implanted by the solar wind. Similar processes might have occurred on early Earth, especially during periods of heightened solar activity when the intensity and frequency of solar wind particles were greater. This hypothesis aligns with observations of other celestial bodies, such as the Moon and certain asteroids, which exhibit signs of solar wind-implanted hydrogen.

Solar winds, composed of charged particles primarily hydrogen ions (protons), constantly emanate from the Sun and travel throughout the solar system. When these particles encounter a planetary body, they can interact with its atmosphere and surface. On early Earth, these interactions might have facilitated the formation of water molecules. Hydrogen ions from the solar wind, upon reaching Earth's surface, could have reacted with oxygen-containing minerals and compounds, leading to the gradual accumulation of water. This process, although slow, would have occurred over billions of years, contributing to the overall water inventory of the planet.

Theoretical models simulate the early solar system environment, including the flux of solar wind particles and their potential interactions with Earth. By incorporating data from space missions and laboratory experiments, these models help scientists estimate the contribution of solar-derived hydrogen to Earth's water inventory. The isotopic analysis of hydrogen in ancient rocks and minerals on Earth offers additional clues. If a significant portion of Earth's hydrogen has isotopic signatures consistent with solar hydrogen, it would support the idea that the Sun played a crucial role in water delivery.

The Sun's Water Theory proposes that a significant portion of Earth's water originated from the Sun, delivered in the form of hydrogen particles. This hypothesis suggests that solar hydrogen combined with oxygen present on early Earth to form water. By examining the isotopic composition of hydrogen on Earth and comparing it with solar hydrogen, scientists can explore the validity of this theory. Understanding the mechanisms through which the Sun might have contributed to Earth's water inventory requires a deep dive into the processes occurring within the solar system and the interactions between solar particles and planetary bodies.

This theory also has implications for our understanding of water distribution in the solar system and beyond. If solar-derived hydrogen is a common mechanism for water formation, other planets and moons in the habitable zones of their respective stars might also possess water created through similar processes. This widens the scope of astrobiological research, suggesting that water, and potentially life, could be more widespread in the universe than previously thought.

To further investigate the theory, scientists should employ a combination of observational techniques, laboratory simulations, and theoretical models. Space missions designed to study the Sun and its interactions with the solar system, such as NASA's Parker Solar Probe and the European Space Agency's Solar Orbiter, provide valuable data on solar wind properties and their effects on planetary environments. Laboratory experiments replicate the conditions of solar wind interactions with various minerals and compounds found on Earth and other rocky bodies. These experiments aim to understand the chemical reactions that could lead to water formation under solar wind bombardment.

The Sun's Water Theory for Space and Planetary Science

Understanding the origins of Earth's water not only illuminates the history of our planet but also informs the search for habitable environments elsewhere in the universe. The presence of water is a key factor in determining the habitability of a planet or moon. If solar wind-driven water formation is a common process, it could significantly expand the number of celestial bodies considered potential candidates for hosting life.

The study of water's cosmic origins also intersects with research on the formation of organic compounds and the conditions necessary for life. Water, in combination with carbon-based molecules, creates a conducive environment for the development of prebiotic chemistry. Investigating the sources and delivery mechanisms of water helps scientists understand the early conditions that might lead to the emergence of life.

The exploration of water-rich environments within our solar system, such as the icy moons of Jupiter and Saturn, is a priority for upcoming space missions. These missions, equipped with advanced instruments capable of detecting water and organic molecules, aim to uncover the secrets of these distant worlds. Understanding how water arrived on these moons and its current state will provide crucial insights into their potential habitability.

The quest to understand water's role in the universe extends to the study of exoplanets. Observations of exoplanets and their atmospheres using telescopes like the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) enable scientists to detect signs of water vapor and other volatiles. By comparing the water content and isotopic compositions of exoplanets with those of solar system bodies, researchers can infer the processes that govern water distribution in different planetary systems.

Most of the water on planet Earth has very probably been emitted from the sun as hydrogen. It may be unimaginable to many how so much hydrogen has reached the Earth from the sun. In the millions of years of Earth and solar history, there have certainly been much larger solar eruptions and flares than humans have yet recorded. CMEs and solar winds can transport solid matter and many particles. The theory can be proven by ice samples!

Laboratory experiments and computer simulations continue to play a vital role in this research. By recreating the conditions of early solar system environments, scientists can test various hypotheses about water formation and delivery. These experiments help refine our understanding of the chemical pathways that lead to the incorporation of water into planetary bodies.

In summary, the study of water's origins on Earth and other celestial bodies is a multidisciplinary endeavor involving space missions, laboratory research, theoretical modeling, and observations of exoplanets. The integration of these approaches provides a comprehensive understanding of water's cosmic journey and its implications for planetary science and astrobiology. Continued exploration and technological advancements will further unravel the mysteries of water in the universe, guiding the search for life beyond our planet.

Solar Flares and Coronal Mass Ejections

Solar flares are intense bursts of radiation and energetic particles caused by magnetic activity on the Sun. Coronal mass ejections (CMEs) are massive bursts of solar wind and magnetic fields rising above the solar corona or being released into space. Both solar flares and CMEs release significant amounts of energetic particles, including hydrogen ions, into the solar system.

When these high-energy particles reach Earth or other planetary bodies, they can induce chemical reactions in the atmosphere and on the surface. The energy provided by these particles can break molecular bonds and initiate the formation of new compounds, including water. For instance, on Earth, the interaction of energetic solar particles with atmospheric gases can produce nitric acid and other compounds, which then precipitate out as rain, incorporating into the hydrological cycle.

Solar Hydrogen and Water-Causing Emissions from the Sun

The Sun, as the central star of our solar system, plays a pivotal role in the dynamics and chemistry of surrounding planetary bodies, including Earth. One particularly intriguing area of research involves the contribution of solar hydrogen and other emissions from the Sun to the formation and distribution of water in the solar system. This includes the processes through which solar wind, solar flares, and other solar activities potentially deliver hydrogen and create water molecules on planetary surfaces.

Solar Radiation and Photodissociation

Solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation plays a crucial role in the chemistry of planetary atmospheres. In the context of water formation, UV radiation can photodissociate water vapor into hydrogen and hydroxyl radicals. These radicals can then recombine in different ways, potentially leading to the formation of new water molecules. While photodissociation primarily breaks down water, the subsequent chemical interactions in the presence of abundant solar radiation can contribute to a dynamic cycle of water formation and destruction. In the upper atmospheres of planets and moons, UV radiation can drive the photochemistry that influences the overall water budget. For example, in the thin atmospheres of Mars and some icy moons, the interaction of solar UV radiation with surface and atmospheric molecules can lead to a complex interplay of water-related chemistry.

Theoretical Models and Simulations

Simulations of solar-induced water formation can also explore various scenarios, such as the effects of planetary magnetic fields, surface composition, and atmospheric density on the efficiency of water production. These models provide valuable predictions that guide future observations and experiments, helping to refine our understanding of solar-induced water formation.

The development of sophisticated theoretical models and simulations is essential for predicting and explaining the processes through which solar hydrogen contributes to water formation. Models of solar wind interactions with planetary surfaces, incorporating data from laboratory experiments and space missions, help scientists understand the dynamics of these interactions under different conditions.

The expanded theory that the Sun is a primary source of water in the solar system through solar hydrogen emissions provides a comprehensive framework for understanding water's origins and distribution. This theory integrates multiple processes, including solar wind implantation, solar flares, CMEs, UV radiation-driven photo chemistry, and the contributions of comets and asteroids. By exploring these processes through space missions, laboratory experiments, and theoretical modeling, scientists can unravel the complex interactions that have shaped the water content of planets and moons. This understanding not only enhances our knowledge of planetary science but also informs the search for habitable environments and potential life beyond Earth. The Sun's role in water formation is a testament to the interconnections of stellar and planetary processes, highlighting the dynamic and evolving nature of our solar system.

The influence of the Sun on planetary water cycles extends beyond direct hydrogen implantation. Solar radiation drives weathering processes on planetary surfaces, releasing oxygen from minerals that can then react with solar hydrogen to form water. On Earth, the interaction of solar radiation with the atmosphere contributes to the hydrological cycle by influencing evaporation, condensation, and precipitation processes.

The initiator of the theory has spent many years researching and studying the nature of things. He made a great discovery in early summer and documented the creation and forming process of a new element, a hydrogen-like material, he calls it "Sun Granulate". A scientific name for the substance was also found, it's Solinume. The Sun's Water Theory was formed and developed by Greening Deserts founder, an independent researcher and scientist collective from Germany.

The concepts and specific ideas are protected by international laws. The information in this article, contents and specific details are protected by national, international and European rights as well as by artists' rights, article, copyright and title protection. The artworks and project content are the intellectual property of the author and founder of the Global Greening and Trillion Trees Initiative. SunsWater™

This article is a final draft, scientific publication and very important paper for further studies on astrophysics and space exploration. We researchers believe that many answers can be found in the polar regions. This is also a call to other sciences to explore the role of space water and to reconsider all findings on planetary water bodies and space water, especially Arctic research and studies on ancient ice. A big thank you goes to all colleagues, family members, friends, researchers and scientists. Anyone can use the findings, ideas and research for educational, historical and scientific research, historical and scientific research - but please cite this study and theory.

[chemicalscience-crimson]

Annals of Chemical Science Research_ Crimson Publishers

Trends on the Mechanical and the Optical Properties of Papers Affected by the Inorganic Additives Determined by Ash on Ignition at 900 °C and a Thermodynamic Model Applied for their Tensile Strength by  Chryssou Κ in  Annals of Chemical Science Research

Abstract

The extremely rapid increase in the use of A4 and A3 photocopiers and printers in recent years and some printing problems observed in them make it imperative to continue and intensify the controls carried out on copy paper samples by the General Chemical State Laboratory in Greece. Samples of photocopy papers were brought to the laboratory and their mechanical and optical properties were tested. The construction of technical specifications in collaboration with other bodies of the public sector will continue to achieve effective protection of the public and private sectors, and of the consumer public in general. Action should be taken to inform those involved in the production, import and marketing of photocopier paper and the consumer in particular about the requirements of the appropriate technical specifications and the potential risks of using unsuitable paper in modern laser printers.

Keywords: Tensile strength; Ash on ignition at 900 °C; Pick picking IGT; CIE whiteness; Inorganic additives; Public sector

Introduction

A series of samples of photocopy papers A4 and A3 were brought to the GCSL from both the public and private sectors. The percent (%w/w) ash content on ignition [1] for these papers was determined during the whole year 2018. Then, the same samples were tested for their tensile strength [2] and the pick picking of the paper by an IGT tester [3], as well as for their CIE whiteness values [4,5] (Figure 1). The tensile strength, tearing resistance and folding of a paper are improved with cationic starch, or with resins of wet strength. Increased content of filling matter leads to inferior strength of the raw material of paper, but it helps to the transfer of the pigment coating to the raw material. Pigment is the major component of a pigment coating. The principal pigment is kaolin, sometimes referred to as china clay. Other pigments include calcium carbonate, titanium dioxide, aluminum trihydrate, amorphous silicas and silicates, talc, zinc oxide, barium sulfate and plastic pigments [6,7] & (Table 1). Analyses carried out in the past years from 2004 -2014, on photocopy papers A4 and A3, have shown that a trend was followed, to a better tensile strength, and better pick picking of the paper, as well as a high CIE whiteness value, accompanied to a high %w/w ash content. This trend was not followed only for the pick picking of the paper, between years 2004-2014 (Figure 2).

Figure 1: Graphical representation of the parameters tested ash, tensile strength, CIE whiteness, resistance to pick picking for the year 2018.

Figure 2: Graphical representation of the parameters tested on the paper samples, such as ash on ignition, tensile strength, CIE whiteness, and printability, for years 2004-2014.

Table 1: The values of the parameters of the percent ash on ignition, the corresponding values of the tensile strength, CIE whiteness, and printability of the paper, for the 46 samples tested during the year 2018.

For the year 2018, the trend was not followed for the tensile strength of the paper samples but was followed for the pick picking of the papers and their whiteness value, to actually increase their value as the ash content increased. For the analyses carried out during 2018, it was found that the tensile strength of the paper samples tested was depended more on the intermolecular bonding forces and the strength of the fibers of the papers than the inorganic additives. This means that the higher tensile strength was because mainly of the effect of hydrogen bonding. Generally, the amount and quality of the bonds of the paper fibers are important and affect the tensile strength. The essence of the hydrogen bond in cellulose is that the adjacent hydroxyl groups have a strong attraction for each other which may reach 5kcal/mole. Thus, a bond of fibers of high level is required to forbid the disruption or the parting of the fibers during the printing of the paper which is the final result of the paper’s use. The tensile strength is a combination of factors such as the flexibility, the bonding strength and the fiber strength. These factors are dependent on the type of fibers of the paper, the length and thickness of the fibers, the pattern of the fiber network, the number of bonds, and the strength of the individual bonds [8-10].

A thermodynamic model for the tensile strength measurement of the papers tested in the laboratory

A thermodynamic formalism then can be presented here by consideration of the physical properties of a paper band or better a paper strip used in the testing of its tensile strength. Let us suppose that we are building a descriptive model for the properties of the paper band used in the testing of the tensile strength. The paper band consists of a bundle of long-chain paper fibers. The quantities here of the macroscopic interest are the length L, the tension T, the temperature T, and the energy U of the paper strip. The length L plays a role analogous to the volume V (L ~ V), while the tension T plays a role analogous to the negative pressure (T~-P) (1). The main component of paper is a cellulose polymer. Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula (C6H10O5) n a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundreds to many thousands of β (1→4) linkage D-glucose units. Αn analogue then of the mole number can be associated with the number of glycose monomer units in the paper band. That number is not generally variable and it can be taken here as a constant. A qualitative representation of the experimental observation can be summarized in two properties: First, at constant length the tension T increases with the temperature T. Second, the energy is observed to be essentially independent of the length, at least for lengths shorter than the “elastic limit” of the paper strip, a length corresponding to the straightening of the glucose (polymer) chains. The simplest representation of the latter observation can be represented by the following equation:

Where, c is a constant and Lo is the unstretched length of the paper strip.

The linearity of the length with tensile tension between the unstretched length Lo and the elastic limit length L1, can be represented by the following equation:

Where, Lo < L < L1, and b is a constant.

The insertion of the factor T of the temperature in this equation (rather than T2) is dictated by the thermodynamic condition of consistency of the two equations of state. That is as in the equation:

Where, u and υ are the molar quantities of the energy U and the volume V respectively.

In an analogous way, the following equation can be derived:

Which dictates the linear factor T in equation (2).

Then we can derive the following equation:

Where, S is the entropy of one glucose polymer chain and the fundamental equation may be written, after integration of the molar equation as,

This fundamental equation (6) is constructed on the basis of the qualitative of information, and it can represent the empirical properties reasonably. This model of the paper strip or the paper band illustrates the manner in which thermodynamics can guide us towards an elementary model building.

Conclusion

The above study showed that there must be more controls, and tests in the laboratory, for the photocopy papers sold in the market. Also, notification to all the parts involved in the chain of importing and trade of paper, as well as to the consumers, to comply with the quality technical standards already set, and the dangers involved with the use of papers which do not actually conform to them.

For more articles on Annals of Chemical Science Research

please click on link: https://crimsonpublishers.com/acsr/

For more about Crimson Publishers please click on : https://crimsonpublishers.com/rmes/fulltext/RMES.000585.php

[naturalholisticlivingwellness]

Did you know that Aluminum has been connected to Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)? This is a long post, but please read through the entire thing for more information about aluminum and the brain specifically!

A review written by Jung Huet et al in 2019 states that “Tiny amounts of non-essential metals…promote severe toxicity as they inadvertently disrupt the physiological activity of essential metals. Because of their high degree of toxicity, cadmium, lead and aluminum rank among the priority metals that are of public health significance. These metallic elements are considered systemic toxicants that are known to induce multiple organ damage, even at lower levels of exposure. Notably, evidence suggests that dysregulation in the homeostasis of essential metals and exposure to non-essential metals have significant impact on the pathogenesis of AD”

They also later state that “Aluminum is not essential for life but is a WELL-ESTABLISHED NEUROTOXIN [in other words, it kills neurons which are necessary cells in the nervous system and of the brain and gut in particular where they are found on abundance]. Exposure to high aluminum content in drinking water causes lifelong cerebral impairments, such as loss of concentration and short-term memory deficits. Mass spectrometry studies have demonstrated that ALUMINUM CROSSES THE BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER AND ACCUMULATES IN A SEMIPERMANENT MANNER. Although no biological process is dependent on aluminum, it can influence more than 200 biologically-relevant reactions and cause various adverse effects on the mammalian brain. These include essential brain processes such as axonal transport, neurotransmitter synthesis, synaptic transmission, phosphorylation or dephosphorylation of proteins, protein degradation, gene expression, and inflammatory responses.”

Furthermore “Aluminum exhibits one oxidation state, Al3+, which has affinity for negatively charged oxygen-donor ligands. Some of the ligands which form strong bonds with aluminum are inorganic and organic phosphates, carboxylate, and deprotonated hydroxyl groups, thereby making DNA, RNA and ATP perfect targets, affecting gene expression, energy metabolism and the action of several kinases and phosphatase. Aluminum can also cause the oligomerization of proteins, inducing conformational changes that can inhibit their degradation by proteases, and thus affect their turnover. For instance, strong binding of aluminum to phosphorylated amino acids promotes the self-aggregation and accumulation of highly phosphorylated cytoskeleton proteins, such as neurofilament and microtubule-associated proteins. These properties make THE PRESENCE OF ALUMINUM IN THE BRAIN TOXIC, causing the apoptotic death of neurons and glial cells. Aluminum affects LTP, the function of enzymes, including those involved in neurotransmitter synthesis. It also affects voltage-gated calcium channels and neurotransmitter receptors, impairing synaptic transmission. The presence of aluminum therefore leads to a signaling imbalance that disturbs brain function.”

The authors go on to tell other ways that Aluminum affects the brain, including neurodegeneration (or the failing of neuron cells in the nervous system). “Several studies reported a higher incidence of AD or AD mortality in areas with high levels of aluminum in the drinking water, suggesting a strong association between aluminum and AD. This was confirmed by later studies which demonstrated the ability of aluminum to induce neurofibrillary degeneration and promote the appearance of tangle-like structures that resembled the NFTs found in the brains of AD patients. Moreover, aluminum accumulation was described in NFT-bearing neurons of AD brains.”

They also found “Interestingly, aluminum is preferentially taken up by glial cells, which induces the production of inflammatory cytokines, including IL-6”. Other interesting information they found is that “Aluminum has also been reported to affect neurotransmission. Due to its ability to block Aβ-mediated formation of calcium permeable ion channel, aluminum can inhibit the increase in calcium levels induced by neurotrophic factors such as BDNF. The level of other neurotransmitters, such as serotonin, dopamine, glutamate and aspartate, have also been reported to decrease upon aluminum exposure. A lower availability of glutamate induced by aluminum has been attributed to the induction of glutamine synthetase and inhibition of glutaminase activity in astrocytes. Moreover, it has been reported that aluminum affects the cholinergic system, which has been shown to degenerate in AD pathogenesis.”

Okay, now that we have established that aluminum is inherently bad for you and can lead to poor brain functioning, what are some common ways that we are exposed to aluminum in our society? Believe it or not, it’s fairly common in today’s society.

Some sources of everyday aluminum exposure include:

-Aluminum foil/cookware particularly when couple with acidic foods

-Unfiltered tap water

-Antiperspirant deodorant

-Adjuvants in vaccines

-Certain types of sandpaper (something I learned from my husband when he started working at a factory that makes sandpaper)

-Salt/sugar/flour as an anti caking agent

-Antacids

And more from the environment. So just want can you do to reduce your aluminum exposure? Well, it’s pretty simple for a lot of these, swap them out! Instead of aluminum cookware, use stainless steel. Consider getting a filter to install on your kitchen faucet or get other things to filter the water. Swap out your normal deodorant for one that does not contain aluminum (note, when you do this you will perspire quite a bit more for a while as your body detoxes. I recommend using something to move the lymph nodes in that area to help facilitate this detox). Work on gut health so antacids are not necessary. Buy organic items so there’s no anti caking agent. Avoid shots if possible.

Since Aluminum specifically builds up in different body areas such as hair, brain, fat and bone tissue, it can be difficult to remove from the body. So how can you get rid of it? According to Jung Huet et al. “The use of deferoxamine, a chelator of aluminum and iron, as well as silicates [such as food grade diatomaceous earth], which couples with aluminum and reduces its toxicity, has been shown to attenuate cognitive decline in AD patients. Despite not being preventative, aluminum chelators could potentially minimize the neurodegenerative effects of aluminum in patients with known exposure throughout their lives.” Some other things that are supposed to help with detoxing include zeolites, fulvic acid, and organically grown chlorella.

If you would like to check out the aluminum levels in you or your family’s body, consider doing a Hair Tissue Mineral Analysis, which takes a little bit of your hair to measure metal contaminants.

Did you know this about aluminum? What was the most surprising information presented?

Sources:

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6475603/#!po=0.297619

https://myersdetox.com/4-hidden-sources-of-aluminum/

https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/pinkbook/downloads/appendices/b/excipient-table-2.pdf

Resources for reduction of aluminum:

Hair Tissue Mineral Analysis

https://store.myersdetox.com/pages/htma-sale

Food grade diatomaceous earth

https://www.amazon.com/gp/aw/d/B00KPXGNTO/ref=syn_sd_onsite_mobileweb_358?ie=UTF8&adId=200064735928031&qualifier=1626888570&id=52713862562754&widget=sd_onsite_mobileweb&spPl=1&psc=1&uh_it=641099a0af122284f869215df8c34555_CT

Other items:

Natural aluminum free deodorant and armpit detox

https://www.earthley.com/product/mineral-deodorant-plus-natural-deodorant/ref/Donezzia/

https://www.earthley.com/product/mineral-deodorant-natural-deodorant/ref/Donezzia/

https://www.earthley.com/product/detoxifying-pit-mask/ref/Donezzia/

Chlorella containing tincture

https://www.earthley.com/product/vaccine-detox-herbal-extract/ref/Donezzia/

More detoxification items

https://www.earthley.com/page/1/ref/Donezzia/?s=detox&post_type=product

Zeolite and fulvic acid

https://donezzia.coseva.com/

[fillerboy]

Soapstone Supplier in Rajasthan, India | Industrial Minerals supplier: Fillerboy Pvt. Ltd.

The world's softest mineral is soapstone. Despite the fact that all soapstone ores are soft, platy, water-repellent, and chemically inert, no two pieces of talc are the same. Soapstone is an essential component of daily life. A few things enhanced by soapstone are the periodicals we read, the plastics in our automobiles and homes, the paints we use, and the tiles we step on.

We purchase our talc from some of India's top soapstone producers. Mg3Si4010(0H)2 is the scientific name for soapstone, a hydrated magnesium sheet silicate. Soapstone is essentially insoluble in water, mild acids, and alkalis. It is neither explosive nor flammable. Talc is an organophilic substance because some organic molecules strongly attract it despite having low chemical reactivity. At temperatures exceeding 900°C, soapstone begins to shed its hydroxyl groups, and at temperatures above 1050°C, it re-crystallizes into various types of statues (anhydrous magnesium silicate). The melting point of soapstone is 1500 °C. India has rocky locations where soapstone can be discovered. It is an excellent construction material for homes and other structures because of its strength and natural insulating properties. It is also resistant to acids.

We Fillerboy Pvt ltd manufacture Soapstone in accordance with client specifications. We are a major supplier of soapstone to the cosmetic, detergent, dal mills, textile, printing ink, rubber, and other industries in Rajasthan. Fillerboy provides Soapstone minerals at the most competitive prices in India and around the world. 

Fillerboy Pvt Ltd, one of the leading Soapstone suppliers in India, supplies high-quality Soapstone to a variety of industries worldwide.

[unpeudephysique]

Le dioxyde de carbone, ce mal aimé

Le dioxyde de carbone (CO2) a mauvaise presse. Il faut dire qu’il passe pour être un poison. C’est d’ailleurs une contrevérité. C’est le monoxyde de carbone (CO) qui est toxique, la dangerosité du CO2 n’étant due qu’au risque d’asphyxie qu’entraine une trop forte teneur en CO2 dans l’air.

Mais s’il est pointé du doigt, c’est surtout parce que c’est un gaz à effet de serre. Le CO2 est transparent dans le domaine visible et ultraviolet mais il absorbe le rayonnement infrarouge. Il induit de ce fait un réchauffement de l’atmosphère, le rayonnement infrarouge produit par la Terre et l’activité humaine étant en partie bloqué par le CO2 contenu dans l’air.

Anti-gel

Cet effet de serre est utile à petite dose. Sans effet de serre, la température moyenne de la Terre serait de -15 degrés Celsius ! Notre planète a d’ailleurs connu plusieurs épisodes sévères de glaciation. Le processus de glaciation a été étudié en long et en large par les géologues. Les simulations montrent que si, pour différentes raisons, la couverture glaciaire s’étend jusqu’à une latitude de 30 degrés environ le coefficient d’albedo de notre planète (la proportion d’énergie solaire réfléchie) descend en dessous d’un seuil en-deçà duquel le processus de glaciation devient irréversible. La Terre est alors entièrement recouverte par les glaces, ce qui explique la présence de traces de glacier dans des régions proches de l’équateur. On parle alors de Terre boule de neige (snow ball en anglais).

Cette glaciation complète de la surface de la Terre n’interrompt pas l’activité volcanique. Au bout de plusieurs millions, voire dizaines de millions d’années le CO2 rejeté dans l’atmosphère par les volcans restaure un effet de serre suffisant pour retenir en partie l’énergie du rayonnement solaire. La fonte des glaciers commence, ce qui diminue l’albedo : le processus s’emballe dans l’autre sens. Il y aurait eu deux épisodes majeurs de Terre boule de neige au cours des 4,5 milliards d’années d’existence de notre planète, ainsi que plusieurs épisodes de glaciation de moindre ampleur.

La Terre a trouvé aujourd’hui un certain équilibre thermique. Comme nous le verrons plus bas cet équilibre est fragile et il nous appartient de prendre les mesures nécessaires pour le préserver.

Propriétés physiques et chimiques du dioxyde de carbone

La molécule de dioxyde de carbone est constituée d’un atome de carbone qui entretient deux doubles liaisons covalentes avec des atomes d’oxygène (O=C=O). C’est une molécule très stable.

A la pression atmosphérique sa température de fusion est de -78,5° C et sa température d’ébullition de -56,6° C. Dans sa phase solide, on trouve le CO2 sous la forme de neige carbonique ou de glace carbonique.

Le CO2 est soluble dans l’eau :

La molécule H2CO3 est un acide, l’acide carbonique. C’est la dissolution du CO2 par l’humidité présente dans l’atmosphère qui est à l’origine des pluies acides. La présence d’acide carbonique dans l’eau se traduit par un équilibre entre acide, ion hydrogénocarbonate et ion carbonate :

(Lorsque le pH est équilibré, l’ion hydrogénocarbonate HCO3- est prédominant.) L’acide carbonique réagit avec les silicates :

Par ailleurs l’ion carbonate précipite avec le calcium pour donner du carbonate de calcium :

Le carbonate de calcium ainsi formé se dépose au fond de l’océan et forme des sédiments calcaires. Le CaCO3 se retrouve également dans la biomasse marine sous forme de coquille ou de squelettes d’animaux marins.

La réduction du dioxyde de carbone est possible en présence d’un catalyseur ou sous l’action d’une enzyme associée à un métal. Elle donne un alcool (molécule comportant un groupe hydroxyle -OH) ou un acide carboxylique (terminaison -COOH) :

Histoire du CO2

La concentration de CO2 dans l’atmosphère à l’origine de la Terre est un sujet de débat parmi les scientifiques. Les « archives » des géologues (les fossiles) ne remontent pas jusqu’à cette époque puisqu’il n’y avait pas encore d’organismes vivants. Si l’on se réfère aux proportions de gaz présents dans le milieu interstellaire, le CO2 ne devait constituer qu’une faible partie de l’atmosphère primitive. Le méthane (CH4) et l’ammoniac (NH3) devait être beaucoup plus abondants. Cependant, dans la fournaise de la jeune Terre, le méthane a probablement réagi avec les oxydes de fer pour donner de l’eau et du dioxyde de carbone :

L’activité volcanique intense à cette époque a également conduit à une libération massive de CO2. De fait les planétologues et les géologues supposent que le dioxyde de carbone s’est très rapidement imposé comme la composante principale de l’atmosphère terrestre. Or, comme nous l’avons dit, le CO2 est un gaz à effet de serre. Dans ces conditions, et bien que la puissance du rayonnement solaire de l’époque soit inférieure à sa valeur actuelle, la température à la surface de la Terre devait être suffisamment élevée pour entretenir un fort taux d’humidité. Cette humidité ambiante se chargeait de CO2 avant de retomber sous forme de pluie acide. (On peut supposer que du CO2 a également été capté à la surface des océans : encore aujourd’hui les couches supérieures des océans ont la capacité de stocker des dizaines de milliers de gigatonnes de CO2 à l’état dissous.)

Le cycle précipitation – évaporation a permis d’absorber en quelques dizaines ou centaines de millions d’années une grande partie du CO2 atmosphérique. Le ruissellement de l’eau de pluie chargée d’acide carbonique a mis celui-ci en contact avec le silicate contenu dans la croûte terrestre. Or, comme cela a été indiqué plus haut, l’acide carbonique réagit avec les silicates pour donner de la silice, de l’eau et des ions hydrogénocarbonates. Les rivières ont entrainé ces ions dans l’océan où ils se sont mêlés aux ions provenant de la captation directe de CO2. Le carbonate a alors précipité avec des ions calcium pour former des roches calcaires qui se sont déposées au fond de l’eau et ont sédimenté. L’eau débarrassée du CO2 s’évapore et le cycle recommence. Le fond des océans est effectivement recouvert d’une épaisse couche de calcaire. La subduction en a entraîné une partie dans le manteau. A d’autres endroits, le mouvement des plaques tectoniques l’a fait émerger sous forme de falaises ou de massifs calcaires. L’ampleur de ces falaises et massifs (pourtant érodés) donne une idée de la quantité phénoménale de CO2 séquestrée par ce processus géologique de très long terme. On estime aujourd’hui à 50 millions de gigatonnes la masse de CO2 piégée dans la lithosphère océanique !

Ce processus a conduit, après des centaines de millions d’années, à une baisse significative de la teneur en CO2 de l’atmosphère terrestre. L’azote est alors devenu le gaz le plus abondant dans l’atmosphère. Mais le CO2 n’avait pas dit son dernier mot… C’est comme source d’énergie des organismes vivants qu’il va intervenir.

Il y a 3,7 milliards d’années sont en effet apparus les premiers organismes vivants : des microorganismes méthanogènes. On a retrouvé des fossiles de microorganismes de ce type dans des strates géologiques vieilles de plus de 3,5 milliards d’années. Ces microorganismes consomment du CO2 qu’ils réduisent avec de l’hydrogène. Plusieurs réactions peuvent intervenir, soit directement à partir de CO2, soit à partir de dérivés obtenus par hydrogénation :

Cette réaction fait intervenir de l’hydrogène. L’hydrogène sulfuré (H2S) peut produire des réactions similaires. On suppose que ces réactions se sont produites dans l’océan, de préférence à côté de cheminées volcaniques. Ceci a conduit à augmenter la teneur en méthane de l’atmosphère et des océans. Un méthane plus abondant a permis une plus grande diversité de molécules organiques (la présence d’argile et de sulfures a sans doute joué un rôle prépondérant, voir les posts sur la chimie du vivant). Puis, il y a 2,5 milliards d’années sont apparus des microorganismes mettant en œuvre une autre forme de métabolisme : les cyanobactéries.

Photosynthèse

Les cyanobactéries pratiquent la photosynthèse. La photosynthèse consiste en une réduction du CO2 par l’eau en utilisant l’énergie solaire captée par la chlorophylle (une molécule organique comportant un atome de magnésium). La photosynthèse produit des oses (des sucres comme le glucose) et du dioxygène O2. La photosynthèse est un processus complexe :

Des molécules captent la lumière pour produire deux types d’enzymes.

Ces enzymes permettent ensuite à l’eau de réagir avec le CO2 qui a été fixé au préalable sur un composé phosphaté. Elles apportent l’énergie (sous forme d’électrons excités électriquement) et le pouvoir réducteur nécessaires à la réaction.

Les glucides produits par la photosynthèse sont en partie transformés en lipides par le métabolisme de ces organismes.

Le CO2 transformé par la photosynthèse enrichit la biomasse (masse totale des organismes vivants de toute nature). Une partie de ce CO2 est libérée rapidement et retourne au milieu ambiant (décomposition). Une autre partie de ce CO2 est fossilisée ou enfouie dans les tourbières. Les tourbières du carbonifère sont à l’origine de nos gisements d’énergie fossile.

La photosynthèse va bouleverser l’équilibre atmosphérique. Dans un premier temps la photosynthèse est l’apanage des cyanobactéries, des microorganismes de la classe des archées. Elles se développent de façon exponentielle. Le CO2 qu’elles captent est fossilisé sous la forme de structures laminaires calcaires, les stromatolithes dont on trouve de nombreuses traces dans les fonds marins peu profonds. L’activité des cyanobactéries se prolonge pendant des dizaines de millions d’années. Elle conduit à une nouvelle baisse de la teneur en CO2 et à l’oxygénation de l’atmosphère.

L’oxygénation a des effets multiples : développement de nouvelles formes de vie de plus en plus complexes, apparition de la couche d’ozone qui protèges les organismes des effets délétères des UV solaires, mise en place d’un nouvel équilibre thermique à la surface de la Terre. Les microorganismes méthanogènes étant pour la plupart anaérobies ont trouvé refuge sous terre, dans les fonds marins ou à l’intérieur d’organismes vivants plus complexes. Des organismes multicellulaires se sont en effet développés qui mettent en œuvre un métabolisme encore plus élaboré. Cette fois, c’est le pouvoir oxydant de l’oxygène qui est utilisé comme source d’énergie. Ces organismes se nourrissent des organismes photosynthétiques (que l’on peut qualifier de végétaux ou du moins de proto-végétaux) et absorbent l’oxygène de l’air pour oxyder les lipides et les glucides qu’ils contiennent. Ce processus produit de l’eau, du CO2 et des molécules à fort pouvoir réducteur (des nucléotides comme l’ATP, l’adénosine triphosphate, une molécule essentielle à la locomotion et à la division cellulaire). Le CO2 est rejeté dans l’atmosphère ou dans l’eau dans le cas d’animaux marins.

Le cycle du carbone aujourd’hui

Le terme de cycle du carbone recouvre en fait une multiplicité de processus interdépendants avec des temps de cycle très différents. Certains de ces processus conduisent à une séquestration plus ou moins importante et plus ou moins longue du CO2. D’autres tournent en boucle. Ils fonctionnent selon deux modes principaux :

le mode photosynthétique,

le mode acide.

Le cycle marin combine ces deux modes.

La voie photosynthétique repose sur le principe de la photosynthèse décrit plus haut. Le CO2 est capté par les plantes et augmente la biomasse végétale. A partir de là, la voie photosynthétique se ramifie :

une partie de la biomasse végétale se décompose et libère du CO2 ou du méthane qui s’échappent dans l’atmosphère,

une partie est enfouie dans les tourbières,

une partie est consommée par le règne animal (elle augmente la biomasse animale).

Au demeurant, la biomasse animale connaît le même sort que la biomasse végétale : décomposition, enfouissement ou absorption par des prédateurs.

La voie acide a été décrite plus haut : dissolution du CO2 par l’humidité ambiante, pluie acide, ruissellement, réaction avec les silicates, précipitation du calcaire… Elle aboutit à une séquestration du CO2 sous forme de carbonate de calcium. La subduction entraîne le calcaire sous le manteau et, au bout d’un temps indéterminé, du CO2 peut être rejeté dans l’atmosphère lors d’une éruption volcanique.

Le cycle marin est complexe. La surface de l’océan peut absorber du gaz carbonique ou en restituer par évaporation en fonction du gradient de température entre l’eau et l’air, de la pression de CO2 dans l’air, de la teneur de l’eau en acide carbonique et d’autres paramètres… Une quantité non négligeable de CO2 est stockée dans les couches supérieures de l’océan (environ 40000 Gigatonnes selon les estimations). Cette quantité reste à peu près constante, l’absorption compensant l’évaporation et la sédimentation (voir plus bas). Le CO2 dissous dans les couches supérieures de l’océan entretient l’activité photosynthétique des algues et contribue à la biomasse marine (principalement due au plancton).

Comme nous l’avons mentionné plus haut, le CO2 dissous dans l’eau libère des ions carbonates et ceux-ci précipitent avec les ions calcium pour donner du calcaire. Une partie de ce calcaire se dépose au fond de l’océan et sédimente. Une autre partie est absorbée par les animaux marins pour constituer leur coquille ou leur squelette. Ce calcaire est donc intégré à la biomasse marine. Lorsque ces animaux marins meurent, le calcaire n’est pas décomposé et il rejoint les sédiments d’origine purement minérale au fond de l’océan. C’est la raison pour laquelle les roches calcaires comportent de nombreux morceaux de coquillage (et parfois des fossiles entiers).

Le CO2, un composé indispensable à la vie ?

Au terme de cette rapide présentation des propriétés du dioxyde on est loin de ce poison de notre existence si souvent décrit. Bien au contraire, le CO2 joue un rôle essentiel dans l’équilibre du vivant.

En premier lieu, la teneur de l’atmosphère en CO2 (et du méthane dont le cycle est très lié à celui du carbone) joue un rôle de thermostat à l’échelle de la Terre. Une teneur trop basse et c’est la glaciation assurée. Un excès de CO2 et on risque un emballement thermique (fonte des glaciers, diminution de l’albedo, accroissement du réchauffement…). La planète Vénus a connu un emballement de ce type. Vénus est, en apparence, la sœur jumelle de la Terre mais elle est recouverte d’une atmosphère pesante (la pression est supérieure à 90 atmosphères) constituée à 96% de gaz carbonique. Cette atmosphère épaisse entretient un effet de serre brûlant (465° à la surface) qui interdit à toute forme de vie de se développer. Au demeurant, il n’y a pas de trace d’eau à la surface et il y a très peu de molécules H2O dans l’atmosphère.

Mais le CO2, c’est également un composant clef de la chimie du vivant. Il joue un rôle déterminant dans deux chaînes métaboliques essentielles : celle des organismes méthanogènes et celle, beaucoup plus élaborée, de la photosynthèse. Or, c’est la photosynthèse qui renouvelle l’oxygène que nous consommons et qui entretient la croissance des plantes et des algues qui sont à la base de la chaîne alimentaire.

L’équilibre thermique et biologique de notre planète est le produit de cycles interdépendants dont la mise en place a pris des centaines de millions d’années. L’activité humaine (déforestation, rejet de CO2 par combustion d’énergie fossile) modifie les paramètres qui conditionnent cet équilibre. Celui-ci sera-t-il assez robuste pour s’ajuster ou le point de non-retour est-il atteint ? La question est posée et il n’est plus possible de dire que nous n’avons pas été prévenus. C’est l’un des principaux défis que devra relever l’humanité au XXIème siècle.

Pour en savoir plus :

post d’introduction à la chimie

post sur les composants élémentaires

post sur la classification périodique des éléments

post sur le carbone

post sur les carbonates

post sur les liaisons chimiques

post sur les acides et les bases

post sur les sels

glossaire de chimie générale

index

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Mineral Groups and Their Characteristics

When people think of minerals, they don’t often categorize them. Usually, they ponder about their beauty and how they could make a nice addition to the design of their homes. However, science definitely puts certain minerals into specific groups. The different types of minerals are silicates, oxides, sulfates, sulfides, carbonates, native elements, and halides. In the following paragraphs, these groups will be explored in detail.

Silicates

This group of minerals has silicon (Si) and oxygen (O). Coincidentally, these two elements are the most prominent in the earth’s crust. Minerals that are silicates are quartz, orthoclase feldspar, olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, muscovite mica, plagioclase feldspar, and biotite mica (“Major Mineral Groups (Part 2”)).

Oxides

These are compounds that combine metallic elements with hydroxyl (OH), oxygen, or water. With these mixtures, oxides are the most variable of minerals. For instance, some of them can be very soft, and others can be very hard (“Oxides – Minerals.net Glossary of Terms”).

Sulfates

The basic material of sulfates is sulfur and oxygen (SO4), which are combined with various elements. The usual two sulfates are gypsum and barite. Both of these minerals are relatively soft and are white in color (“Major Mineral Groups (Part 2”)).

Sulfides

According to Britannica, there are three types of sulfides: inorganic sulfides, organic sulfides, and phosphine sulfides. Each of these contains sulfur. Inorganic sulfides have the special characteristic of negatively charged sulfide ion. On the other hand, organic sulfides have a sulfur atom that is, “covalently bonded to two organic groups” (Zumdahl, Steven S.). Finally, phosphine sulfides are created from a reaction of “organic phosphines with sulfur, in which the sulfur atom is linked to the phosphorus by a bond that has both covalent and ionic properties” (Zumdahl, Steven S.).

Carbonates

These minerals have carbonate and a mixture of carbon and oxygen (CO3) that is combined with different elements. The most well-known carbonates are calcite and dolomite. This variety of minerals commonly is used as metal ores in the form of iron, zinc, lead, and more (“Major Mineral Groups (Part 2”)).

Native elements

These are naturally occurring minerals that are uncombined. The California Academy of Sciences states, “They are composed of three groups: metals, semimetals, and nonmetals. Notable examples include gold and copper, both of which are metals; semimetals like carbon and sulfur; and, finally, arsenic, a nonmetal. Other examples, like tin, cadmium, and mercury, occur with even greater scarcity” (Leman, Jennifer). There is a vast variety of settings that these minerals can be found. With them appearing in nature on their own, ancient peoples, and modern humans as well, have used them for myriad purposes.

Halides

Its foundation is combining metal with either chlorine, bromine, fluorine, iodine, or astatine. Like native elements, they are naturally occurring. Basically, they are salts of halogen acids and comprise halite, sylvite, fluorite, and some rarer compounds (Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia).

As we have seen, minerals are broken down into groups based on their properties. There are seven categories to be aware of: silicates, oxides, sulfates, sulfides, carbonates, native elements, and halides. It is important to understand the uses, elements, and technical aspects of these minerals to comprehend our natural world better.

Works Cited “Major Mineral Groups (Part 2).” Minerals 1.3, Radford University, www.radford.edu/jtso/GeologyofVirginia/Minerals/GeologyOfVAMinerals1-3a.html. “Oxides – Minerals.net Glossary of Terms.” Oxides – Minerals.net Glossary of Terms, www.minerals.net/mineral_glossary/oxides.aspx. Zumdahl, Steven S. “Sulfide.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 31 Oct. 2018, www.britannica.com/science/sulfide-inorganic. Leman, Jennifer. “Mineral Mondays: Native Elements.” California Academy of Sciences, www.calacademy.org/explore-science/mineral-mondays-native-elements. Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. “Halide Mineral.”