#morganatic wives

[warwickroyals]

↬ Warwick Wives (2/7) | royal wives during the reigns of Louis III & James I, 1817 - 1857

Both Louis III and James I were unpopular, their reigns were characterised mostly by the royal family's struggle to produce a male heir. In the mid-nineteenth century, the middle-aged, promiscuous and ill-tempered sons of Louis II, vied for the throne. They scrambled to marry and have children. This power struggle divided their young wives, who over the years became jealous, power-hungry, and cunning.

E L I Z A B E T H was the daughter of a wealthy American merchant, the first of House Warwick's many American brides. She married Hereditary Prince Frederick, the only child of King Louis III, in 1826. Criticized as morganatic, the marriage was harmonious but deeply unpopular. Elizabeth was tiny but fierce, with Frederick calling her his "Pocket Artemis" due to her spirited personality and uncharacteristic love of hunting. During her time as Hereditary Princess, Elizabeth was a strong voice for social reforms, although her activism was pointedly ignored by the staunchly conservative king and royal dukes. Elizabeth and Frederick had no children at the time of his early death, sparking a succession crisis. Elizabeth remained close to her in-laws, but later remarried and had four children, the eldest of which was named Frederick.

C A R O L I N E married fifty-three-year-old James, Duke of Lennox when she was twenty-six. The marriage was chiefly a political one, in light of Prince Frederick's death and King Louis III's unhappy marriage with Queen Mary Caroline the Duke was increasingly likely to succeed to the throne. James despised his younger brothers, the Dukes of Glenciarn, Bessarion, Westminster, and Keele, and saw them as a threat to his inheritance. When a healthy son, the future Louis IV, was born in 1840, James was relieved.

Caroline herself was miserable. Her marriage to James had also produced several children who were stillborn or died in infancy. With her health permanently weakened, Caroline was isolated at Lennox House, where she lived with Louis separately from her husband. German by birth, she spoke broken English (although many historians believe this was an act to appear unassuming) and had a hard time adjusting to life in Sunderland. When she became Queen, her situation improved, but she attracted the ire of the Duchess of Glencairn by snubbing her son. Their rivalry would haunt Caroline for the rest of her life. While she was an affectionate mother to Louis, Caroline was intentionally cruel to James's numerous illegitimate children. She promptly banished them from court after James died in 1857.

Caroline has the great accomplishment of being the first woman to serve as a regent. During Louis IV's minority, she governed with a surprising level of competence; but she was unable to control Louis, who had grown temperamental and spoilt.

I M O G E N was stern and grim, with a sharp, unsmiling face. Despite this, in 1837 she left her home in England for the man she loved—the kindhearted Prince Henry, an amateur playwright and the third son of King Louis II. Imogen was passionately in love with her husband and she took pride in her two children. The couple's youngest, George, was the first male-line grandson of Louis II since Hereditary Prince Frederick's death, and Imogen was convinced he would be king someday.

Imogen was crushed by Henry's early death in 1840; after which she became paranoid, controlling, and antagonistic. For the next eighteen years, Imogen clung to George, fearing that his uncles would murder him to secure their own claims. When King Louis IV was enthroned in 1857, with Imogen's arch-enemy Queen Caroline serving as regent, Imogen returned to London, dragging her reluctant teenage children with her. By the time George became king in 1860, Imogen was estranged from him. The pair only reconciled after George became a father in 1862.

E L I Z A B E T H was another German princess who married a son of King Louis II. Prince Reginald's horrific reputation preseeded him, and the seventeen-year-old Elizabeth trembled on her way up to the altar. Reginald was a career soldier who lived a Spartan lifestyle and the rumours surrounding him ranged from off-putting to abhorrent. Luckily for Elizabeth, these rumours were mostly conjecture, and Reginald treated his wife with a "passing indifference". Reginald's military career was sporadic, and he left Elizabeth alone at his city estate for increasingly long stretches of time.

Elizabeth ran a carefree but lonely household. She was often seen picking flowers around the mansion's perimeter and trying to befriend the serving girls and vagabond women who passed through the estate, often giving away her possessions to win their friendship. In her later years, Elizabeth was aggravated by her late husband's debts. While Queen Alexandra, dismissed Elizabeth as peu de chose (not much), King George I was saddened when Elizabeth died.

J A N E had a habit of chewing on caraway seeds. She was pleasant, but known to pry. She came from a family of Sunderlandian aristocracy, a descendant of the Prussian entourage that followed King Louis I and Queen Whilmenina into Sunderland in the 1780s. Her family name Smith was adopted after King Louis II anglicized his own name from the German Hohenzollern to Warwick—an attempt to distance himself from Prussia. Jane married King Louis II's youngest surviving son, Prince Robert, who was fifteen years her senior. Robert was polarizing and widely despised for his controversial stint in the House of Lords. Despite this, the marriage was a happy one and Robert doted on his wife. Jane was the favourite aunt of King Louis IV but his successor, George I, had little love for her and his mother distrusted her.

M A R T H A was a large and domineering woman. Despite marrying the fifth son of King Louis II, she had a bravado that outpaced her station. Unlike her sisters-in-law, Martha remained a prominent member of the royal family during the reign of her nephew, King George I. Known to be an extravagant hostess, Dear Aunt Westminster drank and ate in excess, and habitually burned through her generous pension. She also quarrelled with Queen Alexandra, who thought her impertinent. Family drama quashed Martha's high ambitions in the later half of the 19th century. Her elder son was disinherited after marrying his mistress and her second entered a loveless political union that produced one daughter, Anne. Martha died at the age of ninety-five in 1911, making her one of the longest-lived members of the royal family. Just two years after her death, her granddaughter Anne married the future King George II.

[adini-nikolaevna]

How was Alexander III's relationship with his brothers' wives? I know I hate Maria Pavlovna. But what did he think of his brother Sergei's wife, Elizabeth Feodorovna? I read somewhere that he considered Elizabeth the most beautiful woman in Russia. What did he think about Elizabeth, how were they between them?

Hi! You’re correct that Alexander III was less than fond of his brother Vladimir’s wife, Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna “the Elder.” We don’t know for sure if Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich did in fact marry his significant other, Alexandra Zhukovskaya (and if he did, it was a morganatic marriage), but we do know that his father, Alexander II, did not approve of the relationship; however, Alexander III later gave Alexei and Alexandra’s son the title of “Count,” which Alexander II had refused to do; I don’t know how he felt about Alexandra Zhukovskaya, though. I believe he was fond of Sergei Alexandrovich’s wife, Elizaveta Feodorovna—she wrote a letter to Queen Victoria describing the kindness shown her by her brother-in-law Sasha. As for Pavel’s first wife, Alexandra Georgievna, I have to assume that he liked her as well—she was his niece, and to my knowledge; no one had a bad word to say about her.

[germanaustriannoblesandroyals]

House of Chotek & of Habsburg: Countess Sophie Chotek of Chotkowa and Wognin

Sophie was born as the fifth child of Count Bohuslav Chotek of Chotkow and Wognin and his wife Countess Wilhelmine Kinsky of Wchinitz and Tettau. Her siblings were Count Wolfgang Chotek, Countess Zdenka Chotek, Princess Marie of Thun and Hohenstein, Countesses Karoline and Henriette of Nostitz-Rieneck, Countess Oktavia of Schönburg-Glachau and Countess Antoinette Wuthenau-Hohenthurm.

Sophie grew up in Dresden where her father had worked as diplomat. She had received an education and led the household of her father after her mother had died. When she fell for her future husband Archduke Franz Ferdinand, most of her sisters were already married and one of them even served Crown Princess Stéphanie of Austria-Hungary as a lady-in-waiting. When exactly the couple actually met for the first time is debated to this day. The time frame is somewhen between 1894 and 1897. However this may be, they were able to spent a few days icognito at Bad Neuenahr in 1898 with the help of a former lady-in-waiting of Franz Ferdinand’s aunt Empress Elisabeth.

The relationship only became public in 1899. The year before, Sophie had made clear she wanted to live closer to her lover, since she was still living with her father in Dresden. But Franz Ferdinand wanted to avoid the Viennese gossip and suggested she should apply as a lady-in-waiting to Archduchess Isabella, The Duchess of Teschen, who lived with her family in Bratislava. Isabella was supposedly a difficult mistress to please, so Sophie was reluctant but eventually did apply and received the post. From now on, Franz Ferdinand accepted every invitation of Archduke Friedrich’s family and visited them twice or thrice a week. Isabella hoped he was interested in her eldest daughter Archduchess Maria Christina of Austria-Teschen. One day, Isabella discovered a locket that Franz Ferdinand had dropped on the tennis court and opened it. She had expected to find a picture of her daughter in it but instead she found one of Sophie inside.

As soon as the relationship became public, the court tried to separate the couple. Sophie was not of high enough rank for a member of the House of Habsburg’s main line and heir to the throne, although her family had been nobles since the middle ages. Only when Franz Ferdinand’s stepmother Infanta Maria Theresa of Portugal spoke to Emperor Franz Joseph, the couple received permission to marry morganatically on April 8th, 1900, which they did less than three months later on July 1st. The condition was that Franz Ferdinand signed a document which effectively removed his future children from the line of succession and prevented him from crowning, in case of a succession to the throne, Sophie Empress of Austria, Queen of Hungary, Bohemia, Croatia or any other Habsburg realm or even making her an archduchess. This was especially important since Hungary did not practise the concept of morganatical marriages but instead viewed all marriages as equal. For her wedding, Sophie received the title of Fürstin (Princess) of Hohenberg and the style of Serene Highness. Nevertheless, Sophie was treated as a second-class noble by the Viennese society. The only one she was closed with in the Imperial family was Crown Prince Rudolf’s widow Princess Stéphanie of Belgium.

Only in 1909, after the birth of all of her children, she received the elevation to Duchess and the style of a Highness. She received many congratulation letters for it, one of them came form the German Emperor Wilhelm II who was a friend of her husband. But while her husband ranked only below The Emperor as his heir, she ranked behind all the archduchesses as well as the mediatized princesses and countess of Austria and Hungary. This difference in rank kept some courts from hosting the couple as it was difficult to do so without making any mistakes. But this did not keep the Romanian King Karl I. and his wife Elisabeth of Wied in 1909 and the British King George V and his wife Mary of Teck in 1913 from hosting them.

A little more than half a year after their visit to Britain, Sophie and Franz Ferdinand were dead. They were assassinated in Sarajevo. While he was shot in the neck, a bullet hit her in the abdomen. Their last recorded conversation was her asking him what had happened to him and him begging her to stay alive for the children while calling her by her nickname Sopherl. The murder of Sophie and Franz Ferdinand is regarded as the spark that set World War I in motion. Even in death, protocol took presedence. Franz Ferdinand had the right to be buried in the Imperial Crypt but Sophie did not. Instead they had requested to be buried together at the Habsburg’s summer home of Arstetten castle.

Their children Sophie, Maximilian and Ernst were raised by Sophie’s sister Henriette while their legal guardian became their uncle and good friend of their father Prince Jaroslav of Thun and Hohenstein. Sophie and Maximilian decided to forgive Nedeljko Čabrinović for the murder of their parents after her showed regret for doing it while Ernst did not sign the letter they wrote to him. Ernst and Maximilian were later imprisoned in a concentration camp in Dachau for making anti-Nazi statements after the Annextion of Austria by The Third Reich. But they survived their imprisonment. Through her daughter Sophie is an ancestor of the actors Friedrich and Max von Thun. The latter actually played Franz Ferdinand’s cousin Crown Prince Rudolf in a miniseries in 2006.

// Florinda Bolkan in The Day That Shook the World (1975)

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Requested by anonymous

[apolesen]

Let’s talk about conventions around Cardassian surnames. I’ve started pondering the question of whether Cardassians take their spouse’s surname (perhaps more specifically, whether women take their husband’s surname). There is nothing in alpha canon that gives us any clues (I looked through Memory Alpha’s ‘Cardassians’ category, and the only case we have of people with the same surname are fathers and their children - Kotan and Rugal Pa’Dar, Tekeny and Iliana Ghemor, etc.) On Memory Alpha there are a few examples of wives whose last names are listed as the same  as their husbands (Athra Dukat, Niala Damar), but I don’t know if that actually means that they’re called that in the books, or if the Memory Beta editors are making the assumption that Skrain Dukat’s wife Athra must be Athra Dukat. While I’m not sure what my opinion actually is, I feel that automatically assuming that their system is just like the dominant one in our society is...  bit dull? 

Cross-culturally, the concept of taking your husband’s surname is not that common. Even in Northern Europe (because in Southern Europe it’s still not widely done), it is quite a new thing. Still in the late 18th century in Europe, women would still be known by the surname they were born with, or would swap between their family surname and their husband’s surname depending on the situation. Among the Etruscans of ancient Italy (where women had three names - praenomen (forename) nomen (family name) and cognomen (personal name, but sometimes associated with family branches) - unlike among the Romans, where women only had a nomen and sometimes cognomen), women kept their own family’s nomen even after getting married. The children would take the father’s nomen. This seems to be a more common model, occurring in much of modern Asia (though interestingly enough not in Japan). I believe that in some cultures (though I’m not sure where), newly-weds will take an entirely new surname, both changing to that name. 

All this comes down to how marriage is conceptualised. Do Cardassians see the woman as ‘leaving’ the family she was born into and instead becoming part of the husband’s family? Does she ‘connect’ both families? Or is she half-outside her husband’s family - a conduit of the family but not quite part of it? I don’t think it’s a given that all Cardassians do the same thing - there might be class differences, where the upper classes do one thing and others do another. Maybe there are different types of marriage of different degrees (thinking something like the Roman concepts of marriage cum manu and sine manu, where legal control either passes to the husband or stays with the father (but maybe less ‘women don’t have rights’-y) or maybe like morganatic marriages). Perhaps surnames can sometimes be matrilineal, in some social contexts or some geographical areas. 

This was a very rambly way of saying - I’d love to hear people’s thoughts and personal headcanons on Cardassian marriage and Cardassian name conventions. 

[ladysophy]

If the morganatic wives of pre-20th century royal men (Kings, Princes, Grand Dukes, Dukes, even Elector Palatines) existed in this lovely age of social media, they would have unfortunately received some anonymous hate from jealous and snobby people.

But their royal husbands would protect them by threatening the naysayers with lawyers and security!

[dragonmartellstark]

AU: Elia Martell and Rhaella Targaryen, the sun and the dragon (1 /?)

At the end of the War of the Usurper, Elia with the help of Jaime Lannister managed to make peace with Robert Baratheon despite the fact that he killed her husband, Rhaegar Targaryen. Robert and Eddard Stark demanded the release of Lyanna Stark, Eddard's sister and Robert's fiancée, something that Elia accepted. In order to win the favor of the Starks, she agreed to return the remains of Rickard Stark and Brandon Stark, Ned's father and brother, in addition to paying funerals out of respect.

Elia returned Lyanna to her family, but what everyone did not expect was that the young woman had become pregnant with Rhaegar and this provoked the wrath of Robert Baratheon, but the princess of Dorne offered her that the little one live in Winterfell and that his mother could visiting him, something that Robert did not like, but in the end he agreed that his friend Ned raised him and that his beloved Lyanna visit his son, if he wanted to have her.

In the year 284 a. C., little Aegon was crowned Aegon VI Targaryen and Elia Martell was named as his regent, despite the gossip about the princess. That same year, Rhaella Targaryen widow of Aerys II returned from dragonstone with her children, Viserys and Daenerys, this was a great joy for Elia and her children, since mother-in-law and daughter-in-law were very appreciated and Rhaella loved her. grandchildren of her.

Elia Martell: Elia was regent for her son Aegon VI for 14 years, at that time his regency was described as peaceful and surrounded himself with advisers who were mostly Dornish, his main adviser was his brother Doran who gave him ideas about new reforms such as accepting that a young widow remarried and allowing an illegitimate child to have the right to inheritance in the event that his legitimate siblings do not have children.

In the year 298 a. C., his son Aegon was declared of legal age, Elia moved away from political life, focused on charitable acts helping various orphanages and instilling some Dornish customs in the court, being compared to the former queen, Mariah Martell. In 309 a. C., she ordered to rebuild the castle of Summer Refuge and placed in a room the portraits of the victims of the fire as a sign of respect. Elia lived for a time in the castle receiving the visit of her children, grandchildren and her brothers, leading a quiet and full life.

Elia passed away in 313 a. C. her, she at 56 years old she was the victim of her poor health and she was cremated, her ashes were buried next to those of Queen Rhaella Targaryen.

Rhaella Targaryen: Rhaella was sheltered in Dragonstone with her young son, Viserys, and her baby in her womb. She became a widowed queen when her brother-husband, Aerys II died at the hands of Jaime Lannister, but her eldest son, Rhaegar also passed away and this news broke the queen who was in her last months of gestation, but she tried to reassure herself by the good of your baby. In the year 284 a. C., Rhaella went into labor and gave birth to a girl, Daenerys, and was warned that another delivery of her could kill her. That same year, Rhaella's grandson was crowned Aegon VI Targaryen and the widow set off for King's Landing with her children to meet her beloved daughter-in-law, Elia, and her beloved grandchildren.

Rhaella remained by her family's side leading a quiet life and she spent her days taking care of her children, riding horses and having lively talks with a small social circle that she began to create. She mourned her husband for a whole year, but she was reunited with her old love, Bonifer Hasty and she obtained Elia's permission to marry hers, despite the fact that this marriage was morganatic. The queen and her new husband settled in rooms in the red fortress, and it is known that the marriage was solid and harmonious with Bonifer being a good stepfather for Viserys and Daenerys.

Rhaella Targaryen passed away in 305 a. C., at 60 years of age due to cardiac complications being a great pain for her entire family. She was cremated and her ashes rest alongside those of Rhaegar and Elia Martell.

Aegon VI Targaryen: He was king of the Seven Kingdoms and the sixth of his name, he was crowned with two years of age and his regent was his mother, Elia Martell. Aegon grew up alongside his sister, Rhaenys, and his paternal uncles, Viserys and Daenerys, receiving classes from Rhaella and Elia.

At first Aegon would marry his older sister, Rhaenys, but his grandmother convinced Elia that it was not a good idea, since Rhaella thought that so much incest practiced by several Targaryen generations could cause infertility or stillborn babies to the king, which is why he sought several maidens to be the next queen of the Seven Kingdoms. Many lords of different houses offered their daughters as wives, but it was not until 298 a. C., when Aegon came of age and organized a dance to meet the candidates to be his wife.

All the maidens of the Seven Kingdoms were introduced and Aegon danced with some of them, but he chose Shireen Baratheon, daughter of Stannis Baratheon and niece of Robert Baratheon. Although the Lord of Storm's End had two daughters, Aegon decided on Shireen, appearing to him to be a very beautiful and sweet girl, this was well liked by Elia and Rhaella in a way to appease the tensions between the Baratheon and the Targaryens.

The wedding took place on the first day of the year 299 a. C., Aegon was 17 years old and Shireen 10 years old, the marriage was not consummated until the year 304 a. C.. The marriage was happy and Shireen bore him five sons and two daughters, ensuring the descendants of the Targaryen-Baratheon.

Aegon's reign was peaceful highlighting the alliances between different houses with which the Targaryens were at odds. He married several of his sons and daughters to different members of royal houses, notably the Martells, the Lannisters, the Tyrells and the Arryns. Aegon reigned for 51 years, considered one of the kings that reigned the most in the Seven Kingdoms, being the second after Jaehaerys I Targaryen. Aegon was called "The Little King" and later "The Peacemaker", being remembered as a good king who brought peace to the kingdom after the reign of terror of his grandfather, Aerys II.

Aegon passed away in 335 a. C., at 53 years of age, victim of puerperal fever due to a hunting accident where he cut his hand and the wound was not well treated.

Rhaenys Targaryen: she was the sister of King Aegon VI and at first her fiancée, but her grandmother Rhaella convinced her mother, Elia Martell, not to do more incestuous practices because she had many difficulties to have healthy children. So Rhaenys became a highly sought-after girl because if her brother died without issue she could be the new queen along with her husband.

The princess had many suitors, but her mother decided that she would marry the heir of Winterfell, Robb Stark as a way to appease the tensions between the Starks, Baratheon and the Targaryens after Robert's Rebellion. This marriage was well seen by Eddard Stark and Catelyn Tully who accepted the engagement and in receiving the princess. In 297 a. C., Rhaenys said goodbye to her family and left for the North, where her fiancée, her political family and the Stark entourage were waiting for her. That same year the case couple, the princess was 17 years old and her fiancé 14 years old, but they liked each other at first sight.

Life in the north was somewhat tumultuous for Rhaenys, as she loved to ride, dance and practice with the sword, being frowned upon by her mother-in-law, Catelyn Stark, and her sister-in-law Sansa, but she soon gained the sympathy of her father-in-law, Ned. and his brothers-in-law Arya, Bran and Rickon Stark. It is unknown how her relationship was with her half-brother Jon Stark hers when they met, but it is believed that they both had a good relationship and could even be friends.

In the year 299 a. C., Rhaenys became pregnant for the first time and this was a great joy for everyone, but the princess was pressured by her mother-in-law who criticized her for anything she did in her condition and especially when she attended her brother's wedding, Aegon with Shireen Baratheon. This burdened Rhaenys so much that she gave birth to her first child, Eddard prematurely. The next five years Rhaenys had three more children, Elia, Rhaena and Alaric Stark with them she traveled to King's Landing to visit her brother and her mother.

Rhaenys was influential in the northern court doing various tournaments and dances, in addition to organizing banquets for the vassals and their children in a way to thank her for her great effort. The princess was called "The Winter Sun" and was loved by all, but she was also the envy of some women, especially Sansa Stark and her friend, Jeyne Poole, who criticized her in her social circle for her Dornish appearance and her style of typical life of a gentleman.

In the year 304 a. C., Eddard Stark passed away due to heart problems and Rhaenys along with Robb became lords of Winterfell, being acclaimed by all. Rhaenys focused on charity, court, hunting, and her children whom she adored. As Mistress of Winterfell she was good and much loved by all, Domeric Bolton admitted that she was just as beautiful as Catelyn Tully, but Rhaenys shone like the sun.

The years passed and it is known that the couple was very happy, Robb was always faithful to his wife and he was never known for any conquest despite being highly sought after by some ladies. In the year 335 a. C., King Aegon VI died and the death of her brother was a great pain for Rhaenys since she was very close to him, losing the two people she loved the most, her mother and her brother. A year later Rhaenys became seriously ill after falling into a pool of frozen water in the cold and was in bed for several months until the first day of 337 a. C., Princess Rhaenys passed away at 57 years of age and was buried in the crypts of Invernalia where she later would be accompanied by her husband, Robb Stark.

AU: Elia Martell y Rhaella Targaryen, el sol y el dragón (1/?)

A finales de la Guerra del Usurpador, Elia con la ayuda de Jaime Lannister logró hacer la paz con Robert Baratheon pese a que este mato a su esposo, Rhaegar Targaryen. Robert y Eddard Stark exigía la liberación de, Lyanna Stark hermana de Eddard y prometida de Robert, algo que Elia acepto. Para ganarse el favor de los Stark acepto regresar los restos de Rickard Stark y Brandon Stark, el padre y el hermano de Ned, además de pagar funerales en señal de respeto.

Elia devolvió a Lyanna con su familia, pero lo que todos no esperaban era que la joven había quedado embarazada de Rhaegar y esto provoco la ira de Robert Baratheon, pero la princesa de Dorne le ofreció que el pequeño viviera en Invernalia y que su madre pudiera visitarlo, algo que no le agradaba a Robert, pero al final accedió que su amigo Ned lo criara y que su amada Lyanna visitara a su hijo, si quería tenerla.

En el año 284 d. C., el pequeño Aegon fue coronado como Aegon VI Targaryen y Elia Martell fue nombrada como su regente, pesé a las habladurías sobre la princesa. Ese mismo año, Rhaella Targaryen viuda de Aerys II volvió desde rocadragón junto a sus hijos, Viserys y Daenerys, esto fue una gran alegría para Elia y sus hijos, ya que suegra y nuera se apreciaban mucho y Rhaella amaba a sus nietos.

Elia Martell: Elia fue regente de su hijo Aegon VI por 14 años, en esos tiempos su regencia fue descrita como pacifica y se rodeo de consejeros que en su mayoría eran dornienses, su consejero principal fue su hermano Doran quien le dio ideas sobre nuevas reformas como aceptar que una viuda joven volviera a contraer matrimonio y permitir que un hijo ilegitimo tenga derecho a herencia en caso de que sus hermanos legítimos no tengan descendencia.

En el año 298 d. C., su hijo Aegon fue declarado mayor de edad, Elia se alejo de la vida política, se centro en los actos benéficos ayudando a varios orfanatos e inculcando algunas costumbres dornienses a la corte, siendo comparada con la antigua reina, Mariah Martell. En el 309 d. C., mando a reconstruir el castillo de Refugio Estival y coloco en una habitación los retratos de las victimas del incendio como señal de respeto. Elia vivió por un tiempo en el castillo recibiendo la visita de sus hijos, nietos y sus hermanos, llevando una vida tranquila y plena.

Elia falleció en el año 313 d. C., a los 56 años victima de su pésima salud y fue incinerada, sus cenizas fueron enterradas junto a las de la reina Rhaella Targaryen.

Rhaella Targaryen: Rhaella estaba resguardada en Rocadragón junto a su hijo pequeño, Viserys y el bebé en su vientre. Ella se convirtió en reina viuda al morir su hermano-esposo, Aerys II a manos de Jaime Lannister, pero su hijo mayor, Rhaegar también falleció y esta noticia rompió a la reina que estaba en sus últimos meses de gestación, pero trato de tranquilizarse por el bien de su bebé. En el año 284 d. C., Rhaella se puso de parto y dio a luz a una niña, Daenerys y se le advirtió que otro parto mas podría matarla. Ese mismo año, el nieto de Rhaella fue coronado como Aegon VI Targaryen y la viuda partió hacia Desembarco del Rey junto a sus hijos reencontrándose con su querida nuera, Elia y sus adorados nietos.

Rhaella permaneció al lado de su familia llevando una vida tranquila y paso sus días cuidando a sus hijos, cabalgando y teniendo charlas animadas con un pequeño circulo social que empezó a crear. Estuvo un año entero de luto por su marido, pero volvió a reencontrarse con su antiguo amor, Bonifer Hasty y obtuvo el permiso de Elia para casarse con el, pesé a que este matrimonio era morganático. La reina y su nuevo marido se instalaron en unas habitaciones de la fortaleza roja, y se sabe que el matrimonio fue solido y armonioso siendo Bonifer un buen padrastro para Viserys y Daenerys.

Rhaella Targaryen falleció en el año 305 d. C., a los 60 años de edad por complicaciones cardiacas siendo un gran dolor para toda su familia. Fue incinerada y sus cenizas descansan junto a las de Rhaegar y Elia Martell.

Aegon VI Targaryen: Fue rey de los Siete Reinos y el sexto de su nombre, fue coronado con dos años de edad y su regente fue su madre, Elia Martell. Aegon creció junto a su hermana, Rhaenys y sus tíos paternos, Viserys y Daenerys, recibiendo clases por parte de Rhaella y Elia.

En un principio Aegon se casaría con su hermana mayor, Rhaenys, pero su abuela convenció a Elia que no era buena idea, ya que Rhaella pensaba que tanto incesto practicado por varias generaciones Targaryen podrían causarles infertilidad o bebés mortinatos al rey por lo que se busco varias doncellas para ser la siguiente reina de los Siete Reinos. Muchos señores de distintas casas ofrecieron a sus hijas como esposas, pero no fue hasta el 298 d. C., cuando Aegon cumplió la mayoría de edad y organizo un baile para conocer a las candidatas a ser su esposa. 

Todas las doncellas de los Siete Reinos fueron presentadas y Aegon bailo con alguna de ellas, pero se decanto por Shireen Baratheon, hija de Stannis Baratheon y sobrina de Robert Baratheon. Pesé a que el Señor de Bastión de Tormenta tenia dos hijas, Aegon se decidió por Shireen pareciéndole una niña muy hermosa y dulce, esto fue bien visto por Elia y Rhaella en una forma de apaciguar las tenciones entre los Baratheon y los Targaryen.

La boda se celebró el primer día del año 299 d. C., Aegon tenia 17 años y Shireen 10 años, el matrimonio no fue consumado hasta el año 304 d. C.. El matrimonio fue feliz y Shireen le dio cinco hijos y dos hijas, asegurando la descendencia de los Targaryen-Baratheon.

El reinado de Aegon fue pacifico destacando las alianzas entre diferentes casas con las que los Targaryen estuvo enemistados. Caso a varios de sus hijos e hijas con diferentes miembros de casas reales destacándose los Martell, los Lannister, los Tyrell y los Arryn. Aegon reino por 51 años, considerado como uno de los reyes que mas reino en los Siete Reinos, siendo el segundo después de Jaehaerys I Targaryen. Aegon fue llamado “El pequeño rey” y mas adelante “El pacificador”, siendo recordado como un buen rey que trajo paz al reino después del reinado de terror de su abuelo, Aerys II.

Aegon falleció el 335 d. C., a los 53 años de edad victima de fiebres puerperales debido a un accidente de caza donde se corto una mano y no fue bien tratada la herida.

Rhaenys Targaryen: Fue la hermana del rey Aegon VI y en un principio su prometida, pero su abuela Rhaella convenció a su madre, Elia Martell de no hacer mas practicas incestuosas debido a que ella tuvo muchas dificultades para tener hijos sanos. Así que Rhaenys se convirtió en una muchacha muy pretendida ya que si su hermano fallecía sin descendencia ella podría ser la nueva reina junto a su marido.

La princesa tuvo muchos pretendientes, pero su madre decidió que se casaría con el heredero de Invernalia, Robb Stark como una forma de apaciguar las tenciones entre los Stark, Baratheon y los Targaryen después de la Rebelión de Robert. Este matrimonio fue bien visto por Eddard Stark y Catelyn Tully quien acepto el compromiso y en recibir a la princesa. En el 297 d. C., Rhaenys se despidió de su familia y partió hacia el Norte, ahí la esperaban su prometido, su familia política y la comitiva de los Stark. Ese mismo año la pareja de caso, la princesa tenia 17 años y su prometido 14 años, pero ellos se gustaron a primera vista.

La vida en el norte fue algo tumultuosa para Rhaenys, debido a que ella adoraba cabalgar, bailar y practicar con la espada siendo esto mal visto por su suegra, Catelyn Stark y su cuñada Sansa, pero pronto se gano la simpatía de su suegro, Ned y de sus cuñados Arya, Bran y Rickon Stark. Se desconoce como fue su relación con su medio-hermano Jon Stark cuando se conocieron, pero se cree que ambos tuvieron un buen trato y pudieron hasta ser amigos.

En el año 299 d. C., Rhaenys se quedo embarazada por primera vez y esto fue una gran alegría para todos, pero la princesa se vio presionada por su suegra quien la criticaba por cualquier cosa que hacia en su estado y sobre todo cuando asistió al casamiento de su hermano, Aegon con Shireen Baratheon. Esto agobio mucho a Rhaenys que dio a luz a su primer hijo, Eddard de manera prematura. Los siguientes cinco años Rhaenys tuvo tres hijos mas, Elia, Rhaena y Alaric Stark con ellos viajo a Desembarco del rey para visitar a su hermano y su madre.

Rhaenys fue influyente en la corte norteña haciendo varios torneos y bailes, además de organizar banquetes para los vasallos y los hijos de estos en forma de agradecer su gran esfuerzo. La princesa fue llamada “El sol del Invierno” y fue querida por todos, pero también fue la envidia de algunas mujeres en especial de Sansa Stark y su amiga, Jeyne Poole quienes la criticaban en su circulo social por su aspecto dorniense y su estilo de vida típico de un caballero.

En el año 304 d. C., falleció Eddard Stark por problemas de corazón y Rhaenys junto a Robb se convirtieron en señores de Invernalia, siendo aclamados por todos. Rhaenys se centro en los actos de caridad, en la corte, la caza y en sus hijos a los cuales adoraba. Como Señora de Invernalia fue buena y muy querida por todos, Domeric Bolton admitió que ella era igual de hermosa que Catelyn Tully, pero Rhaenys brillaba como el sol.

Los años pasaron y se sabe que la pareja fue muy feliz, Robb siempre fue fiel a su esposa y nunca se le conoció alguna conquista pese a ser muy pretendido por algunas damas. En el año 335 d. C., falleció el rey Aegon VI y la muerte de su hermano fue un gran dolor para Rhaenys ya que estaba muy unida a el perdiendo a las dos personas que mas quiso, su madre y a su hermano. Un año después Rhaenys enfermo gravemente tras caerse a un estanque de agua helada en pleno frío y estuvo en cama por varios meses hasta que el primer día del año 337 d. C., la princesa Rhaenys falleció a los 57 años de edad y fue enterrada en las criptas de Invernalia donde mas adelante seria acompañada por su marido, Robb Stark.

[poniatowskaja]

“What arrant nonsense!”

“But let me remind you of something that we both witnessed as children. Do you recall that night in the Winter Palace where we sat at the dinner table of your grandfather and watched our relatives snub the poor Princess Dolgorouky? Weren’t you sorry for her? Weren’t you in sympathy with your grandfather?” “Of course I was,” he exclaimed impatiently, “but I was only thirteen then, and naturally no boy of that age can appreciate the wisdom of a rigid dynastic rule.” “Is there wisdom, Nicky, in trying to separate two people who love each other? Is there wisdom in forcing your brother to quit a woman with whom he is happy and marry someone he does not care for?” “Words, words, words,” he said, with a wave of the hand. “We Royalty must think of our task, not of our personal desires and fancies. It is all very well for you to heap abuse on our system of marriages, but this is the only system that preserves our children from inheriting the traits of the commoner.” “And what are those awful traits, Nicky?” I asked quietly, trying not to sound unduly ironical. He gave me a sharp glance. “Just two,” he said severely. “The quest of personal happiness. The desire to enjoy life. No sovereign may be happy. No sovereign may enjoy life. If he does” – he shrugged his shoulders, waited a moment and added, looking his gloomiest – “then nothing if left of what we call Royalty!” “I see,” I said. “You must be a confirmed believer in the law of heredity. But then, Nicky, how do you explain that neither your brother Misha nor your Uncle Paul has inherited that very laudable determination to be unhappy? God knows, there are no commoners in their family tree.” “I do not have to explain it,” he returned dryly. “My duty is to see that they are properly punished.” And punished they were. Not until the outbreak of the World War had made all the sacred rules seem insignificant and puerile were the two Grand Dukes permitted to return to Russia. Even then, though put in command of fighting units of the army, they remained estranged from the Czar, and their wives were never treated as equals by the members of the Imperial Family. Across the letter of Grand Duke Paul, who asked for his morganatic consort the rather modest privilege of being placed ahead of the general aides-de-camp during official receptions, the Czar wrote in blue pencil: “What arrant nonsense!”

“Always a Grand Duke”, Alexander Mikhailovich Romanov

[markoftheasphodel]

One reason the apparent situation with DImitri’s step-mom-- married to his dad, but not seemingly not a public queen consort, and without the connection to Adrestia known to Dimitri-- didn’t faze me much beyond “oh, that’s weird” is that people actually did that in Europe!

Both Louis XIV and his son, Louis le Grand Dauphin, took second legal wives after being widowed. In the case of Louis XIV, his second wife, Madame de Maintenon, was actually the governess who’d raised some of his li’l royal bastards by other women. She apparently was addressed as a queen within her private apartments but never reigned over the protocol-obsessed court of Versailles. As for Louis Jr, his second wife got to call members of the royal family by name but had to dress simply and never got addressed as Dauphine, though she did act as her husband’s hostess, receiving diplomats and the like.

A more recent example of a morganatic marriage like this would be the marriage of Archduke Franz Ferdinand-- yes, the dude whose assassination kicked off WWII-- to his wife Sophie. Sophie wasn’t blue-blooded enough for the Hapsburgs and basically got treated like CRAP by her in-laws, which made Franz Ferdinand rather upset. Their four children weren’t in line for the Austro-Hungarian throne and even after being assassinated alongside her husband, Sophie wasn’t given full imperial honors at their joint funeral.

So yeah, with those examples in mind, the mystery of Lady Patricia didn’t seem QUITE as inexplicable. In between the French vibes of Faerghus (as expounded upon by @gascon-en-exil) and the very public murders of Lambert and Patricia, it definitely brought these cases to mind.

[yoiea-blog]

The meaning, purpose and types of Marriages

Marriage is a union of two individuals. It is important because it lays a good platform for parenting. Many people marry because they want to have kids so that they can continue with their lineage. However, there are other exceptions that might not allow procreation based on the set up of the marriage. Therefore, understanding different types of marriages is very essential because you get to be exposed ion what is happening around you and it can also influence your decision on the type of marriage that you want.

There are several marriages in different parts of the world. This is based on customs and religions. Others are based on civilization and the classes of people. All this has contributed to the development of various types of marriages. These marriages vary in most aspects. The concept of marriage involves mutual understanding and some cultural and religious influence. People marry for different reasons and times. There are different types of marriages as we shall see later in this article.

In the olden day, marriage was so simple. This was because a man and a woman would only marry and the woman would perform the household chores and the man would take the work of providing for the family. It was clearly defined by the norms and beliefs. The functions were structurally assigned based on the status of both genders. Some other practices were perceived to be taboo. However, those days are gone. The modern generation has taken the whole concept of marriage to a different level. They have come up with different types of marriages based on their lifestyle. Therefore, bt the end of this article you will get to know the different types of marriages which are applicable in the current society. Read on and find out.

Civil marriage

This is a type of marriage that is recognized by the state. It is majorly officiated by the government officials. It is a legal marriage that should meet some legal procedures because you are provided with the marriage certificate by the state. It is one of the most known marriages and most people prefer this type of marriage. It is popular in most countries and all legal institutions are allowed by their respective institutions to legalize such a marriage. It is also practiced by a good number of people in various parts of the world especially the elite members of the society. The couple always goes to the office dealing with the marriage and some witnesses will be required. In case of any issues within this marriage, you can go to the court of law and present the documents to the judge as some evidence. However, in such a marriage divorce is allowed because both partners have an equal right to file a divorce.

Religious marriage

This is a marriage that is based on religion. Since there are various religions in the state, this implies that each religion will be doing their marriage as per their religious ways. This is a marriage that is majorly done in religious places and it is made official by the religious leaders. This is the marriage that will require the partners to go to the religious leaders and a religious ceremony is performed. Most of these marriages require some witness and some always present the couple with the marriage certificate. Different religions have different ways of performing their marriages. Islam for instance permits polygamy which allows the man to marry even up to five wives. On the other hand, Christians practice a monogamous type of marriage whereby a man should marry only one woman. Additionally, divorce is not allowed because they are bound by a mutual agreement.

Interfaith marriage

There is social diversification in the society which has enhanced interactions beyond religious beliefs which have led to interfaith marriages. In this type of marriage, there might be a need for one partner to convert to the other religion so that they can have a common religious platform to avoid conflicts of interest. However, If you can’t convert, then you can choose to marry but both of you can pursue your respective religions. The challenge comes when it comes to raising your kids, you will have to decide on the religion that you will use as the base of raising your kids. Converting might be a challenge since one might be in love with the religion they were raised on. If one converts or if you choose to live with your varied religions, then this is still an interfaith marriage so long as two religions are involved. This type of marriage is gaining popularity in several parts of the world because of civilization and the need to achieve unity. Therefore, those practicing interfaith marriage should prioritize their love more than their religious background. There has been a different perception of this type of marriage because of external influence from friends and relatives.

Monogamous marriage

This is among the most popular types of marriage that you will come across. It allows a man to stick to one spouse for a lifetime. The only way you can end this marriage is by divorce. Without divorce, then the only thing that will separate you is only death. This is one of the marriages that is known by a good number of people. It is also a marriage that requires a lot of commitment from the two partners. Trust should be the basis of this marriage. You will realize that the concept of monogamous is borrowed by other types of marriages like religious marriages. In this generation, it is perceived to be the most viable option because most people prefer small and manageable families.

Polygamous marriage

I can term this type of marriage as the opposite of monogamous. In this type of marriage, you will have more than one spouse. It is termed by some people as the plural marriage. This is the marriage that is seen by many as a thing of the past. But some cultures still encourage this type of marriage. In some places, this marriage is always against the law. It is not a popular marriage this day since most people prefer having small families. In this marriage, there is a polyandry type of marriage. This is when a woman is married to two men. Though this is always a rare thing, it is practiced in some parts of the world. Some religions like Islam allow polygamy because they have a different ideology about marriage. The bottom line of polygamous marriage is procreation. It emphasizes having more children. Its popularity is slowly fading away as a result of increased civilization and the cost of living which makes it hard to sustain such a marriage.

Secret marriage

Just as the term suggests, this marriage has some secrecy in it. It is a marriage that the family members are kept hidden in the marriage. The might be some reasons why the spouses choose to keep the family from knowing the union. This brings in the idea of a secret marriage. It is majorly done as civil marriage but some religions which might allow the marriage. In this marriage, the spouses may also choose to marry each other secretly and later choose to celebrate the union with the family and friends. This might be the reason that the couple wanted to keep the special moment to them. Another reason might be due to financial challenges. The spouses might not be ready to spend big for the wedding so they choose to have a secret marriage. Most people who practice this type of marriage prefer a minimalistic lifestyle which is hidden from the public domain

Left-handed marriage

The term might seem like two left-handed people getting married. However, it is a union between two people who belong to different social ranking. It is also termed as the morganatic marriage. It was common in the olden day when there were social ranks and people from the same class never encouraged marriage with people from another class. In this type of marriage, the spouse of the lower rank will not enjoy the privileges of the person of the higher rank. I believe that this was meant to remind the spouse with a lower rank than he or she was not part of that higher rank. In our current society, this marriage has lost meaning this is because people marry because of love these days. This has eroded the social classing that was there in the olden days.

Mixed marriage

This is a type of marriage that involves two people from different races. In the past, this type of marriage was not allowed and some laws were against this type of marriage. In current society, this marriage is allowed. But there is still some resistance that comes from the people. This is because the parents or friends might not allow the marriage. This marriage requires spouses to learn other person religions and also cultures. This is to avoid conflicts after the marriage. It is also advisable to get to this type of marriage open-mindedly. This will benefit the spouses since these two people have different culture and their lifestyle. If you are I this type of marriage then it will be good for you to understand your partner to live in harmony. This type of marriage has also enhanced unity between different races because it advocates loving beyond your boundaries. This helps in creating a conducive social environment that accommodates people from all races without feeling like they are outcast. However, its popularity is still low but based on increased social interactions there is a possibility that it will gain good ground and you might witness more of it in the future.

Same-sex marriage

also read The Twist between Making Love and having Sex

This is a marriage between the same genders. This type of marriage is not allowed in most countries but some countries have allowed this type of marriage. The base of this marriage is the existence of lesbianism and also gays. This has led to the introduction of the same gender marriage. Though most cultures do not allow this type of marriage, it still exists. This marriage has faced lots of rejections because it is perceived to be against social norms. It is not popular and some countries have banned it by enforcing strict laws on those who are found engaging in such a marriage.

Love marriage

This is a common type of marriage in the current society. This is because most people marry because of love. This has led to the introduction of love marriage and it is a common type of marriage. This type of marriage can fit in the other categories because love is the major cause of marriages in our current society. I must acknowledge that people marry for different reasons. Some are based on a specific period while others marry because of money and other privileges.

Arranged marriage

This is a marriage that has been arranged by other people. The couples will just settle in after the marriage has been arranged based on several reasons. Maybe the families involved might want to benefit from the marriage. Another possible cause of this marriage might be the reason one might be having challenges of finding the right spouse. This makes the family intervene and find a spouse on behalf of him or her. A professional matchmaker might be involved in an arranged marriage. If the two people do not match then the marriage might not proceed. Some dating apps provide matchmaking. This marriage might seem like a forced marriage but it is not because there might be an understanding between the two people and also the families. This type of marriage has some basic dynamics that are based on it. The couples who succeed in this type of marriage are those that had a perfect match based on their goals, ambitions, and lifestyle

Zombie marriage

Are You Living In A Zombie Marriage?

In this type of marriage, you are still married but the truth is that the love and the bond you once had are long gone. In this marriage, you might still be appearing to the family having some time with the family but that love and bond between the spouses are gone. Sometime you might wonder why you are still married to each other. The reason might be the children that you two have. This might be the reason you haven’t divorced. In this type of marriage, you might be stuck on the old routine but the bond is not there. The good thing in this marriage is that there might still be a chance to get back to where you were before. You can choose to rebuild the relationship and have the best out of it. This is when you two choose to have the best out of your marriage. There might be several reasons that made you get to where you are and this can be turned over. In this marriage, the spouses might have had a great relationship and that love that holds the relationship together, but due to some reasons the bond faded and you arrived at this stage.

Hot and cold marriage

This is a marriage that I can term it as unstable. You might love one another like the recently married couples and the next day you will be fighting like two enemies. This marriage can be due to some small conflict or the failure to understand your spouse. In this marriage, the best thing you can do is being mindful of the other person. Have a proper way of communicating and also try to understand the spouse well. This is the marriage that has different moods every single day. Find a way to express yourself as you try to consider the feelings of your spouse and also the other person’s attitude. This marriage might be due to some failure to understand each other or maybe you two have different beliefs.

The bossy marriage

This is the type of marriage that one person takes control of everything. There is some kind of bossy attitude rather than a union. The boss in the marriage always plans everything that has to be done in the house. These people don’t give their partners a chance to express their views. You normally find these people like the ever right ones. They just see like their decision is right and it is always final. This is the marriage that one might look like a subject to another.

Marriages are the basis of social institutions that forms a family. Well, different marriages are being practiced globally as you have seen in this article. All these marriages have something in common. They are based on mutual understanding. Marriages have undergone some transition from the early days during such modern times. There have been significant changes in the way these marriages are being conducted. However, divorce is also getting rampant nowadays because people fail to understand that marriage is vital in society. Therefore, before you consider getting married to your partner irrespective of the type of marriage that you will prefer it is important to take time and know the merits and demerits of each marriage so that you are not bound by an agreement with which you will find it hard to cope with.

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Marriage is a union of two individuals. It is important because it lays a good platform for parenting. Many people marry because they want to have kids so that they can continue with their lineage. However, there are other exceptions that might not allow procreation based on the set up of the marriage. Therefore, understanding […] More

The post The meaning, purpose and types of Marriages appeared first on Takeachancedating.com.

[bilbobagginsomebabez]

i'm screaming there was still no need for the niece thing is such a vibe when talking about the hapsburgs they make me so insane. i wanna talk about the nature of the hapsburgs monopoly on power and how it incentivized them so intensely towards incest. and like. jesus christ please for the love of god do not label me an incest apologist, but people do not sign up for this shit for no reason. they really don't. you have to be incentivized into it, and there is no bigger incentive than absolute control over 1/5th to 1/3 of what you consider a continent. this family at every moment had the choice to stop, and they chose not to and that is the most baffling fucking part. their children were falling to pieces before their eyes, dying and sickly and in chronic pain, their every instinct would have been screaming at them that the act of creating this child is wrong, and they all still did it anyway. it boggles the mind, and it's one of the reasons I stress so hard that everyone knew the entire time that incest was bad news. we knew that we couldn't breed domesticated animals too close in a line, there were religious laws and social taboos against incest (which is a human universal), and they were watching in real time as their family grew more disabled, more disfigured, more mentally unstable in many cases. so how in the absolute ever loving fuck does this happen? how does a family of absolute rulers find themselves in a position where every road leads to self-annihilation?

so poppaeasabina up there mentioned morganatic marriage, which is a hapsburg specific issue with inheritance laws. basically, if a hapsburg married below their social class, the children weren't eligible to inherit anything. bigamy laws still applied, so you couldn't have a Royal Heir and morganastic marriage at the same time. in effect, marrying below your class meant ending your "royal" line. at the same time, royals were disincentivized to marry aristocrats from within their own borders because it meant the spouse's family would immediately try to suck up power and could destabilize a court. so what do the hapsburgs do? they marry royals from other countries and use those marriages to arrange alliances and seal political agreements. and what happens when a few of those families have like 10 kids apiece? well. you've overwhelmed a very small gene pool. now everyone is your cousin and there's no one else you can marry without cancelling out any heirs. so cousin marriages became essentially unavoidable, and introductions of new genetic diversity to the pool became very very difficult.

the other danger was the nature of their inheritance laws. a woman alone could not inherit, but her son could if there were no other male heirs in his mother's generation. morganistic rules still applied, so if she married someone of too low class, her childrens' inheritences and titles would be moot. however, if she married a royal of another line and her brothers all died, suddenly her son is first in line for the throne and he's not a hapsburg. and now you have an incentive to keep your hapsburg brides married into hapsburg families or they present a risk to the dynasty's claim on the throne. the higher in the line of succession they were, the more dangerous they were. this is what happened to the spanish line anyway when they inbred themselves out of existence. a french king of a hapsburg mother claimed the throne and they still rule to this day.

but back to the original question: how the fuck does this happen? well. it happens when you have an excess of hapsburg wives who can't marry below their social class and inherently present a danger to the hapsburg grip on the throne if they marry outside the family, an excess of hapsburg genes in the very limited available gene pool outside of their own family members, and a tool of absolute oppressive control over a chunk of a continent at stake. that's how you convince people to ignore everything they know and their every human instinct. something I pointed out earlier is that they started bleeding power the second they stopped doing constant, intense incest and that's why later generations kept trying to go back to it even after they had familial memories and we had specific scientific explanations detailing the dangers the dangers of incest. their grip on power necessitated that no drop, no ounce of right to their privileges ever escape the in-group. so they didn't let it.

and it's deeply disturbing to think about. The Last Hapsburg Male who finally decided to stop doing so much incest? it was only after he'd married third wife and 14 year old niece. she got pregnant and both she and the infant died during delivery. this was rampant, open, and unapologetic serial incest, serial rape, and serial pedophilia in one family group. it's generations of abject terror on every member of that family

and i wanna go back to morganistic marriage here and note that it perfectly encapsulates this putrid bit of history: they had an out every second of every moment of every day. if they committed to a morganistic marriage, they and their children would have been free of it. they would have made an immediate dent in the severity of their childrens' health problems and they would have been free. all they had to do was sacrifice the power

even beyond the whole thing where divine pairings aren’t at all comparable to western marriage constructs “THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS GODS DID AN INCEST WITH THEIR SIBLINGS EW” is such a fucking moot point too because what, do you think divine fucking beings have like. chromosomes or some shit? no. shut up. you know nothing. Atum masturbated the universe into existence and you’re worried about Shu and Tefnut boning. come on now.

[blackkudos]

Nelson Mandela

Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (/mænˈdɛlə/; 18 July 1918 – 5 December 2013) was a South African anti-apartheid revolutionary, politician, and philanthropist, who served as President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. He was the country's first black head of state and the first elected in a fully representative democratic election. His government focused on dismantling the legacy of apartheid by tackling institutionalised racism and fostering racial reconciliation. Ideologically an African nationalist and socialist, he served as President of the African National Congress (ANC) party from 1991 to 1997.

A Xhosa, Mandela was born in Mvezo to the Thembu royal family. He studied law at the University of Fort Hare and the University of the Witwatersrand before working as a lawyer in Johannesburg. There he became involved in anti-colonial and African nationalist politics, joining the ANC and co-founding its Youth League. After the Afrikaner minority government of the National Party established apartheid—a system of racial segregation that privileged whites—he and the ANC committed themselves to its overthrow. Mandela was appointed President of the ANC's Transvaal branch, rising to prominence for his involvement in the 1952 anti-apartheid Defiance Campaign and the 1955 Congress of the People. He was repeatedly arrested for seditious activities and was unsuccessfully prosecuted in the 1956 Treason Trial. Influenced by Marxism, he secretly joined the South African Communist Party (SACP). Although initially committed to non-violent protest, in association with the SACP he co-founded the militant Umkhonto we Sizwe in 1961 and led a sabotage campaign against the government. In 1962, he was arrested for conspiring to overthrow the state and sentenced to life imprisonment in the Rivonia Trial.

Mandela served 27 years in prison, initially on Robben Island, and later in Pollsmoor Prison and Victor Verster Prison. Amid international pressure and growing fear of a racial civil war, President F. W. de Klerk released him in 1990. Mandela and de Klerk negotiated an end to apartheid and organised the 1994 multiracial general election in which Mandela led the ANC to victory and became President. Leading a broad coalition government which promulgated a new constitution, Mandela emphasised reconciliation between the country's racial groups and created the Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate past human rights abuses. Economically, Mandela's administration retained its predecessor's liberal framework despite his own socialist beliefs, also introducing measures to encourage land reform, combat poverty, and expand healthcare services. Internationally, he acted as mediator in the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial and served as Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1998 to 1999. He declined a second presidential term and in 1999 was succeeded by his deputy, Thabo Mbeki. Mandela became an elder statesman and focused on charitable work, combating poverty and HIV/AIDS through the Nelson Mandela Foundation.

Mandela was a controversial figure for much of his life. Although critics on the right denounced him as a communist terrorist and those on the radical left deemed him too eager to negotiate and reconcile with apartheid's supporters, he gained international acclaim for his activism. Widely regarded as an icon of democracy and social justice, he received more than 250 honours—including the Nobel Peace Prize—and became the subject of a cult of personality. He is held in deep respect within South Africa, where he is often referred to by his Xhosa clan name, Madiba, and described as the "Father of the Nation".

Early life

Childhood: 1918–34

Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in the village of Mvezo in Umtata, then part of South Africa's Cape Province. Given the forename Rolihlahla, a Xhosa term colloquially meaning "troublemaker", in later years he became known by his clan name, Madiba. His patrilineal great-grandfather, Ngubengcuka, was king of the Thembu people in the Transkeian Territories of South Africa's modern Eastern Cape province. One of Ngubengcuka's sons, named Mandela, was Nelson's grandfather and the source of his surname. Because Mandela was the king's child by a wife of the Ixhiba clan, a so-called "Left-Hand House", the descendants of his cadet branch of the royal family were morganatic, ineligible to inherit the throne but recognised as hereditary royal councillors.

His father, Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa, was a local chief and councillor to the monarch; he was appointed to the position in 1915, after his predecessor was accused of corruption by a governing white magistrate. In 1926, Gadla was also sacked for corruption, but Nelson was told that his father had lost his job for standing up to the magistrate's unreasonable demands. A devotee of the god Qamata, Gadla was a polygamist with four wives, four sons and nine daughters, who lived in different villages. Nelson's mother was Gadla's third wife, Nosekeni Fanny, daughter of Nkedama of the Right Hand House and a member of the amaMpemvu clan of Xhosa.

Mandela later stated that his early life was dominated by traditional Thembu custom and taboo. He grew up with two sisters in his mother's kraal in the village of Qunu, where he tended herds as a cattle-boy and spent much time outside with other boys. Both his parents were illiterate, but being a devout Christian, his mother sent him to a local Methodist school when he was about seven. Baptised a Methodist, Mandela was given the English forename of "Nelson" by his teacher. When Mandela was about nine, his father came to stay at Qunu, where he died of an undiagnosed ailment which Mandela believed to be lung disease. Feeling "cut adrift", he later said that he inherited his father's "proud rebelliousness" and "stubborn sense of fairness".

Mandela's mother took him to the "Great Place" palace at Mqhekezweni, where he was entrusted to the guardianship of the Thembu regent, Chief Jongintaba Dalindyebo. Although he did not see his mother again for many years, Mandela felt that Jongintaba and his wife Noengland treated him as their own child, raising him alongside their son, Justice, and daughter, Nomafu. As Mandela attended church services every Sunday with his guardians, Christianity became a significant part of his life. He attended a Methodist mission school located next to the palace, where he studied English, Xhosa, history and geography. He developed a love of African history, listening to the tales told by elderly visitors to the palace, and was influenced by the anti-imperialist rhetoric of a visiting chief, Joyi. At the time he nevertheless considered the European colonialists not as oppressors but as benefactors who had brought education and other benefits to southern Africa. Aged 16, he, Justice and several other boys travelled to Tyhalarha to undergo the circumcision ritual that symbolically marked their transition from boys to men; afterwards he was given the name Dalibunga.

Clarkebury, Healdtown, and Fort Hare: 1934–40

Intending to gain skills needed to become a privy councillor for the Thembu royal house, in 1933 Mandela began his secondary education at Clarkebury Methodist High School, Engcobo, a Western-style institution that was the largest school for black Africans in Thembuland. Made to socialise with other students on an equal basis, he claimed that he lost his "stuck up" attitude, becoming best friends with a girl for the first time; he began playing sports and developed his lifelong love of gardening. He completed his Junior Certificate in two years, and in 1937 moved to Healdtown, the Methodist college in Fort Beaufort attended by most Thembu royalty, including Justice. The headmaster emphasised the superiority of English culture and government, but Mandela became increasingly interested in native African culture, making his first non-Xhosa friend, a speaker of Sotho, and coming under the influence of one of his favourite teachers, a Xhosa who broke taboo by marrying a Sotho. Mandela spent much of his spare time at Healdtown as a long-distance runner and boxer, and in his second year he became a prefect.

With Jongintaba's backing, in 1939 Mandela began work on a Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree at the University of Fort Hare, an elite black institution in Alice, Eastern Cape, with around 150 students. There he studied English, anthropology, politics, native administration, and Roman Dutch law in his first year, desiring to become an interpreter or clerk in the Native Affairs Department. Mandela stayed in the Wesley House dormitory, befriending his own kinsman, K. D. Matanzima, as well as Oliver Tambo, who became a close friend and comrade for decades to come. Continuing his interest in sport, Mandela took up ballroom dancing, performed in a drama society play about Abraham Lincoln, and gave Bible classes in the local community as part of the Student Christian Association. Although he had friends connected to the African National Congress (ANC) and the anti-imperialist movement who wanted South Africa to be independent of the British Empire, Mandela avoided any involvement with the movement, and became a vocal supporter of the British war effort when the Second World War broke out. He helped to found a first-year students' house committee which challenged the dominance of the second-years, and at the end of his first year became involved in a Students' Representative Council (SRC) boycott against the quality of food, for which he was temporarily suspended from the university; he left without receiving a degree.

Arriving in Johannesburg: 1941–43

Returning to Mqhekezweni in December 1940, Mandela found that Jongintaba had arranged marriages for him and Justice; dismayed, they fled to Johannesburg via Queenstown, arriving in April 1941. Mandela found work as a night watchman at Crown Mines, his "first sight of South African capitalism in action", but was fired when the induna (headman) discovered that he was a runaway. He stayed with a cousin in George Goch Township, who introduced Mandela to realtor and ANC activist Walter Sisulu. Sisulu secured him a job as an articled clerk at the law firm of Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman, a company run by a liberal Jew, Lazar Sidelsky, who was sympathetic to the ANC's cause. At the firm, Mandela befriended Gaur Radebe, a Xhosa member of the ANC and Communist Party, as well as Nat Bregman, a Jewish communist who became his first white friend. Mandela attended communist talks and parties, where he was impressed that Europeans, Africans, Indians, and Coloureds were mixing as equals. He later stated that he did not join the Party because its atheism conflicted with his Christian faith, and because he saw the South African struggle as being racially based rather than as class warfare. To continue his higher education, Mandela signed up to a University of South Africa correspondence course, working on his bachelor's degree at night.

Earning a small wage, Mandela rented a room in the house of the Xhoma family in the Alexandra township; despite being rife with poverty, crime and pollution, Alexandra always remained a special place for him. Although embarrassed by his poverty, he briefly courted a Swazi woman before unsuccessfully courting his landlord's daughter. To save money and be closer to downtown Johannesburg, Mandela moved into the compound of the Witwatersrand Native Labour Association, living among miners of various tribes; as the compound was visited by various chiefs, he once met the Queen Regent of Basutoland. In late 1941, Jongintaba visited, forgiving Mandela for running away. On his return to Thembuland, the regent died in winter 1942; Mandela and Justice arrived a day late for the funeral. After he passed his BA exams in early 1943, Mandela returned to Johannesburg to follow a political path as a lawyer rather than become a privy councillor in Thembuland. He later stated that he experienced no epiphany, but that he "simply found [himself] doing so, and could not do otherwise."

Revolutionary activity

Law studies and the ANC Youth League: 1943–49

Mandela began studying law at the University of the Witwatersrand, where he was the only black African student. Although facing racism from some, he befriended liberal and communist European, Jewish, and Indian students, among them Joe Slovo and Ruth First. Becoming increasingly politicised, in August 1943 Mandela marched in support of a successful bus boycott to reverse fare rises. Joining the ANC, he was increasingly influenced by Sisulu, spending much time with other activists at Sisulu's Orlando house, including old friend Oliver Tambo. In 1943, Mandela met Anton Lembede, an ANC member affiliated with the Africanist branch of African nationalism, which was virulently opposed to a racially united front against colonialism and imperialism or to an alliance with the communists. Despite his friendships with non-blacks and communists, Mandela embraced Lembede's views, believing that black Africans should be entirely independent in their struggle for political self-determination. Deciding on the need for a youth wing to mass-mobilise Africans in opposition to their subjugation, Mandela was among a delegation that approached ANC President Alfred Bitini Xuma on the subject at his home in Sophiatown; the African National Congress Youth League (ANCYL) was founded on Easter Sunday 1944 in the Bantu Men's Social Centre, with Lembede as President and Mandela as a member of its executive committee.

At Sisulu's house, Mandela met Evelyn Mase, a trainee nurse and ANC activist from Engcobo, Transkei. Entering a relationship and marrying in October 1944, they initially lived with her relatives until moving into a rented house in the township of Orlando in early 1946. Their first child, Madiba "Thembi" Thembekile, was born in February 1945; a daughter, Makaziwe, was born in 1947 but died of meningitis nine months later. Mandela enjoyed home life, welcoming his mother and his sister, Leabie, to stay with him. In early 1947, his three years of articles ended at Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman, and he decided to become a full-time student, subsisting on loans from the Bantu Welfare Trust.

In July 1947, Mandela rushed Lembede, who was ill, to hospital, where he died; he was succeeded as ANCYL president by the more moderate Peter Mda, who agreed to co-operate with communists and non-blacks, appointing Mandela ANCYL secretary. Mandela disagreed with Mda's approach, and in December 1947 supported an unsuccessful measure to expel communists from the ANCYL, considering their ideology un-African. In 1947, Mandela was elected to the executive committee of the ANC's Transvaal Province branch, serving under regional president C. S. Ramohanoe. When Ramohanoe acted against the wishes of the committee by co-operating with Indians and communists, Mandela was one of those who forced his resignation.

In the South African general election, 1948, in which only whites were permitted to vote, the Afrikaner-dominated Herenigde Nasionale Party under Daniel François Malan took power, soon uniting with the Afrikaner Party to form the National Party. Openly racialist, the party codified and expanded racial segregation with new apartheid legislation. Gaining increasing influence in the ANC, Mandela and his cadres began advocating direct action against apartheid, such as boycotts and strikes, influenced by the tactics already employed by South Africa's Indian community. Xuma did not support these measures and was removed from the presidency in a vote of no confidence, replaced by James Moroka and a more militant executive committee containing Sisulu, Mda, Tambo, and Godfrey Pitje. Mandela later related that he and his colleagues had "guided the ANC to a more radical and revolutionary path." Having devoted his time to politics, Mandela failed his final year at Witwatersrand three times; he was ultimately denied his degree in December 1949.

Defiance Campaign and Transvaal ANC Presidency: 1950–54

Mandela took Xuma's place on the ANC national executive in March 1950, and that same year was elected national president of the ANCYL. In March, the Defend Free Speech Convention was held in Johannesburg, bringing together African, Indian, and communist activists to call a May Day general strike in protest against apartheid and white minority rule. Mandela opposed the strike because it was multi-racial and not ANC-led, but a majority of black workers took part, resulting in increased police repression and the introduction of the Suppression of Communism Act, 1950, affecting the actions of all protest groups. At the ANC national conference of December 1951, he continued arguing against a racially united front, but was outvoted.

Thenceforth, Mandela rejected Lembede's Africanist beliefs and embraced the idea of a multi-racial front against apartheid. Influenced by friends like Moses Kotane and by the Soviet Union's support for wars of independence, his mistrust of communism broke down and he began reading literature by Marxists like Karl Marx, Vladimir Lenin, and Mao Zedong, eventually embracing the Marxist philosophy of dialectical materialism. Commenting on communism, he later stated that he "found [himself] strongly drawn to the idea of a classless society which, to [his] mind, was similar to traditional African culture where life was shared and communal." In April 1952, Mandela began work at the H.M. Basner law firm, which was owned by a communist, although his increasing commitment to work and activism meant he spent less time with his family.

In 1952, the ANC began preparation for a joint Defiance Campaign against apartheid with Indian and communist groups, founding a National Voluntary Board to recruit volunteers. The campaign was designed to follow the path of nonviolent resistance influenced by Mahatma Gandhi; some supported this for ethical reasons, but Mandela instead considered it pragmatic. At a Durban rally on 22 June, Mandela addressed an assembled crowd of 10,000, initiating the campaign protests, for which he was arrested and briefly interned in Marshall Square prison. These events established Mandela as one of the best-known black political figures in South Africa. With further protests, the ANC's membership grew from 20,000 to 100,000; the government responded with mass arrests and introduced the Public Safety Act, 1953 to permit martial law. In May, authorities banned Transvaal ANC President J. B. Marks from making public appearances; unable to maintain his position, he recommended Mandela as his successor. Although Africanists opposed his candidacy, Mandela was elected regional president in October.

In July 1952, Mandela was arrested under the Suppression of Communism Act and stood trial as one of the 21 accused—among them Moroka, Sisulu, and Yusuf Dadoo—in Johannesburg. Found guilty of "statutory communism", a term that the government used to describe most opposition to apartheid, their sentence of nine months' hard labour was suspended for two years. In December, Mandela was given a six-month ban from attending meetings or talking to more than one individual at a time, making his Transvaal ANC presidency impractical, and during this period the Defiance Campaign petered out. In September 1953, Andrew Kunene read out Mandela's "No Easy Walk to Freedom" speech at a Transvaal ANC meeting; the title was taken from a quote by Indian independence leader Jawaharlal Nehru, a seminal influence on Mandela's thought. The speech laid out a contingency plan for a scenario in which the ANC was banned. This Mandela Plan, or M-Plan, involved dividing the organisation into a cell structure with a more centralised leadership.

Mandela obtained work as an attorney for the firm Terblanche and Briggish, before moving to the liberal-run Helman and Michel, passing qualification exams to become a full-fledged attorney. In August 1953, Mandela and Tambo opened their own law firm, Mandela and Tambo, operating in downtown Johannesburg. The only African-run law firm in the country, it was popular with aggrieved blacks, often dealing with cases of police brutality. Disliked by the authorities, the firm was forced to relocate to a remote location after their office permit was removed under the Group Areas Act; as a result, their clientele dwindled. As a lawyer of aristocratic heritage, Mandela was part of Johannesburg's elite black middle-class, and was accorded much respect as a result from the black community. Although a second daughter, Makaziwe Phumia, was born in May 1954, Mandela's relationship with Evelyn became strained, and she accused him of adultery. Claims have emerged that he was having affairs with ANC member Lillian Ngoyi and secretary Ruth Mompati; various individuals close to Mandela in this period have stated that the latter bore him a child. Disgusted by her son's behaviour, Nosekeni returned to Transkei, while Evelyn embraced the Jehovah's Witnesses and rejected Mandela's preoccupation with politics.

Congress of the People and the Treason Trial: 1955–61

After taking part in the unsuccessful protest to prevent the forced relocation of all black people from the Sophiatown suburb of Johannesburg in February 1955, Mandela concluded that violent action would prove necessary to end apartheid and white minority rule. He advised Sisulu to request weaponry from the People's Republic of China, which was denied; though the Chinese government supported the anti-apartheid struggle, they believed the movement insufficiently prepared for guerilla warfare. With the involvement of the South African Indian Congress, the Coloured People's Congress, the South African Congress of Trade Unions and the Congress of Democrats, the ANC planned a Congress of the People, calling on all South Africans to send in proposals for a post-apartheid era. Based on the responses, a Freedom Charter was drafted by Rusty Bernstein, calling for the creation of a democratic, non-racialist state with the nationalisation of major industry. When the charter was adopted at a June 1955 conference in Kliptown, attended by 3,000 delegates, police cracked down on the event, but it remained a key part of Mandela's ideology.

Following the end of a second ban in September 1955, Mandela went on a working holiday to Transkei to discuss the implications of the Bantu Authorities Act, 1951 with local tribal leaders, also visiting his mother and Noengland before proceeding to Cape Town. In March 1956 he received his third ban on public appearances, restricting him to Johannesburg for five years, but he often defied it. Mandela's marriage broke down and Evelyn left him, taking their children to live with her brother. Initiating divorce proceedings in May 1956, she claimed that Mandela had physically abused her; he denied the allegations, and fought for custody of their children. She withdrew her petition of separation in November, but Mandela filed for divorce in January 1958; the divorce was finalised in March, with the children placed in Evelyn's care. During the divorce proceedings, he began courting and politicising a social worker, Winnie Madikizela, whom he married in Bizana in June 1958. She later became involved in ANC activities, spending several weeks in prison. Together they had two children: Zenani, born in February 1959, and Zindziswa, born in December 1960.

In December 1956, Mandela was arrested alongside most of the ANC national executive, accused of "high treason" against the state. Held in Johannesburg Prison amid mass protests, they underwent a preparatory examination before being granted bail. The defence's refutation began in January 1957, overseen by defence lawyer Vernon Berrangé, and continued until adjourning in September. In January 1958, Oswald Pirow was appointed to prosecute the case, and in February the judge ruled that there was "sufficient reason" for the defendants to go on trial in the Transvaal Supreme Court. The formal Treason Trial began in Pretoria in August 1958, with the defendants successfully applying to have the three judges—all linked to the governing National Party—replaced. In August, one charge was dropped, and in October the prosecution withdrew its indictment, submitting a reformulated version in November which argued that the ANC leadership committed high treason by advocating violent revolution, a charge the defendants denied.

In April 1959, Africanists dissatisfied with the ANC's united front approach founded the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC); Mandela disagreed with the group's racially exclusionary views, describing them as "immature" and "naïve". Both parties took part in an anti-pass campaign in early 1960, in which Africans burned the passes that they were legally obliged to carry. One of the PAC-organised demonstrations was fired upon by police, resulting in the deaths of 69 protesters in the Sharpeville massacre. The incident brought international condemnation of the government and resulted in rioting throughout South Africa, with Mandela publicly burning his pass in solidarity.

Responding to the unrest, the government implemented state of emergency measures, declaring martial law and banning the ANC and PAC; in March, they arrested Mandela and other activists, imprisoning them for five months without charge in the unsanitary conditions of the Pretoria Local prison. Imprisonment caused problems for Mandela and his co-defendants in the Treason Trial; their lawyers could not reach them, and so it was decided that the lawyers would withdraw in protest until the accused were freed from prison when the state of emergency was lifted in late August 1960. Over the following months, Mandela used his free time to organise an All-In African Conference near Pietermaritzburg, Natal, in March 1961, at which 1,400 anti-apartheid delegates met, agreeing on a stay-at-home strike to mark 31 May, the day South Africa became a republic. On 29 March 1961, six years after the Treason Trial began, the judges produced a verdict of not guilty, claiming that there was insufficient evidence to convict the accused of "high treason", since they had advocated neither communism nor violent revolution; the outcome embarrassed the government.

MK, the SACP, and African tour: 1961–62

Disguised as a chauffeur, Mandela travelled the country incognito, organising the ANC's new cell structure and the planned mass stay-at-home strike. Referred to as the "Black Pimpernel" in the press—a reference to Emma Orczy's 1905 novel The Scarlet Pimpernel—a warrant for his arrest was put out by the police. Mandela held secret meetings with reporters, and after the government failed to prevent the strike, he warned them that many anti-apartheid activists would soon resort to violence through groups like the PAC's Poqo. He believed that the ANC should form an armed group to channel some of this violence in a controlled direction, convincing both ANC leader Albert Luthuli—who was morally opposed to violence—and allied activist groups of its necessity.

Inspired by the actions of Fidel Castro's 26th of July Movement in the Cuban Revolution, in 1961 Mandela, Sisulu, and Slovo co-founded Umkhonto we Sizwe ("Spear of the Nation", abbreviated MK). Becoming chairman of the militant group, Mandela gained ideas from Marxist literature on guerilla warfare by Mao and Che Guevara as well as from the military theorist Carl von Clausewitz. Although initially declared officially separate from the ANC so as not to taint the latter's reputation, it later became widely recognised that MK was the party's armed wing. Most early MK members were white communists who were able to conceal Mandela in their homes; after hiding in communist Wolfie Kodesh's flat in Berea, Mandela moved to the communist-owned Liliesleaf Farm in Rivonia, there joined by Raymond Mhlaba, Slovo, and Bernstein, who put together the MK constitution. Although in later life Mandela denied, for political reasons, ever being a member of the Communist Party, historical research published in 2011 strongly suggested that he had joined in the late 1950s or early 1960s. This was confirmed by both the SACP and the ANC after Mandela's death. According to the SACP, he was not only a member of the party, but also served on its Central Committee.

Operating through a cell structure, MK planned to carry out acts of sabotage that would exert maximum pressure on the government with minimum casualties; they sought to bomb military installations, power plants, telephone lines, and transport links at night, when civilians were not present. Mandela stated that they chose sabotage because it was the least harmful action, did not involve killing, and offered the best hope for racial reconciliation afterwards; he nevertheless acknowledged that should this have failed then guerrilla warfare might have been necessary. Soon after ANC leader Luthuli was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, MK publicly announced its existence with 57 bombings on Dingane's Day (16 December) 1961, followed by further attacks on New Year's Eve.

The ANC decided to send Mandela as a delegate to the February 1962 meeting of the Pan-African Freedom Movement for East, Central and Southern Africa (PAFMECSA) in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Leaving South Africa in secret via Bechuanaland, on his way Mandela visited Tanganyika and met with its president, Julius Nyerere. Arriving in Ethiopia, Mandela met with Emperor Haile Selassie I, and gave his speech after Selassie's at the conference. After the symposium, he travelled to Cairo, Egypt, admiring the political reforms of President Gamal Abdel Nasser, and then went to Tunis, Tunisia, where President Habib Bourguiba gave him £5,000 for weaponry. He proceeded to Morocco, Mali, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Senegal, receiving funds from Liberian President William Tubman and Guinean President Ahmed Sékou Touré. Leaving Africa for London, England, he met anti-apartheid activists, reporters, and prominent politicians. Returning to Ethiopia, he began a six-month course in guerrilla warfare, but completed only two months before being recalled to South Africa.

Imprisonment

Arrest and Rivonia trial: 1962–64

On 5 August 1962, police captured Mandela along with fellow activist Cecil Williams near Howick. Various rumours have circulated suggesting that the authorities were tipped off with regard to Mandela's whereabouts, although Mandela himself gave these little credence. One idea was that his location had been revealed to South African police by the United States' Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), which feared that Mandela was a communist; this claim later received support from an ex-U.S. diplomat who claimed involvement in the operation. Jailed in Johannesburg's Marshall Square prison, Mandela was charged with inciting workers' strikes and leaving the country without permission. Representing himself with Slovo as legal advisor, Mandela intended to use the trial to showcase "the ANC's moral opposition to racism" while supporters demonstrated outside the court. Moved to Pretoria, where Winnie could visit him, in his cell he began correspondence studies for a Bachelor of Laws (LLB) degree from the University of London. His hearing began in October, but he disrupted proceedings by wearing a traditional kaross, refusing to call any witnesses, and turning his plea of mitigation into a political speech. Found guilty, he was sentenced to five years' imprisonment; as he left the courtroom, supporters sang "Nkosi Sikelel iAfrika".

In July 1963, police raided Liliesleaf Farm, arresting those they found there and uncovering paperwork documenting MK's activities, some of which mentioned Mandela. The Rivonia Trial began at Pretoria Supreme Court in October, with Mandela and his comrades charged with four counts of sabotage and conspiracy to violently overthrow the government; their chief prosecutor was Percy Yutar. Judge Quartus de Wet soon threw out the prosecution's case for insufficient evidence, but Yutar reformulated the charges, presenting his new case from December until February 1964, calling 173 witnesses and bringing thousands of documents and photographs to the trial.

Although four of the accused denied involvement with MK, Mandela and the five other accused admitted sabotage but denied that they had ever agreed to initiate guerrilla war against the government. They used the trial to highlight their political cause; at the opening of the defence's proceedings, Mandela gave his three-hour "I Am Prepared to Die" speech. That speech—which was inspired by Castro's "History Will Absolve Me"—was widely reported in the press despite official censorship. The trial gained international attention; there were global calls for the release of the accused from the United Nations and World Peace Council, while the University of London Union voted Mandela to its presidency. On 12 June 1964, justice De Wet found Mandela and two of his co-accused guilty on all four charges; although the prosecution had called for the death sentence to be applied, the judge instead condemned them to life imprisonment.

Robben Island: 1964–82

Mandela and his co-accused were transferred from Pretoria to the prison on Robben Island, remaining there for the next 18 years. Isolated from non-political prisoners in Section B, Mandela was imprisoned in a damp concrete cell measuring 8 feet (2.4 m) by 7 feet (2.1 m), with a straw mat on which to sleep. Verbally and physically harassed by several white prison wardens, the Rivonia Trial prisoners spent their days breaking rocks into gravel, until being reassigned in January 1965 to work in a lime quarry. Mandela was initially forbidden to wear sunglasses, and the glare from the lime permanently damaged his eyesight. At night, he worked on his LLB degree which he was obtaining from the University of London through a correspondence course with Wolsey Hall, Oxford, but newspapers were forbidden, and he was locked in solitary confinement on several occasions for possessing smuggled news clippings. Initially classified as the lowest grade of prisoner, Class D, he was permitted one visit and one letter every six months, although all mail was heavily censored.

The political prisoners took part in work and hunger strikes—the latter considered largely ineffective by Mandela—to improve prison conditions, viewing this as a microcosm of the anti-apartheid struggle. ANC prisoners elected him to their four-man "High Organ" along with Sisulu, Govan Mbeki, and Raymond Mhlaba, and he involved himself in a group representing all political prisoners on the island, Ulundi, through which he forged links with PAC and Yu Chi Chan Club members. Initiating the "University of Robben Island", whereby prisoners lectured on their own areas of expertise, he debated socio-political topics with his comrades.

Though attending Christian Sunday services, Mandela studied Islam. He also studied Afrikaans, hoping to build a mutual respect with the warders and convert them to his cause. Various official visitors met with Mandela, most significantly the liberal parliamentary representative Helen Suzman of the Progressive Party, who championed Mandela's cause outside of prison. In September 1970, he met British Labour Party politician Dennis Healey. South African Minister of Justice Jimmy Kruger visited in December 1974, but he and Mandela did not get on. His mother visited in 1968, dying shortly after, and his firstborn son Thembi died in a car accident the following year; Mandela was forbidden from attending either funeral. His wife was rarely able to visit, being regularly imprisoned for political activity, and his daughters first visited in December 1975; Winnie got out of prison in 1977 but was forcibly settled in Brandfort, still unable to visit him.

From 1967, prison conditions improved; black prisoners were given trousers rather than shorts, games were permitted, and the standard of their food was raised. In 1969, an escape plan for Mandela was developed by Gordon Bruce, but it was abandoned after the conspiracy was infiltrated by an agent of the South African Bureau of State Security (BOSS), who hoped to see Mandela shot during the escape. In 1970, Commander Piet Badenhorst became commanding officer. Mandela, seeing an increase in the physical and mental abuse of prisoners, complained to visiting judges, who had Badenhorst reassigned. He was replaced by Commander Willie Willemse, who developed a co-operative relationship with Mandela and was keen to improve prison standards.

By 1975, Mandela had become a Class A prisoner, allowing greater numbers of visits and letters; he corresponded with anti-apartheid activists like Mangosuthu Buthelezi and Desmond Tutu. That year, he began his autobiography, which was smuggled to London, but remained unpublished at the time; prison authorities discovered several pages, and his study privileges were revoked for four years. Instead, he devoted his spare time to gardening and reading until he resumed his LLB degree studies in 1980.

By the late 1960s, Mandela's fame had been eclipsed by Steve Biko and the Black Consciousness Movement (BCM). Seeing the ANC as ineffectual, the BCM called for militant action, but following the Soweto uprising of 1976, many BCM activists were imprisoned on Robben Island. Mandela tried to build a relationship with these young radicals, although he was critical of their racialism and contempt for white anti-apartheid activists. Renewed international interest in his plight came in July 1978, when he celebrated his 60th birthday. He was awarded an honorary doctorate in Lesotho, the Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding in India in 1979, and the Freedom of the City of Glasgow, Scotland in 1981. In March 1980, the slogan "Free Mandela!" was developed by journalist Percy Qoboza, sparking an international campaign that led the UN Security Council to call for his release. Despite increasing foreign pressure, the government refused, relying on its Cold War allies US President Ronald Reagan and UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher; both considered Mandela's ANC a terrorist organisation sympathetic to communism, and supported its suppression.

Pollsmoor Prison: 1982–88

In April 1982, Mandela was transferred to Pollsmoor Prison in Tokai, Cape Town, along with senior ANC leaders Walter Sisulu, Andrew Mlangeni, Ahmed Kathrada, and Raymond Mhlaba; they believed that they were being isolated to remove their influence on younger activists at Robben Island. Conditions at Pollsmoor were better than at Robben Island, although Mandela missed the camaraderie and scenery of the island. Getting on well with Pollsmoor's commanding officer, Brigadier Munro, Mandela was permitted to create a roof garden; he also read voraciously and corresponded widely, now permitted 52 letters a year. He was appointed patron of the multi-racial United Democratic Front (UDF), founded to combat reforms implemented by South African President P. W. Botha. Botha's National Party government had permitted Coloured and Indian citizens to vote for their own parliaments, which had control over education, health, and housing, but black Africans were excluded from the system; like Mandela, the UDF saw this as an attempt to divide the anti-apartheid movement on racial lines.

Violence across the country escalated, with many fearing civil war. Under pressure from an international lobby, multinational banks stopped investing in South Africa, resulting in economic stagnation. Numerous banks and Thatcher asked Botha to release Mandela—then at the height of his international fame—to defuse the volatile situation. Although considering Mandela a dangerous "arch-Marxist", in February 1985 Botha offered him a release from prison if he "unconditionally rejected violence as a political weapon". Mandela spurned the offer, releasing a statement through his daughter Zindzi stating, "What freedom am I being offered while the organisation of the people [ANC] remains banned? Only free men can negotiate. A prisoner cannot enter into contracts."

In 1985, Mandela underwent surgery on an enlarged prostate gland, before being given new solitary quarters on the ground floor. He was met by "seven eminent persons", an international delegation sent to negotiate a settlement, but Botha's government refused to co-operate, in June calling a state of emergency and initiating a police crackdown on unrest. The anti-apartheid resistance fought back, with the ANC committing 231 attacks in 1986 and 235 in 1987. The violence escalated as the government used the army and police to combat the resistance, and provided covert support for vigilante groups and the Zulu nationalist movement Inkatha, which was involved in an increasingly violent struggle with the ANC. Mandela requested talks with Botha but was denied, instead secretly meeting with Minister of Justice Kobie Coetsee in 1987, and having a further 11 meetings over the next three years. Coetsee organised negotiations between Mandela and a team of four government figures starting in May 1988; the team agreed to the release of political prisoners and the legalisation of the ANC on the condition that they permanently renounce violence, break links with the Communist Party, and not insist on majority rule. Mandela rejected these conditions, insisting that the ANC would only end its armed activities when the government renounced violence.

Mandela's 70th birthday in July 1988 attracted international attention, including a tribute concert at London's Wembley Stadium that was televised and watched by an estimated 200 million viewers. Although presented globally as a heroic figure, he faced personal problems when ANC leaders informed him that Winnie had set herself up as head of a criminal gang, the "Mandela United Football Club", who had been responsible for torturing and killing opponents—including children—in Soweto. Though some encouraged him to divorce her, he decided to remain loyal until she was found guilty by trial.

Victor Verster Prison and release: 1988–90

Recovering from tuberculosis exacerbated by the dank conditions in his cell, in December 1988 Mandela was moved to Victor Verster Prison near Paarl. He was housed in the relative comfort of a warder's house with a personal cook, and used the time to complete his LLB degree. While there, he was permitted many visitors and organised secret communications with exiled ANC leader Oliver Tambo.

In 1989, Botha suffered a stroke, retaining the state presidency but stepping down as leader of the National Party, to be replaced by F. W. de Klerk. In a surprise move, Botha invited Mandela to a meeting over tea in July 1989, an invitation Mandela considered genial. Botha was replaced as state president by de Klerk six weeks later; the new president believed that apartheid was unsustainable and released a number of ANC prisoners. Following the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, de Klerk called his cabinet together to debate legalising the ANC and freeing Mandela. Although some were deeply opposed to his plans, de Klerk met with Mandela in December to discuss the situation, a meeting both men considered friendly, before legalising all formerly banned political parties in February 1990 and announcing Mandela's unconditional release. Shortly thereafter, for the first time in 20 years, photographs of Mandela were allowed to be published in South Africa.

Leaving Victor Verster Prison on 11 February, Mandela held Winnie's hand in front of amassed crowds and the press; the event was broadcast live across the world. Driven to Cape Town's City Hall through crowds, he gave a speech declaring his commitment to peace and reconciliation with the white minority, but made it clear that the ANC's armed struggle was not over, and would continue as "a purely defensive action against the violence of apartheid". He expressed hope that the government would agree to negotiations, so that "there may no longer be the need for the armed struggle", and insisted that his main focus was to bring peace to the black majority and give them the right to vote in national and local elections. Staying at the home of Desmond Tutu, in the following days Mandela met with friends, activists, and press, giving a speech to an estimated 100,000 people at Johannesburg's Soccer City.

End of apartheid

Early negotiations: 1990–91

Mandela proceeded on an African tour, meeting supporters and politicians in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Libya and Algeria, and continuing to Sweden, where he was reunited with Tambo, and London, where he appeared at the Nelson Mandela: An International Tribute for a Free South Africa concert at Wembley Stadium in Wembley Park. Encouraging foreign countries to support sanctions against the apartheid government, in France he was welcomed by President François Mitterrand, in Vatican City by Pope John Paul II, and in the United Kingdom by Thatcher. In the United States, he met President George H.W. Bush, addressed both Houses of Congress and visited eight cities, being particularly popular among the African-American community. In Cuba, he became friends with President Castro, whom he had long admired. He met President R. Venkataraman in India, President Suharto in Indonesia, Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad in Malaysia, and Prime Minister Bob Hawke in Australia. He visited Japan, but not the Soviet Union, a longtime ANC supporter.

In May 1990, Mandela led a multiracial ANC delegation into preliminary negotiations with a government delegation of 11 Afrikaner men. Mandela impressed them with his discussions of Afrikaner history, and the negotiations led to the Groot Schuur Minute, in which the government lifted the state of emergency. In August, Mandela—recognising the ANC's severe military disadvantage—offered a ceasefire, the Pretoria Minute, for which he was widely criticised by MK activists. He spent much time trying to unify and build the ANC, appearing at a Johannesburg conference in December attended by 1600 delegates, many of whom found him more moderate than expected. At the ANC's July 1991 national conference in Durban, Mandela admitted the party's faults and announced his aim to build a "strong and well-oiled task force" for securing majority rule. At the conference, he was elected ANC President, replacing the ailing Tambo, and a 50-strong multiracial, mixed gendered national executive was elected.

Mandela was given an office in the newly purchased ANC headquarters at Shell House, Johannesburg, and moved into Winnie's large Soweto home. Their marriage was increasingly strained as he learned of her affair with Dali Mpofu, but he supported her during her trial for kidnapping and assault. He gained funding for her defence from the International Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Africa and from Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi, but in June 1991 she was found guilty and sentenced to six years in prison, reduced to two on appeal. On 13 April 1992, Mandela publicly announced his separation from Winnie. The ANC forced her to step down from the national executive for misappropriating ANC funds; Mandela moved into the mostly white Johannesburg suburb of Houghton. Mandela's prospects for a peaceful transition were further damaged by an increase in "black-on-black" violence, particularly between ANC and Inkatha supporters in KwaZulu-Natal, which resulted in thousands of deaths. Mandela met with Inkatha leader Buthelezi, but the ANC prevented further negotiations on the issue. Mandela argued that there was a "third force" within the state intelligence services fuelling the "slaughter of the people" and openly blamed de Klerk – whom he increasingly distrusted – for the Sebokeng massacre. In September 1991, a national peace conference was held in Johannesburg at which Mandela, Buthelezi and de Klerk signed a peace accord, though the violence continued.

CODESA talks: 1991–92

The Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA) began in December 1991 at the Johannesburg World Trade Center, attended by 228 delegates from 19 political parties. Although Cyril Ramaphosa led the ANC's delegation, Mandela remained a key figure, and after de Klerk used the closing speech to condemn the ANC's violence, he took to the stage to denounce de Klerk as the "head of an illegitimate, discredited minority regime". Dominated by the National Party and ANC, little negotiation was achieved. CODESA 2 was held in May 1992, at which de Klerk insisted that post-apartheid South Africa must use a federal system with a rotating presidency to ensure the protection of ethnic minorities; Mandela opposed this, demanding a unitary system governed by majority rule. Following the Boipatong massacre of ANC activists by government-aided Inkatha militants, Mandela called off the negotiations, before attending a meeting of the Organisation of African Unity in Senegal, at which he called for a special session of the UN Security Council and proposed that a UN peacekeeping force be stationed in South Africa to prevent "state terrorism". Calling for domestic mass action, in August the ANC organised the largest-ever strike in South African history, and supporters marched on Pretoria.

Following the Bisho massacre, in which 28 ANC supporters and one soldier were shot dead by the Ciskei Defence Force during a protest march, Mandela realised that mass action was leading to further violence and resumed negotiations in September. He agreed to do so on the conditions that all political prisoners be released, that Zulu traditional weapons be banned, and that Zulu hostels would be fenced off, the latter two measures intended to prevent further Inkatha attacks; de Klerk reluctantly agreed. The negotiations agreed that a multiracial general election would be held, resulting in a five-year coalition government of national unity and a constitutional assembly that gave the National Party continuing influence. The ANC also conceded to safeguarding the jobs of white civil servants; such concessions brought fierce internal criticism. The duo agreed on an interim constitution based on a liberal democratic model, guaranteeing separation of powers, creating a constitutional court, and including a US-style bill of rights; it also divided the country into nine provinces, each with its own premier and civil service, a concession between de Klerk's desire for federalism and Mandela's for unitary government.

The democratic process was threatened by the Concerned South Africans Group (COSAG), an alliance of far-right Afrikaner parties and black ethnic-secessionist groups like Inkatha; in June 1993, the white supremacist Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (AWB) attacked the Kempton Park World Trade Centre. Following the murder of ANC activist Chris Hani, Mandela made a publicised speech to calm rioting, soon after appearing at a mass funeral in Soweto for Tambo, who had died of a stroke. In July 1993, both Mandela and de Klerk visited the US, independently meeting President Bill Clinton and each receiving the Liberty Medal. Soon after, Mandela and de Klerk were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in Norway. Influenced by Thabo Mbeki, Mandela began meeting with big business figures, and played down his support for nationalisation, fearing that he would scare away much-needed foreign investment. Although criticised by socialist ANC members, he was encouraged to embrace private enterprise by members of the Chinese and Vietnamese Communist parties at the January 1992 World Economic Forum in Switzerland.

General election: 1994

With the election set for 27 April 1994, the ANC began campaigning, opening 100 election offices and orchestrating People's Forums across the country at which Mandela could appear, as a popular figure with great status among black South Africans. The ANC campaigned on a Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) to build a million houses in five years, introduce universal free education and extend access to water and electricity. The party's slogan was "a better life for all", although it was not explained how this development would be funded. With the exception of the Weekly Mail and the New Nation, South Africa's press opposed Mandela's election, fearing continued ethnic strife, instead supporting the National or Democratic Party. Mandela devoted much time to fundraising for the ANC, touring North America, Europe and Asia to meet wealthy donors, including former supporters of the apartheid regime. He also urged a reduction in the voting age from 18 to 14; rejected by the ANC, this policy became the subject of ridicule.

Concerned that COSAG would undermine the election, particularly in the wake of the conflict in Bophuthatswana and the Shell House Massacre—incidents of violence involving the AWB and Inkatha, respectively—Mandela met with Afrikaner politicians and generals, including P. W. Botha, Pik Botha and Constand Viljoen, persuading many to work within the democratic system, and with de Klerk convinced Inkatha's Buthelezi to enter the elections rather than launch a war of secession. As leaders of the two major parties, de Klerk and Mandela appeared on a televised debate; although de Klerk was widely considered the better speaker at the event, Mandela's offer to shake his hand surprised him, leading some commentators to consider it a victory for Mandela. The election went ahead with little violence, although an AWB cell killed 20 with car bombs. As widely expected, the ANC won a sweeping victory, taking 63% of the vote, just short of the two-thirds majority needed to unilaterally change the constitution. The ANC was also victorious in seven provinces, with Inkatha and the National Party each taking another. Mandela voted at the Ohlange High School in Durban, and though the ANC's victory assured his election as President, he publicly accepted that the election had been marred by instances of fraud and sabotage.

Presidency of South Africa: 1994–99

The newly elected National Assembly's first act was to formally elect Mandela as South Africa's first black chief executive. His inauguration took place in Pretoria on 10 May 1994, televised to a billion viewers globally. The event was attended by 4,000 guests, including world leaders from disparate backgrounds. Mandela headed a Government of National Unity dominated by the ANC—which had no experience of governing by itself—but containing representatives from the National Party and Inkatha. Under the Interim Constitution, Inkatha and the National Party were entitled to seats in the government by virtue of winning at least 20 seats. In keeping with earlier agreements, both de Klerk and Thabo Mbeki were given the position of Deputy President. Although Mbeki had not been his first choice for the job, Mandela grew to rely heavily on him throughout his presidency, allowing him to organise policy details. Moving into the presidential office at Tuynhuys in Cape Town, Mandela allowed de Klerk to retain the presidential residence in the Groote Schuur estate, instead settling into the nearby Westbrooke manor, which he renamed "Genadendal", meaning "Valley of Mercy" in Afrikaans. Retaining his Houghton home, he also had a house built in his home village of Qunu, which he visited regularly, walking around the area, meeting with locals, and judging tribal disputes.

Aged 76, he faced various ailments, and although exhibiting continued energy, he felt isolated and lonely. He often entertained celebrities, such as Michael Jackson, Whoopi Goldberg, and the Spice Girls, and befriended ultra-rich businessmen, like Harry Oppenheimer of Anglo-American as well as Queen Elizabeth II on her March 1995 state visit to South Africa, resulting in strong criticism from ANC anti-capitalists. Despite his opulent surroundings, Mandela lived simply, donating a third of his R 552,000 annual income to the Nelson Mandela Children's Fund, which he had founded in 1995. Although dismantling press censorship, speaking out in favour of freedom of the press, and befriending many journalists, Mandela was critical of much of the country's media, noting that it was overwhelmingly owned and run by middle-class whites and believing that it focused too much on scaremongering around crime. Mandela was known to change his clothes several times a day and after assuming the presidency he became so associated with Batik shirts that they came to be known as "Madiba shirts".

In December 1994, Mandela published Long Walk to Freedom, an autobiography based around a manuscript he had written in prison, augmented by interviews conducted with American journalist Richard Stengel. In late 1994, he attended the 49th conference of the ANC in Bloemfontein, at which a more militant national executive was elected, among them Winnie Mandela; although she expressed an interest in reconciling, Nelson initiated divorce proceedings in August 1995. By 1995, he had entered into a relationship with Graça Machel, a Mozambican political activist 27 years his junior who was the widow of former president Samora Machel. They had first met in July 1990 when she was still in mourning, but their friendship grew into a partnership, with Machel accompanying him on many of his foreign visits. She turned down Mandela's first marriage proposal, wanting to retain some independence and dividing her time between Mozambique and Johannesburg.

National reconciliation

Presiding over the transition from apartheid minority rule to a multicultural democracy, Mandela saw national reconciliation as the primary task of his presidency. Having seen other post-colonial African economies damaged by the departure of white elites, Mandela worked to reassure South Africa's white population that they were protected and represented in "the Rainbow Nation". Although his Government of National Unity would be dominated by the ANC, he attempted to create a broad coalition by appointing de Klerk as Deputy President and appointing other National Party officials as ministers for Agriculture, Energy, Environment, and Minerals and Energy, as well as naming Buthelezi as Minister for Home Affairs. The other cabinet positions were taken by ANC members, many of whom—like Joe Modise, Alfred Nzo, Joe Slovo, Mac Maharaj and Dullah Omar—had long been comrades, although others, such as Tito Mboweni and Jeff Radebe, were much younger. Mandela's relationship with de Klerk was strained; Mandela thought that de Klerk was intentionally provocative, and de Klerk felt that he was being intentionally humiliated by the president. In January 1995, Mandela heavily chastised him for awarding amnesty to 3,500 police officers just before the election, and later criticised him for defending former Minister of Defence Magnus Malan when the latter was charged with murder.

Mandela personally met with senior figures of the apartheid regime, including Hendrik Verwoerd's widow, Betsie Schoombie, and lawyer Percy Yutar, also laying a wreath by the statue of Afrikaner hero Daniel Theron. Emphasising personal forgiveness and reconciliation, he announced that "courageous people do not fear forgiving, for the sake of peace." He encouraged black South Africans to get behind the previously hated national rugby team, the Springboks, as South Africa hosted the 1995 Rugby World Cup. After the Springboks won a celebrated final against New Zealand, Mandela presented the trophy to captain Francois Pienaar, an Afrikaner, wearing a Springbok shirt with Pienaar's own number 6 on the back. This was widely seen as a major step in the reconciliation of white and black South Africans; as de Klerk later put it, "Mandela won the hearts of millions of white rugby fans." Mandela's efforts at reconciliation assuaged the fears of whites, but also drew criticism from more militant blacks. Among the latter was his estranged wife, Winnie, who accused the ANC of being more interested in appeasing the white community than in helping the black majority.

Mandela oversaw the formation of a Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate crimes committed under apartheid by both the government and the ANC, appointing Desmond Tutu as its chair. To prevent the creation of martyrs, the Commission granted individual amnesties in exchange for testimony of crimes committed during the apartheid era. Dedicated in February 1996, it held two years of hearings detailing rapes, torture, bombings, and assassinations, before issuing its final report in October 1998. Both de Klerk and Mbeki appealed to have parts of the report suppressed, though only de Klerk's appeal was successful. Mandela praised the Commission's work, stating that it "had helped us move away from the past to concentrate on the present and the future".

Domestic programmes

Mandela's administration inherited a country with a huge disparity in wealth and services between white and black communities. Of a population of 40 million, around 23 million lacked electricity or adequate sanitation, and 12 million lacked clean water supplies, with 2 million children not in school and a third of the population illiterate. There was 33% unemployment, and just under half of the population lived below the poverty line. Government financial reserves were nearly depleted, with a fifth of the national budget being spent on debt repayment, meaning that the extent of the promised Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) was scaled back, with none of the proposed nationalisation or job creation. In 1996, the RDP was replaced with a new policy, Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR), which maintained South Africa's mixed economy but placed an emphasis on economic growth through a framework of market economics and the encouragement of foreign investment; many in the ANC derided it as a neo-liberal policy that did not address social inequality, no matter how Mandela defended it. In adopting this approach, Mandela's government adhered to the "Washington consensus" advocated by the World Bank and International Monetary Fund.

Under Mandela's presidency, welfare spending increased by 13% in 1996/97, 13% in 1997/98, and 7% in 1998/99. The government introduced parity in grants for communities, including disability grants, child maintenance grants, and old-age pensions, which had previously been set at different levels for South Africa's different racial groups. In 1994, free healthcare was introduced for children under six and pregnant women, a provision extended to all those using primary level public sector health care services in 1996. By the 1999 election, the ANC could boast that due to their policies, 3 million people were connected to telephone lines, 1.5 million children were brought into the education system, 500 clinics were upgraded or constructed, 2 million people were connected to the electricity grid, water access was extended to 3 million people, and 750,000 houses were constructed, housing nearly 3 million people.

The Land Restitution Act of 1994 enabled people who had lost their property as a result of the Natives Land Act, 1913 to claim back their land, leading to the settlement of tens of thousands of land claims. The Land Reform Act 3 of 1996 safeguarded the rights of labour tenants living on farms where they grew crops or grazed livestock. This legislation ensured that such tenants could not be evicted without a court order or if they were over the age of 65. Recognising that arms manufacturing was a key industry in South Africa, Mandela endorsed the trade in weapons but brought in tighter regulations surrounding Armscor to ensure that South African weaponry was not sold to authoritarian regimes. Under Mandela's administration, tourism was increasingly promoted, becoming a major sector of the South African economy.

Critics like Edwin Cameron accused Mandela's government of doing little to stem the HIV/AIDS pandemic in the country; by 1999, 10% of South Africa's population were HIV positive. Mandela later admitted that he had personally neglected the issue, in part due to public reticence in discussing issues surrounding sex in South Africa, and that he had instead left the issue for Mbeki to deal with. Mandela also received criticism for failing to sufficiently combat crime; South Africa had one of the world's highest crime rates, and the activities of international crime syndicates in the country grew significantly throughout the decade. Mandela's administration was also perceived as having failed to deal with the problem of corruption.

Further problems were caused by the exodus of thousands of skilled white South Africans from the country, who were escaping the increasing crime rates, higher taxes, and the impact of positive discrimination toward blacks in employment. This exodus resulted in a brain drain, and Mandela criticised those who left. At the same time, South Africa experienced an influx of millions of illegal migrants from poorer parts of Africa; although public opinion toward these illegal immigrants was generally unfavourable, characterising them as disease-spreading criminals who were a drain on resources, Mandela called on South Africans to embrace them as "brothers and sisters".

Foreign affairs

Mandela expressed the view that "South Africa's future foreign relations [should] be based on our belief that human rights should be the core of international relations". Following the South African example, Mandela encouraged other nations to resolve conflicts through diplomacy and reconciliation. In September 1998, Mandela was appointed Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement, who held their annual conference in Durban. He used the event to criticise the "narrow, chauvinistic interests" of the Israeli government in stalling negotiations to end the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and urged India and Pakistan to negotiate to end the Kashmir conflict, for which he was criticised by both Israel and India. Inspired by the region's economic boom, Mandela sought greater economic relations with East Asia, in particular with Malaysia, although this was scuppered by the 1997 Asian financial crisis. He extended diplomatic recognition to the People's Republic of China (PRC), who were growing as an economic force, and initially also to Taiwan, who were already longstanding investors in the South African economy. However, under pressure from the PRC, in November 1996 he cut recognition of Taiwan, and in May 1999 paid an official visit to Beijing.

Mandela attracted controversy for his close relationship with Indonesian President Suharto, whose regime was responsible for mass human rights abuses, although on a July 1997 visit to Indonesia he privately urged Suharto to withdraw from the occupation of East Timor. He also faced similar criticism from the West for his government's trade links to Syria, Cuba, and Libya, and for his personal friendships with Castro and Gaddafi. Castro visited in 1998 to widespread popular acclaim, and Mandela met Gaddafi in Libya to award him the Order of Good Hope. When Western governments and media criticised these visits, Mandela lambasted such criticism as having racist undertones, and stated that "the enemies of countries in the West are not our enemies." Mandela hoped to resolve the long-running dispute between Libya and the US and Britain over bringing to trial the two Libyans, Abdelbaset al-Megrahi and Lamin Khalifah Fhimah, who were indicted in November 1991 and accused of sabotaging Pan Am Flight 103. Mandela proposed that they be tried in a third country, which was agreed to by all parties; governed by Scots law, the trial was held at Camp Zeist in the Netherlands in April 1999, and found one of the two men guilty.

Mandela echoed Mbeki's calls for an "African Renaissance", and was greatly concerned with issues on the continent. He took a soft diplomatic approach to removing Sani Abacha's military junta in Nigeria but later became a leading figure in calling for sanctions when Abacha's regime increased human rights violations. In 1996, he was appointed Chairman of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and initiated unsuccessful negotiations to end the First Congo War in Zaire. He also played a key role as a mediator in the ethnic conflict between Tutsi and Hutu political groups in the Burundian Civil War, helping to initiate a settlement which brought increased stability to the country but did not end the ethnic violence. In South Africa's first post-apartheid military operation, troops were ordered in September 1998 into Lesotho to protect the government of Prime Minister Pakalitha Mosisili after a disputed election prompted opposition uprisings. The action was not authorised by Mandela himself, who was out of the country at the time, but by Buthelezi, who was serving as acting president during Mandela's absence.

Withdrawing from politics

The new Constitution of South Africa was agreed upon by parliament in May 1996, enshrining a series of institutions to place checks on political and administrative authority within a constitutional democracy. De Klerk opposed the implementation of this constitution, and that month he and the National Party withdrew from the coalition government in protest, claiming that the ANC were not treating them as equals. The ANC took over the cabinet positions formerly held by the Nationalists, with Mbeki becoming sole Deputy President. Inkatha remained part of the coalition, and when both Mandela and Mbeki were out of the country in September 1998, Buthelezi was appointed "Acting President", marking an improvement in his relationship with Mandela. Although Mandela had often governed decisively in his first two years as President, he had subsequently increasingly delegated duties to Mbeki, retaining only a close personal supervision of intelligence and security measures. During a 1997 visit to London, he said that "the ruler of South Africa, the de facto ruler, is Thabo Mbeki" and that he was "shifting everything to him".

Mandela stepped down as ANC President at the party's December 1997 conference. He hoped that Ramaphosa would succeed him, believing Mbeki to be too inflexible and intolerant of criticism, but the ANC elected Mbeki regardless. Replacing Mbeki as Deputy President, Mandela and the Executive supported the candidacy of Jacob Zuma, a Zulu who had been imprisoned on Robben Island, but he was challenged by Winnie, whose populist rhetoric had gained her a strong following within the party; Zuma defeated her in a landslide victory vote at the election.

Mandela's relationship with Machel had intensified; in February 1998, he publicly stated that he was "in love with a remarkable lady", and under pressure from his friend Desmond Tutu, who urged him to set an example for young people, he organised a wedding for his 80th birthday, in July that year. The following day, he held a grand party with many foreign dignitaries. Although the 1996 constitution allowed the president to serve two consecutive five-year terms, Mandela had never planned to stand for a second term in office. He gave his farewell speech to Parliament on 29 March 1999 when it adjourned prior to the 1999 general elections, after which he retired. Although opinion polls in South Africa showed wavering support for both the ANC and the government, Mandela himself remained highly popular, with 80% of South Africans polled in 1999 expressing satisfaction with his performance as president.

Retirement

Continued activism and philanthropy: 1999–2004

Retiring in June 1999, Mandela sought a quiet family life, to be divided between Johannesburg and Qunu. He set about authoring a sequel to his first autobiography, to be titled The Presidential Years, but it was abandoned before publication. Finding such seclusion difficult, he reverted to a busy public life with a daily programme of tasks, met with world leaders and celebrities, and, when in Johannesburg, worked with the Nelson Mandela Foundation, founded in 1999 to focus on rural development, school construction, and combating HIV/AIDS. Although he had been heavily criticised for failing to do enough to fight the HIV/AIDS pandemic during his presidency, he devoted much of his time to the issue following his retirement, describing it as "a war" that had killed more than "all previous wars"; affiliating himself with the Treatment Action Campaign, he urged Mbeki's government to ensure that HIV-positive South Africans had access to anti-retrovirals. Meanwhile, Mandela was successfully treated for prostate cancer in July 2001.

In 2002, Mandela inaugurated the Nelson Mandela Annual Lecture, and in 2003 the Mandela Rhodes Foundation was created at Rhodes House, University of Oxford, to provide postgraduate scholarships to African students. These projects were followed by the Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory and the 46664 campaign against HIV/AIDS. He gave the closing address at the XIII International AIDS Conference in Durban in 2000, and in 2004, spoke at the XV International AIDS Conference in Bangkok, Thailand, calling for greater measures to tackle tuberculosis as well as HIV/AIDS.

Publicly, Mandela became more vocal in criticising Western powers. He strongly opposed the 1999 NATO intervention in Kosovo and called it an attempt by the world's powerful nations to police the entire world. In 2003, he spoke out against the plans for the US and UK to launch a war in Iraq, describing it as "a tragedy" and lambasting US President George W. Bush and UK Prime Minister Tony Blair for undermining the UN, saying, "All that (Mr. Bush) wants is Iraqi oil". He attacked the US more generally, asserting that it had committed more "unspeakable atrocities" across the world than any other nation, citing the atomic bombing of Japan; this attracted international controversy, although he later reconciled his relationship with Blair. Retaining an interest in Libyan-UK relations, he visited Megrahi in Barlinnie prison and spoke out against the conditions of his treatment, referring to them as "psychological persecution".

"Retiring from retirement": 2004–13

In June 2004, aged 85 and amid failing health, Mandela announced that he was "retiring from retirement" and retreating from public life, remarking, "Don't call me, I will call you." Although continuing to meet with close friends and family, the Foundation discouraged invitations for him to appear at public events and denied most interview requests.

He retained some involvement in international affairs. In 2005, he founded the Nelson Mandela Legacy Trust, travelling to the U.S. to speak before the Brookings Institution and the NAACP on the need for economic assistance to Africa. He spoke with US Senator Hillary Clinton and President George W. Bush and first met then-US Senator Barack Obama. Mandela also encouraged Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe to resign over growing human rights abuses in the country. When this proved ineffective, he spoke out publicly against Mugabe in 2007, asking him to step down "with residual respect and a modicum of dignity." That year, Mandela, Machel, and Desmond Tutu convened a group of world leaders in Johannesburg to contribute their wisdom and independent leadership to some of the world's toughest problems. Mandela announced the formation of this new group, The Elders, in a speech delivered on his 89th birthday.

Mandela's 90th birthday was marked across the country on 18 July 2008, with the main celebrations held at Qunu, and a concert in his honour in Hyde Park, London. In a speech marking the event, Mandela called for the rich to help the poor across the world. Throughout Mbeki's presidency, Mandela continued to support the ANC, usually overshadowing Mbeki at any public events that the two attended. Mandela was more at ease with Mbeki's successor, Zuma, although the Nelson Mandela Foundation was upset when his grandson, Mandla Mandela, flew him out to the Eastern Cape to attend a pro-Zuma rally in the midst of a storm in 2009.

In 2004, Mandela successfully campaigned for South Africa to host the 2010 FIFA World Cup, declaring that there would be "few better gifts for us" in the year marking a decade since the fall of apartheid. Despite maintaining a low profile during the event due to ill-health, Mandela made his final public appearance during the World Cup closing ceremony, where he received much applause. Between 2005 and 2013, Mandela, and later his family, were embroiled in a series of legal disputes regarding money held in family trusts for the benefit of his descendants. In mid-2013, as Mandela was hospitalised for a lung infection in Pretoria, his descendants were involved in an intra-family legal dispute relating to the burial place of Mandela's children, and ultimately Mandela himself.

Illness and death: 2011–2013

In February 2011, Mandela was briefly hospitalised with a respiratory infection, attracting international attention, before being re-hospitalised for a lung infection and gallstone removal in December 2012. After a successful medical procedure in early March 2013, his lung infection recurred and he was briefly hospitalised in Pretoria. In June 2013, his lung infection worsened and he was rehospitalised in Pretoria in serious condition. The Archbishop of Cape Town Thabo Makgoba visited Mandela at the hospital and prayed with Machel, while Zuma cancelled a trip to Mozambique to visit him the following day. In September 2013, Mandela was discharged from hospital, although his condition remained unstable.

After suffering from a prolonged respiratory infection, Mandela died on 5 December 2013 at the age of 95, at around 20:50 local time (UTC+2) at his home in Houghton, surrounded by his family. Zuma publicly announced his death on television, proclaiming ten days of national mourning, a memorial service held at Johannesburg's FNB Stadium on 10 December 2013, and 8 December as a national day of prayer and reflection. Mandela's body lay in state from 11 to 13 December at the Union Buildings in Pretoria and a state funeral was held on 15 December in Qunu. Approximately 90 representatives of foreign states travelled to South Africa to attend memorial events. The media was awash with tributes and reminiscences, while images of and tributes to Mandela proliferated across social media. His $4.1 million estate was left to his widow, other family members, staff, and educational institutions.

Political ideology

Mandela was a practical politician, rather than an intellectual scholar or political theorist. According to biographer Tom Lodge, "for Mandela, politics has always been primarily about enacting stories, about making narratives, primarily about morally exemplary conduct, and only secondarily about ideological vision, more about means rather than ends." Mandela identified as both an African nationalist, an ideological position he held since joining the ANC, and as a socialist.

The historian Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni described Mandela as a "liberal African nationalist–decolonial humanist", while political analyst Raymond Suttner cautioned against labelling Mandela a liberal and stated that Mandela displayed a "hybrid socio-political make-up". Mandela took political ideas from other thinkers—among them Indian independence leaders like Gandhi and Nehru, African-American civil rights activists, and African nationalists like Nkrumah—and applied them to the South African situation. At the same time he rejected other aspects of their thought, such as the anti-white sentiment of many African nationalists. In doing so he synthesized both counter-cultural and hegemonic views, for instance by drawing upon ideas from the then-dominant Afrikaner nationalism in promoting his anti-apartheid vision.

His political development was strongly influenced by his legal training and practice, in particular his hope to achieve change not through violence but through "legal revolution". Over the course of his life, he began by advocating a path of non-violence, later embracing violence, and then adopting a non-violent approach to negotiation and reconciliation. When endorsing violence, he did so because he saw no alternative, and was always pragmatic about it, perceiving it as a means to get his opponent to the negotiating table. He sought to target symbols of white supremacy and racist oppression rather than white people as individuals, and was anxious not to inaugurate a race war in South Africa. This willingness to use violence distinguishes Mandela from the ideology of Gandhism, with which some commentators have sought to associate him.

Democracy

Although he presented himself in an autocratic manner in several speeches, Mandela was a devout believer in democracy and abided by majority decisions even when deeply disagreeing with them. He had exhibited a commitment to the values of democracy and human rights since at least the 1960s. He held a conviction that "inclusivity, accountability and freedom of speech" were the fundamentals of democracy, and was driven by a belief in natural and human rights, pursuing not only racial equality but also promoting gay rights as part of the post-apartheid reforms. Suttner argued that there were "two modes of leadership" that Mandela adopted. On one side he adhered to ideas about collective leadership, although on the other believed that there were scenarios in which a leader had to be decisive and act without consultation to achieve a particular objective.

According to Lodge, Mandela's political thought reflected tensions between his support for liberal democracy and pre-colonial African forms of consensus decision making. He was an admirer of British-style parliamentary democracy, stating that "I regard the British Parliament as the most democratic institution in the world, and the independence and impartiality of its judiciary never fail to arouse my admiration." In this he has been described as being committed to "the Euro-North American modernist project of emancipation", something which distinguishes him from other African nationalist and socialist leaders like Nyerere who were concerned about embracing styles of democratic governance that were Western, rather than African, in origin. Mandela nevertheless also expressed admiration for what he deemed to be indigenous forms of democracy, describing Xhosa traditional society's mode of governance as "democracy in its purest form". He also spoke of an influential African ethical tenet, Ubuntu, which was a Ngnuni term meaning "A person is a person through other persons" or "I am because we are."

Socialism and Marxism

Mandela advocated the ultimate establishment of a classless society, with Sampson describing him as being "openly opposed to capitalism, private land-ownership and the power of big money". Mandela was influenced by Marxism, and during the revolution he advocated scientific socialism. During the Treason Trial, he denied being a communist, maintaining this stance when later talking to journalists, and in his autobiography. According to the sociologist Craig Soudien, "sympathetic as Mandela was to socialism, a communist he was not." Conversely, the biographer David Jones Smith stated that Mandela "embraced communism and communists" in the late 1950s and early 1960s, while the historian Stephen Ellis stated that Mandela had assimilated much of the Marxist-Leninist ideology by 1960. Ellis also found evidence that Mandela had been an active member of the South African Communist Party, something that was confirmed after his death by both the ANC and the SACP, the latter of which claimed that he was not only a member of the party, but also served on its Central Committee. His membership had been hidden by the ANC, aware that knowledge of Mandela's former SACP involvement might have been detrimental to him attaining support in Western countries. In contrast to Marxist-Leninists, he had remained a committed democrat and did not share their view that Western governments were anti-democratic and reactionary.

The 1955 Freedom Charter, which Mandela had helped create, called for the nationalisation of banks, gold mines and land, to ensure equal distribution of wealth. Despite these beliefs, Mandela initiated a programme of privatisation during his presidency in line with trends in other countries of the time. It has been repeatedly suggested that Mandela would have preferred to develop a social democratic economy in South Africa but that this was not feasible as a result of the international political and economic situation during the early 1990s. This decision was in part influenced by the fall of the socialist states in the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc during the early 1990s.

Personality and personal life

Mandela was widely considered a charismatic leader, described by biographer Mary Benson as "a born mass leader who could not help magnetizing people". He was highly image conscious and throughout his life always sought out fine quality clothes, with many commentators believing that he carried himself in a regal manner. His aristocratic heritage was repeatedly emphasised by supporters, thus contributing to his "charismatic power". While living in Johannesburg in the 1950s, he cultivated the image of the "African gentleman", having "the pressed clothes, correct manners, and modulated public speech" associated with such a position. In doing so, Lodge argued that Mandela became "one of the first media politicians [...] embodying a glamour and a style that projected visually a brave new African world of modernity and freedom". In the 1990s, he came to be associated closely with the highly coloured "Madiba shirts" that he began wearing.

For Betty Glad and Robert Blanton, Mandela was an "exceptionally intelligent, shrewd, and loyal leader". His official biographer, Anthony Sampson, commented that he was a "master of imagery and performance", excelling at presenting himself well in press photographs and producing sound bites. His public speeches were presented in a formal, stiff manner, and often consisted of clichéd set phrases. He typically spoke slowly, and carefully chose his words. Although he was not considered a great orator, his speeches conveyed "his personal commitment, charm and humour".

Mandela was a private person who often concealed his emotions and confided in very few people. Privately, he lived an austere life, refusing to drink alcohol or smoke, and even as President made his own bed. Renowned for his mischievous sense of humour, he was known for being both stubborn and loyal, and at times exhibited a quick temper. He was typically friendly and welcoming, and appeared relaxed in conversation with everyone, including his opponents. A self-described Anglophile, he claimed to have lived by the "trappings of British style and manners". Constantly polite and courteous, he was attentive to all, irrespective of their age or status, and often talked to children or servants. He was known for his ability to find common ground with very different communities. In later life, he always looked for the best in people, even defending political opponents to his allies, who sometimes thought him too trusting of others. He was fond of Indian cuisine, and had a lifelong interest in archaeology and boxing.

He was raised in the Methodist denomination of Christianity; the Methodist Church of Southern Africa claimed that he retained his allegiance to them throughout his life. An analysis of his writings has led to him being described by theologian Dion Forster as a Christian humanist, who relied more upon Ubuntu than Christian theology. According to Sampson, Mandela never had "a strong religious faith" however, while Boehmer stated that Mandela's religious belief was "never robust".

Mandela was very self-conscious about being a man and regularly made references to manhood. He was heterosexual, and biographer Fatima Meer said that he was "easily tempted" by women. Another biographer, Martin Meredith, characterised him as being "by nature a romantic", highlighting that he had relationships with various women. Mandela was married three times, fathered six children, and had seventeen grandchildren and at least seventeen great-grandchildren. He could be stern and demanding of his children, although he was more affectionate with his grandchildren. His first marriage was to Evelyn Ntoko Mase in October 1944; they divorced after 13 years in 1957 under the multiple strains of his adultery and constant absences, devotion to revolutionary agitation, and the fact that she was a Jehovah's Witness, a religion requiring political neutrality.

The couple had two sons whom Mandela survived, Madiba "Thembi" Thembekile (1945–1969) and Makgatho Mandela (1950–2005); his first son died in a car crash and his second son died of AIDS. The couple had two daughters, both named Makaziwe Mandela (born 1947 and 1954); the first died at the age of nine months, the second, known as "Maki", survived Mandela. Makgatho's son, Mandla Mandela, became chief of the Mvezo tribal council in 2007. Mandela's second wife, Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, also came from the Transkei area, although they too met in Johannesburg, where she was the city's first black social worker. They had two daughters, Zenani and Zindzi. He divorced Winnie in 1995, and married Graça Machel on his 80th birthday in 1998.

Reception and legacy

By the time of his death, within South Africa Mandela was widely considered both "the father of the nation" and "the founding father of democracy". Outside of South Africa, he was a "global icon", with the scholar of South African studies Rita Barnard describing him as "one of the most revered figures of our time". One biographer considered him "a modern democratic hero", while his popularity had resulted in a cult of personality building up around him. Some have portrayed Mandela in messianic terms, in contrast to his own statement that "I was not a messiah, but an ordinary man who had become a leader because of extraordinary circumstances." He is often cited alongside Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr. as one of the 20th century's exemplary anti-racist and anti-colonial leaders. Boehmer described him as "a totem of the totemic values of our age: toleration and liberal democracy" and "a universal symbol of social justice".

Mandela's international fame had emerged during his incarceration in the 1980s, when he became the world's most famous prisoner, a symbol of the anti-apartheid cause, and an icon for millions who embraced the ideal of human equality. In 1986, Mandela's biographer characterised him as "the embodiment of the struggle for liberation" in South Africa. Meredith stated that in becoming "a potent symbol of resistance" to apartheid during the 1980s, he had gained "mythical status" internationally. Sampson commented that even during his life, this myth had become "so powerful that it blurs the realities", converting Mandela into "a secular saint". Within a decade of the end of his Presidency, Mandela's era was being widely thought of as "a golden age of hope and harmony", with much nostalgia being expressed for it. His name was often invoked by those criticising his successors like Mbeki and Zuma. Across the world, Mandela earned international acclaim for his activism in overcoming apartheid and fostering racial reconciliation, coming to be viewed as "a moral authority" with a great "concern for truth". Mandela's iconic status has been blamed for concealing the complexities of his life.

Mandela generated controversy throughout his career as an activist and politician, having detractors on both the radical left and right. During the 1980s, Mandela was widely labelled a terrorist by prominent political figures in the Western world for his embrace of political violence. According to Thatcher, for instance, the ANC was "a typical terrorist organisation". On the left, some voices in the ANC—among them Frank B. Wilderson III—accused him of selling out for agreeing to enter negotiations with the apartheid government and for not implementing the reforms of the Freedom Charter during his Presidency. Concerns were raised that the personal respect and authority he accrued were in contrast to the ideals of democracy that he promoted, and that he placed his own status and celebrity above the transformation of his country. His government would be criticised for its failure to deal with both the HIV/AIDS pandemic and the high levels of poverty in South Africa. Mandela was also criticised for his friendship with political leaders such as Castro, Gaddafi, and Suharto—deemed dictators by critics—as well as his refusal to condemn their governments' human rights violations.

Orders, decorations, and monuments

Over the course of his life, Mandela was given over 250 awards, accolades, prizes, honorary degrees and citizenships in recognition of his political achievements. Among the awards that Mandela received were the Nobel Peace Prize, the US Presidential Medal of Freedom, the Soviet Union's Lenin Peace Prize, and the Libyan Al-Gaddafi International Prize for Human Rights. In 1990, India awarded him the Bharat Ratna, and in 1992 Pakistan have him their Nishan-e-Pakistan. The same year, he was awarded the Atatürk Peace Award by Turkey; he at first refused the award, citing human rights violations committed by Turkey at the time, but later accepted the award in 1999. He was appointed to the Order of Canada, and was the first living person to be made an honorary Canadian citizen. Queen Elizabeth II appointed him as a Bailiff Grand Cross of the Order of St. John and granted him membership in the Order of Merit.

In 2004, Johannesburg granted Mandela the Freedom of the City, and in 2008 a Mandela statue was unveiled at the spot where Mandela was released from prison. On the Day of Reconciliation 2013, a bronze statue of Mandela was unveiled at Pretoria's Union Buildings.

In November 2009, the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed Mandela's birthday, 18 July, as "Mandela Day", marking his contribution to the anti-apartheid struggle. It called on individuals to donate 67 minutes to doing something for others, commemorating the 67 years that Mandela had been a part of the movement.

Biographies and popular media

The first biography of Mandela was authored by Mary Benson, based on brief interviews with him that she had conducted in the 1960s. Two authorised biographies were later produced by friends of Mandela. The first was Fatima Meer's Higher Than Hope, which was heavily influenced by Winnie and thus placed great emphasis on Mandela's family. The second was Anthony Sampson's Mandela, published in 1999. Other biographies included Martin Meredith's Mandela, first published in 1997, and Tom Lodge's Mandela, brought out in 2006.

Since the late 1980s, Mandela's image began to appear on a proliferation of items, among them "photographs, paintings, drawings, statues, public murals, buttons, t-shirts, refrigerator magnets, and more", items that have been characterised as "Mandela kitsch". Following his death, there appeared many internet memes featuring images of Mandela with his inspirational quotes superimposed onto them. Mandela has also been depicted in cinema on multiple occasions. Some of these, such as the 2013 feature film Mandela: Long Walk to Freedom and the 1996 documentary Mandela, have focused on covering his long life, whereas others, such as the 2009 feature film Invictus and the 2010 documentary The 16th Man, have focused on specific events in his life. It has been argued that in Invictus and other films, "the American film industry" has played a significant part in "the crafting of Mandela's global image".

Wikipedia

[germanaustriannoblesandroyals]

House of Habsburg: Anna Plochl

Anna was born as the oldest of thirteen children to postmaster Jakob Plochl and his wife Maria Anna Pilz. In English sources, he lastname is often given as Plöchl but all German sources I found, including the official Habsburg homepage, refer to her as Plochl.

After the death of her mother, Anna took over the household duties. On August 22nd, 1819, Anna, only fifteen at the time, met Archduke Johann of Austria, already 37 at the time, for the first time. Somewhen during the next four years a relationship between them must have blossomed because Johann sought his brother Emperor Franz I.’s permission in 1823 for the first time. He denied to sanction the marriage to a commoner.

Despite The Emperor’s decision, Anna moved to Vordernberg where Johann owned a pre-modern blast furnace. He was constantly on the road in Styria as well as traveling to court in Vienna. Anna in the mean time became the caretaker of Brandhof Castle from April 25th, 1824, onwards. She was known for her traditional Styrian recipes and they are still considered a specialty until this day.

On February 18th, 1829, the now 47-year-old Johann married the 25-year-old Anna morganatically after The Emperor had finally given them permission. But Johann was not allowed to make his marriage public until four years later. In 1834, Anna received the title of Baroness of Brandhofen, named after her father’s estate.

After ten years of marriage, the couple welcomed their first and only child Franz. When he was 5 or 6, Johann was successful in persuading The Prince of Metternich to campaign for the title of Count of Meran for his son. Anna received the same title five years later too and was from 1850 known as Countess of Meran.

Johann died May 11th, 1859, which left Anna a widow at 45. She continued his charity work in Styria and would survive him for 26 years. Anna died in the same place she was born: Aussee. She is buried next to her husband in a mausoleum in Schenna near Meran.

// Anna Maria Mühe in Anna and the Prince (2009)

[dragonmartellstark]

AU Tudor: Best Destinations for Henry VIII's Wives (That is, if they had never married him)

Jane Seymour-Duchess consort of Beja (1508-1545)

Jane Seymour was the typical lady who demanded in her time English appearance of sweet, obedient character and that she focused on the tasks of her home, in addition to being faithful and obedient to her husband. Despite this, she did not get any marriage proposal from a nobleman and poor Jane believed that she would die single.

In the year 1532 she became a companion of Queen Catherine of Aragon, thus establishing a close relationship and also with her daughter, Victoria de ella. In 1533 the kings received a visit from Mary of Aragón, Catalina's older sister and hers, her son Louis of Portugal, Duke of Beja.

During her stay, María was looking a little anxiously for a marriage for her son since he had morganatically married a Jewess named Violante Gómez with whom she had a son, Anthony. Queen Catherine saw the opportunity to introduce Jane to a young woman of not very remarkable beauty, but very healthy, from a fertile family and also a sweet personality; This was well seen by Mary that she wanted her dear son to leave her affair with "La Pelicana" and marry a noblewoman.

That same year the queen introduced the young people who had a cordial treatment and Jane was attracted to the infant, but Luis was undecided in marrying the young woman so he had to think about it for a few months. Meanwhile Jane continued in the service of Queen Catherine waiting for the response of the young man, in addition to receiving an education more appropriate for her position, learning to speak and write the Portuguese and Spanish languages, studying the customs of the court in Portugal.

In the year 1534 Louis of Portugal was widowed when Violante Gómez became ill with tuberculosis and died a few months later. Luis, a widower and with a son only three years old, agreed to marry the young Seymour and this made the Infanta Mary, Catherine and Jane happy, who finally longed to marry.

That same year, Jane said goodbye to her family, the kings and the court to begin her journey to Portugal. Two months later Jane arrived in Lisbon where her fiancé, the groom's parents, Luis's cousin, Rodrigo I of Portugal (son of Alfons VI and Elizabeth of Aragón) and the entourage who were eager to meet the young foreigner were waiting for her. which was received with a warm welcome by her in-laws and King Rodrigo. A month later, the couple got married at the Alcácer do Sal, in Portugal and it is said that it was a simple but happy ceremony.

In the year 1535, Jane gave birth to her first child, Louis, but he died two months later and this was a shame for the couple who longed to have a son. The following year the duchess had a twin birth, with two girls, Jane and Maria; and the birth of both girls was a great joy, but Jane's joy subsided when that same year her father, John Seymour, died and it was a hard blow for the young woman, but she remained strong and took the consolation of her husband her.

In the following years, the couple had more children, a total of ten pregnancies and eight came to fruition. In the year 1537, the long-awaited male, John, future Duke of Beja, was born and the following year Margery was born, the third wife of her cousin, Rodrigo II of Portugal. In 1539 Jane suffered an abortion of a child, but just a year later she had another son, Ferdinand, who would become a cardinal after being widowed.

Despite having given her husband two sons, it is known that Jane was kind and very maternal to her stepson Anthony, whom she calls "my little bird", it is also known that Louis had some extramarital relations when his wife became pregnant, but This did not matter to Jane who understood her husband's needs.

Jane continued to have more pregnancies, in the year 1541 she had a daughter, Eleanor, and the following year another, Philippa. In 1544 she had another son, Maximilian, who was a pretender to the Portuguese throne.

Jane's life was calm and happy with her many children whom she adored with all her soul, but in the year 1545 she became pregnant again for the eleventh time. One spring day Jane had a miscarriage as she strolled through the gardens with her ladies, and her daughters Margery and Mary. The Duchess was taken to her quarters where she had a great hemorrhage which was not well treated by the doctors and due to the continuous pregnancies without rest, her Jane contracted puerperal fevers and died the next day at 37 years of age.

Jane's children were part of some royal houses in Portugal, Spain and England, also thanks to her long descent the House of Avís could continue to reign for several more generations.

AU Tudor: Los mejores destinos para las esposas de Henry VIII (Es decir si ellas nunca se hubieran casado con el)

Jane Seymour- Duquesa consorte de Beja (1508-1545)

Jane Seymour era la típica dama que se exigía en su época aspecto ingles de carácter dulce, obediente y que se centrara en las labores de su hogar, además de ser fiel y obediente a su marido. Pesé a esto no obtuvo ninguna propuesta de matrimonio por parte de algún noble y la pobre Jane creyó que moriría soltera.

En el año 1532 se convierte en dama de compañía de la reina Catalina de Aragón, entablando así una estrecha relación y también con la hija de esta, Victoria. En el año 1533 los reyes recibieron la visita de María de Aragón, hermana mayor de Catalina y su hijo Luis de Portugal, duque de Beja.

Durante su estancia, María buscaba un poco ansiosa un matrimonio para su hijo ya que el se había casado de manera morganática con una judía llamada Violante Gómez con la cual tuvo un hijo, Antonio. La reina Catalina vio la oportunidad de presentarle a Jane una joven de belleza no muy destacable, pero muy saludable, de familia fértil y también de personalidad dulce; Esto fue bien visto por María que deseaba que su querido hijo dejara su aventura con “La Pelicana” y se casara con una noble.

Ese mismo año la reina presento a los jóvenes quienes tuvieron un trato cordial y Jane se sintió atraída por el infante, pero Luis estaba indeciso en casarse con la joven por lo que tuvo que pensarlo por unos meses. Mientras tanto Jane siguió al servicio de la reina Catalina esperando la respuesta del joven, además de recibir una educación mas adecuada para su posición aprendiendo hablar y a escribir la lengua portuguesa y castellana, estudiar las costumbres de la corte  en Portugal.

En el año 1534 Luis de Portugal quedo viudo cuando Violante Gómez enfermo de tuberculosis y falleció a los pocos meses. Luis viudo y con un hijo de solo tres años, acepto desposar a la joven Seymour y esto alegro a la infanta María, a Catalina y a Jane quien ansiaba por fin casarse. 

Ese mismo año Jane se despidió de su familia, de los reyes y de la corte para emprender su viaje a Portugal. Dos meses después Jane llego a Lisboa donde la esperaban su prometido, los padre del novio, el primo de Luis, Rodrigo I de Portugal (hijo de Alfonso VI e Isabel de Aragón) y la comitiva que estaba ansioso de conocer a la joven extranjera, la cual fue recibida con una cálida bienvenida por parte de sus suegros y el rey Rodrigo. Un mes después la pareja se caso en el  Alcácer do Sal, en Portugal y se dice que fue una ceremonia sencilla, pero feliz.

En el año 1535, Jane dio a luz a su primer hijo, Luis, pero este falleció dos meses después y esto fue una pena para el matrimonio que ansiaba tener un hijo varón. Al año siguiente la duquesa tuvo un parto gemelar naciendo dos niñas, Jane y María; y el nacimiento de ambas niñas fue una gran alegría, pero la alegría de Jane decayó cuando ese mismo año murió su padre, John Seymour y fue un duro golpe para la joven, pero se mantuvo fuerte y tuvo en consuelo de su marido.

En los años siguientes la pareja tuvo mas hijos, en total diez embarazos y ocho llegaron a buen termino. En el año 1537 nació el ansiado varón, Juan futuro duque de Beja y al año siguiente nació Margery que fue la tercera esposa de su primo, Rodrigo II de Portugal. En el 1539 Jane sufrió un aborto de un niño, pero tan solo un año después tuvo a otro hijo varón, Fernando que se convertiría en cardenal luego de enviudar.

Pesé haberle dado dos hijos varones a su esposo, se sabe que Jane fue amable y muy maternal a su hijastro Antonio al cual lo llamada “mi pequeño pájaro”, además se sabe que Luis mantenía algunas relaciones extramatrimoniales cuando su esposa se quedaba embarazada, pero esto no le importaba a Jane que entendía las necesidades de su marido.

Jane siguió teniendo mas embarazos, en el año 1541 tuvo una hija, Leonor y el año siguiente otra mas Felipa. En el 1544 tuvo otro hijo varón, Maximiliano el cual fue pretendiente al trono portugués.

La vida de Jane fue tranquila y feliz junto a sus numerosos hijos a los cuales adoraba con toda su alma, pero en el año 1545 volvió a quedarse embarazada por onceaba vez. Un día de primavera Jane tuvo un aborto espontaneo mientras paseaba por los jardines junto a sus damas, y a sus hijas Margery y María. La duquesa fue llevada a sus aposentos donde tuvo una gran hemorragia la cual no fue bien tratada por los médicos y debido a los continuos embarazos sin descanso, Jane contrajo fiebres puerperales y murió al día siguiente a los 37 años de edad.

Los hijos de Jane formaron parte de algunas casas reales de Portugal, España e Inglaterra, además gracias a su larga descendencia la Casa de Avís pudo seguir reinando por varias generaciones mas.

[lady-plantagenet]

What a wonderful answer friend! I will stress the fact that Warwick had massive issues with the Herberts (you see, Warwick was Lord of Glamorgan through his wife and had plans of dominionship over Wales; everything seems clearer now doesn’t it?). They were possibly the prime target of Warwick beyond all else. It’s Woodville Sr. and John W who are the most famed victims of the Edgecote Moor, but they could very well have been collateral (in Warwick’s eyes) damage while getting to the Herberts, being another family that had experienced rapid elevation together with the Woodvilles. As for Clarence, well Jacquetta herself had excluded Clarence from the blame of her husband and son’s deaths.

To that, Warwick may have felt saltiness towards the queen, thinking her haughty for refusing his man Sir Hugh in marriage (the anger he felt about her refusal is pretty apparent in the letter he wrote her after the fact). So one could argue that Warwick had a personal dislike of Elizabeth, but that wouldn’t have been because of her lineage, but her as a person. I will also add that between Elizabeth becoming queen and 1469, Warwick’s nephew (and heir to his northern neville domains) lost his marriage prospects to Anne of York’s daughter and Exeter’s heiress as she got given to Thomas Grey instead. He is recorded as having gone into a blind fit of rage over this. Mind, was it the fact that the queen’s son was marrying high, or rather, that his nephew’s heiress was snatched from him? The thing is, people discussing TWOTR need to remember that there was no morganatic marriage and as such no law that the bride need be noble. Oddly enough, a marriage between a king and a true-born peasant virgin would be more palatable than a bastard non-virgin noblewoman (although given Henry IV’s marriage to Joanne of Navarre I am lead to believe that the virgin requirement wasn’t that important).

Warwick was no fool. Though he couldn’t condemn the queen for foiling his French alliance or advancing the Herberts without sounding mercenary, or expressing his personal dislike without sounding foolish and immature, he could very well pick on her family’s lineage to contrast her to Bona of Savoy to raise up fears of the York dynasty becoming delegitimised by its isolation from the continental royal blood that queen’s wives generally belonged to. Warwick was no fool, he knew that in blood alone, Elizabeth outranked him, legitimately descending from the royal/imperial house of Luxemburg (from which Anne of Bohemia also came) whereas he had (as Laynesmith pointed out) a merchant’s daughter for a great-grandmother. But he also knew that as things stood in England with the social instability following the rise of the gentry after the Black Death, that he could successfully construct a narrative centering on her inherent unsuitability as queen, notwithstanding what may have underlay his misgivings. And Warwick was the grand-master of constructing narratives.

[Edit: The Woodvilles themselves had a family history that paralleled the Nevilles in that they were a Norman-Saxon family that had found favour during the reign of Henry II holding their manor of Grafton Regis from the time that the Nevilles had become ‘The Nevilles’ via Ritzmaldred’s marriage to Isabel de Neville (Norman heiress and matriarch). Essentially both families came be said to be as ‘old’ as each other, except that the Nevilles had becomes ennobled as barons during the 14th century whereas Woodville remained gentry. In sum, there was a fine distinction between which of them was the ‘parvenu’, one which Warwick exploited because, in contrast to Woodville, his house became grander through marriage (even Middleham was passed them through marriage). To add to that, Richard Woodville had descent through ‘Beauchamps of the Hatch’, something which Hicks claimed was a fabrication, but I remain a skeptic as he said the same thing about Warwick’s claim to descent through Pictish Northumbrian royalty in his biography of him. What should be taken away from this? Well, the fact that Warwick was keenly aware of the value Elizabeth’s matrilineal descent as well as her patrilineal]

weren't Elizabeth Woodville's contemporaries against her marriage to a king specifically because her father wasn't an earl/high-ranking baron or whatever? also, Warwick specifically was against her and sought to defame her because Edward IV married her without Warrick's knowledge + she wasn't whom Warwick was trying to get Edward IV to marry, thus making it clear that Warwick's influence with the royals was waning.

I recommend reading Laynesmith's The Last Medieval Queens (2004), her article ‘Crowns and Virgins: Queenmaking during the Wars of the Roses’ (Young Medieval Women, 1999) or other academic works because the issue is not at all as simple as popular narratives lead us to believe—it is in fact too complex to be summarised properly in a few paragraphs. Nevertheless, here are some basic points.

Different chroniclers drew attention to different things, but it seems that Elizabeth's status as a widow, thus, not a virgin, was a common feature of their criticism. Second marriages were regarded as ambivalently bigamous in a sense, especially because they could be regarded as the widow or widower's lack of chastity and desire for continued sex in spite of their spouse's decease. According to the social conventions of the time, a queen's reputation and chastity were expected to be spotless. Mancini later stated that Clarence had proclaimed that 'The king, who ought to have married a virgin wife, had married a widow in violation of established custom', a custom also mentioned by a chronicler at the time of the marriage’s announcement.

Another big feature, of course, was that Edward married Elizabeth without the consent of his lords, in a scenario where marrying a foreign princess would be more politically advantageous. It was not just a matter of Elizabeth’s levels of noble blood or lack thereof (as indeed she was described as the daughter of the duchess of Bedford by more than one chronicler, ‘borne of noble blood’), because that was not the biggest hindrance in England where social barriers were less rigid because not enshrined in law. It was a matter of the very real ability of foreign princesses to provide important alliances, military and economic backing through her family’s network and resources. For a usurper king like Edward IV, that could prove to be a matter of life or death. A very brief review (because as I said, the issue is too complex to be summarised in a couple of paragraphs):

Elizabeth Woodville was so unusual a choice for a queen because her nationality, social status, and lack of virginity all challenged contemporary assumptions about queenship and because kings did not normally allow themselves to marry only for love.

As for Warwick, it seems it wasn’t a case of any personal feud with the queen—in fact, he only ever mentioned her relatives in his proclamation and never the queen herself—but rather a general dissatisfaction with Edward IV’s policies inserted in a context where it was acceptable to attack the people around the king but not the king himself (see the attacks on Suffolk and Somerset during Henry VI’s reign). I’ll refer to @lady-plantagenet who knows more about Warwick than I do. Again, I recommend doing your own research as well, which is always good 🌹x

[fandom-oracle]

I’d like to add to this post that they often did remarry, even dynastically as opposed to morganatically. A consort’s role throughout history has very rarely been reduced to a royal incubator (or, in a few cases, royal sperm bank). Consorts had a great number of functions and were generally assets to monarchs for various reasons. They were expected to maintain their own courts and oftentimes oversee the costs and household expenses in said courts, they were also carriers of ceremonial functions in the absence of the monarch himself and also oftentimes held regencies. They were also the primary caretakers and overseers of the education of royal children, even those that weren’t their own.

Holy Roman Emperors were generally expected to be married at all times, and indeed the complex life of the Viennese courts would be difficult to navigate by a monarch alone. Francis II notoriously had four wives, only one of whom bore children; his second wives were marriages contracted mostly for the sake of household stability.

(Elisabeth of Württemberg died very young; his only wife to have children was Maria Theresa of the Two Sicilies).

If a king’s wife dies, and said king already has a strong male heir he approves of, along with two other children, would the king have any reason to remarry? (Let’s assume there is no women he could marry for any sort of alliance or advantage, and even if there were, it would be passed on to his children instead of him).

He may want to remarry for himself. Some Kings had morganatic marriages after losing a royal wife, whom he marries for love.

Catherine of Valois and Owen Tudor

Louis XIV and Madam de Maintenion

Erik XIV of Sweden and Karin Månsdotter

Alexander II and Catherine Dolgorukov

Victor Emmanuel II of Italy married Rosa Teresa Vercellana Guerrieri