#molten salt reactors

[ianmiller42]

We Write Reports on CO2 Removal, But Fail to Remove Much

There has been a report issued on the state of carbon dioxide removal (http://ianmillerblog.files.wordpress.com/2024/06/c57f5-the-state-of-carbon-dioxide-removal-2edition.pdf) that paints a rather gloomy picture. A large number of countries pledged in the Paris Agreement to reduce emissions of CO2. So far, what has actually happened is the total is increasing. This report has given up on the 1.5…

[consistantly-changing]

[Image description: a tweet by @cremieuxrecueil "Crémieux" (verified) which says "It's been a busy newsweek, but let's not miss this story:

China has demonstrated the first commercial- scale passive cooling of a high temperature nuclear reactor with a pebble bed module.

They intentionally turned off the cooling and the reactor cooled itself down, no problem."

Attached is a screenshot of the news article by Alex Wilkins added in the reblog. The article is from 19 July 2024, and the subtitle says "The first ever full-scale demonstration of a nuclear reactor designed to passively cool itself in an emergency was a success, showing that it should be possible to build nuclear plants without the risk of dangerous meltdown".]

This is revolutionary. Never again will we have a Chernobyl disaster or a Fukushima tragedy where old people literally sacrifice their remaining life in order to take care of the reactor. Every single one needs to adapt to this immediately

[newsepick]

Google backs new nuclear plants to power AI

Google is partnering with nuclear startup Kairos Power to construct seven small nuclear reactors in the U.S., a groundbreaking deal aimed at supporting the company's growing energy needs for AI and promoting a nuclear revival. The agreement, which includes a commitment to purchase 500 megawatts of power, marks the first commercial initiative for small modular reactors in the U.S. Kairos plans to deliver the reactors between 2030 and 2035, using molten fluoride salt instead of water as a coolant. This partnership addresses the demand for stable, carbon-free energy in the tech industry.

[electronalytics]

Molten Salt Reactor

[thespookywindow]

Episode 15 - Suppressed Technology

[trainsgenderfoxgirl2816]

Nuclear reactors don't explode they undergo thermal runaway which causes them to melt the pressurized water pipes that carry away the heat to a heat exchanger that's why molten salt reactors are an idea because instead of pressurized water pipes you have molten salt pipes which won't explode of melted

A Nuclear reactor is just a fancy steam engine that uses fission instead fire and the part that explodes is a boiler it's literally the steam mechanism by which Locomotive boilers fail where the crown sheet gets too hot melts out a hole and the boiler turns into a steam powered trebuchet

I used to think gender critical meant someone's gender was like a nuclear reactor about to explode

[literallymechanical]

Breeding blankets for fusion reactors

So, barring a few ambitious projects involving helium-3, fusion reactor power plants will use hydrogen isotopes as fuel: a 50/50 mixture of deuterium (hydrogen-2) and tritium (hydrogen-3). Deuterium is very stable and relatively abundant, as far as these things go, and can be extracted from ordinary seawater.  Tritium, however, has a half life of just over 12 years, so it doesn't occur in nature.

Fortunately, you can use your fusion reactor to synthesize its own tritium fuel, via the transmutation of lithium-6. You use the powerful neutron flux from the fusion plasma to “breed” tritium in lithium, extract it, then feed it back into the reactor. The figure of merit for this process is the tritium breeding ratio (TBR), which is simply the ratio of tritium bred to tritium used. The goal is to get a TBR substantially greater than 1.

This figure shows the physics of tritium breeding, where neutrons from the deuterium-tritium fusion plasma are absorbed by lithium, which then splits into helium and tritium. [source]

Generally speaking, most concepts for tritium breeding involve wrapping a lithium “breeding blanket” around the outside of the reactor, with as few gaps as you can manage. A deuterium-tritium reactor is constantly generating fast neutrons. You want to keep as much of that emission as possible inside the breeding blanket, for both tritium and power generation.

There are a few different ideas for breeding blanket designs, several of which are going to be tested on ITER, the massive reactor being built in France. One concept is a thick sheath of lithium ceramic that surrounds the vessel, either as solid slabs or pebbles.  As tritium breeding occurs under the blanket, water or liquid helium is circulated through it, cooling the lithium and potentially extracting heat for electricity generation.

While such a blanket might be relatively “simple” (lol) to build, there are some pretty fundamental challenges. Neutrons will penetrate most materials with ease, and it might be tricky to extract tritium that's been bred deep inside of solid lithium.  Ideally, you could do the extraction without pause, even as breeding is ongoing. For some designs, though, you have to cycle out breeder units for harvesting as they get a full load of tritium.

Another concept is “liquid breeding." This concept uses a molten mixture of metallic lithium and lead, or a lithium salt compound like FLiBe (fluorine-lithium-beryllium). The liquid would be pumped through a “breeding zone” around the vessel, where the neutron flux is thickest. The tritium will then be continuously extracted from the breeding fluid as it flows back out.  As part of the process, you can run the hot liquid through a heat exchanger, heating water to power a steam turbine. 

Liquid breeding does raise some prominent engineering challenges. Hot, molten breeding fluid will be very hard to handle – not just because of the heat, but also because you're trying to pump a massive quantity of viscous fluid into a very tight breeding zone. Moreover, molten lithium-lead might react explosively with air. If your breeding system springs a leak, you’ll have a serious mess on your hands!

It’s still unclear which of these breeding strategies will bear fruit. From conception to implementation, there are still a lot of unknowns!  Both liquid and solid breeding will be conducted in France, and a number of private fusion companies have plans to breed tritium in their machines as well.

[zvaigzdelasas]

The National Nuclear Safety Administration’s permit authorises scientists at the Shanghai Institute to operate the reactor for 10 years, during which time they will test its capabilities and limitations. The reactor has an output of only 2MW, however once its technology matures, it will have a number of advantages over conventional uranium-fuelled designs.

For example, thorium is less radioactive than uranium or plutonium, produces less toxic waste and cannot be used to create nuclear weapons. And because it is in liquid form, it solidifies in the event of a disaster, which would limit environmental damage.

The reactor also has advantages that are more specific to China, since the country is thought to have several hundred thousand tonnes of the element, or enough to meet its total energy needs for more than 20,000 years.[...]

As well as their inherent safety advantages, thorium molten salt SMRs can be located in many types of environments, including remote, desert or off-grid areas. This may have benefits for industries such as mining, which often require reliable power sources far from water or conventional utilities. It may also help power infrastructure on the “belt and road” programme in central Asia.

26 Jun 23

[letters-unsending]

No. 25

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Superhero tries to stop Supervillain from sacrificing himself to save the city/world.

It’s all very melodramatic and kind of similar to Prompt 22, sorry.

////

“No, no, no. You weren’t supposed to come!” Supervillain shoved Superhero, pushing him away from the sealed door of the reactor room. “I have it handled,” he spat, “and you—you should be away from here. You should be safe.”

Superhero stayed fast to the ground, unwavering as stone as Supervillain seethed and slapped at his collarbones. He reached out and squeezed Supervillain’s shoulder.

“I can cut off the explosion with my shield. We can both make it out,” Superhero urged. The slight weight of his palm, feathery over Supervillain’s rage, seemed to stop the crazed light in Supervillain’s eyes. Sighing, Supervillain stepped back.

“No, you can’t. I know what this thing does and neither you nor me can stop it and leave breathing. I understand your need to fix everything,” Villain turned toward the glass screen and stared at the pulsing, spitting reactor core beyond, “but this, this is my fault, not yours, so leave. Leave while there’s still time left.”

Superhero sucked in a breath. The sound was harsh and scraping against the silence, the dread that hung like a mourning veil across the deserted laboratory halls.

“Supervillain-“

“-just let me have this,” Supervillain cried, “let me make the one good decision I’ll ever make in my goddamned life. Why are you stopping me from doing the right thing?”

Superhero strode forward and Supervillain recoiled, staggering closer to the glass and the molten heat it perfused. It seemed that they would waltz as they always had. Superhero would chase, Supervillain would flee, but as the reactor’s warmth stoked Supervillain’s spine, he stood straight, facing Superhero head on.

Around them, the metal walls creaked, aching against the pressure of the unstable core. Supervillain’s blood boiled in his ears. Superhero paused in front of him.

“Why now?” Superhero asked.

“Now? What do you mean by now?”

“You always wavered, always questioned the [Villain Organization] you fought for.” Superhero’s speech was so impassioned, so mesmerizing, that Supervillain hardly flinched as Superhero reeled him in by the back of his head and forced his cheek against his shoulder. “Why have you defected now, after all this time? Why do you have to go and die to finally do what you think is right?”

Superhero swayed back with Supervillain, leading him away from the fiery glass and stinging heat. The cool air breezed along Supervillain’s hair and the sweaty seams of his suit; the relief was so potent he almost sagged down against Superhero. Superhero caught the stutter in his step with a supportive hand to his back.

“You said you saw the good in me,” Supervillain whispered, “it’s not a surprise.”

“No, it wasn’t a surprise.”

Tension, all welled and coiled in Supervillain’s chest, unstrung with a crack of air, with a cry that Supervillain smothered into Superhero’s skin.

“You sanctimonious shit,” he cursed, bringing an arm around Superhero’s shoulders and holding him fierce. “Don’t take my fucking credit. I always, always envied you. I envied how people revered you, how they loved you. I wanted that—I wanted to be a hero so much.”

“And you can be. We can do this, save the city. You are good, so good.”

“I’m not risking you.”

“Helping you is my choice,” Superhero passed his hand through Supervillain’s hair, a cruel kindness.

“The choice is mine too and I want to do this alone,” Supervillain insisted, not knowing whether to weep or to yell. He kept his body away from Superhero now, holding only his forehead and the tips of his fingers still against him. Behind him was a growing hell. Heat licked at his heels and brought salt down his temples.

“Please, go.”

[pillarofawesome]

Or turn it into batteries by compressing it into diamonds. That's a new thing we can do

its so fucking funny that nuclear waste is such a contentious topic. like yeah those damn nuclear advocates need to figure out somewhere reasonable to put that nuclear waste. for now we will  be sticking with coal power because it puts its waste products safe and sound In Our Lungs, where they cannot hurt anybody,

[hasdrubal-gisco]

i wish we had a thorium molten salt reactor :(

[atomarium]

So @neoncityrain,

I'll being again.

You have probably heard the words "nuclear" reactor at least a couple of times. Many people fear them and don't understand. Some fear them because of that. In the principle nuclear reactors are actually incredibly simple on their own. It's basically a kettle with a turbine that heats using shiny rocks. To be specific about what happens in the process of "fission" (the process of atoms doing the absolutely mental). We fire a neuron, it hits a heavy atom like uranium 238 (238 indicates the number of protons inside the atom, this is important because different amounts of neutrons make different isotopes of the same element. And while some isotopes are stable, some are incredibly radioactive. This is needed to calculate the energy potential.) After the neutron gits the atom, it splits in to two atoms of a lighter elements. For example uranium 235 when split produces either barium and kripton, strontium and xenon or tin and molybdenum. Depending on how it splits. When the atom is split it releases other neutrons, Wich are moving very fast and carry an energy potential. It's also called the neutron temperature. Basically how much kinetic potential it has. Kinetic potential is basically temperature. As movment in atoms is heat. It in itself is important for splitting lighter elements or achieving higher efficiency. But I'll come back to that later.

So basically green rock Magic happens (it's actually emits blue light not green). And it heats a pot of watter Wich we make in to steam and then in to energy.

With the rock Magic done we come to the part of construction. Eich is my favorite as you see there is a lot of concrete metal and vey sturdy stuff in general.

Main concern for people that are afraid of nuclear reactors is another Chernobyl, Fukushima or three mile island.

Wich is a completely valid concern. However they are all human error. Fukushima was built on a shore... with tsunamis.

Chernobyl was managed by my ancestors, Wich they did incredibly porly and did experiments to the reactor that it was not Designed for.

Nuclear reactors altho do have uranium inside of them, just as nuclear bombs. Their are utterly and absolutely Incapable of exploding like one. It's just not as pure and condensed. And it's also not being exploded together. That's just not going to happen.

With today's technology in automatic control units, Materials and stuff, reactors are incredibly unlikely to fail. Unless humans do stupid human stuff. France for example is Europes largest nuclear powerhouse. And it's energy sources are basically carbon neutral. Also the concern of people that radiation will spread and radiate the area is very unfounded. I blame the Simpsons for that fear. Uranium is not a green glowy liquid. It's a metal ish metal, maybe greyish. And you can calmly hold it. It generaly doesn't contaminate watter. And not is it in direct contact with it. It's inside it's heat transfering case. The heat from the uranium case rods is transfers with either watter molten sodium or salt. (It sounds scary but each of them has their own benefits). There is a three loops design usually implemented. The first loop takes heat directly from the uranium. And transfers it via a heat exchanger (a radiator basically) to the second loop. The second loop uses the heated watter to spin the turbines. And then at the end cools it even more with the help of the third loop. The third loop is usually just taking water from a river and spraying it in the air after it took the heat. Those are the huge cooling towers you usually see. It's not smoke or radiation. It's just steam. So you can drink it without problem. Wich I proudly day I did. (it's almost like an iterator)(wait nuclear powered iterator) (a universe where the didn't discover void fluid energy) (holy shit I made something creative)

Nuclear power occupies a very important niech. It can produce A LOT of power on demand. Meaning if suddenly it's a holiday and everyone has decided it is time their ovens on. Renewables won't be able to compensate. As you see, if there is simply no wind or sun. There is nothing you can do. You can build batteries, but litium ion are very expensive and bad for the environment. And batteries that pump watter up so it later can spin generators falling down (usually called a gravity battery) are good and massive. But can't be everywhere.

Nuclear power plants can ramp up their energy production to cover that spike rapidly and efficiently. Making sure your country won't suddenly be low on energy ((KHEM KHEM GERMANY)) in the winter. Because uranium doesn't care for the weather.

Nod for the main part and the most interesting.

NUCLEAR WASTE

I shall repeat again. It's unfortunately not a dlurpee. And it doesn't leak.

Nuclear waste has 3 stages.

Fresh out of the reactor.

This kind needs to be actively cooled, because altho it has much of the useful uranium used up. There is still a little bit of wamrth. It needs to be cooled in a pond for a couple of months.

That's the cooling pond. It's about a years with I think. Fissile material is incredible energy dense. One kilogram of enriched uranium is enough to power uhhh. A lot of stuff for s long time. The voyager for example has been out there since uhh. A log time. And it's own small littler radio isotope nuclear generator is what keeps it warm and alive.

The second stage is splitting stuff that could be useful,such as enriched uranium. 238 neutrons. It can still be used. And recycled. Wich many do.

The third kind is the bad kind. The stuff thats radioactive enough to be dangerous but not useful. Right now it is stored underground in metal and concrete husks.

This is of course bad. As it accumulates there and isn't useful.

However, there is not that much nuclear waste. It's actually doesn't take up that much space. And in the end you're putting radioactive rocks back were you found them.

HOWEVER

here comes my favorite part.

THERE IS A WAY TO AVOID ALL OF THAT.

it's called fast neutron fission reactors. Those are experimental reactors right now. So there aren't any used actevly. But they posses a very useful trait. They feed using nuclear waste. And guess what it produces as a result ?

NUCLEAR FUEL.

This means it's an infinite energy glitch (not technically. Some of the matter is concerted to energy)

You put nuclear waste of normal reactors, in to fast neutron reactors ( also referd as breeder reactors or fast spectrum reactors) and get fuel back. And we'll 1 Gramm or so of trans uranics (the nasty nuclear waste) per ton. Wich tooooo be fair... it's just a Gramm, just pour it underground it'll be fine. Or keep it in a bottle as a lava lamp.

Altogether, nuclear reactors altho not as simple as burning coal or shining the sun at a panel. Are INCREDIBLY powerful. And are just misunderstood behemoths capable of boosting our civilization past the climate change. Many people fear them, but they shouldn't. They fear the complex, and refuse to learn about it.

Germany should really revisit it's nuclear policy.

Ah and by the way. Most biggest reason why we aren't building more faster is because they are expensive. However. Most of the cost comes from turbines and cooling stuff. The exact same as in coal power plants or gas powerplants. We can just put a kettle of cool rocks in there and get one free powerplant for relatively cheap and no CO2!!

Feel free to ask any questions, I have absolutely no problem with that. Also i apologize for my grammar and typos, I just don't wsnt to correct the entirety of the text. Hopefully I didn't screw something up badly.

Also @eltanin0 you might find this interesting to.

Bonus argument

JUST LOOK HOW BEAUTIFUL IT IS

Literally rainworld irl

The last two are scientific reactors, nuclear powerplants don't look like this

Oh and a schematic just in case.

Forgot to mention the control rods, it's just to stop neutrons when you don't need them. It's like graphite or similar. And its safer to be gravity droped so if there is suddenly no power they shutdown the reactor automatically.

Also one of the reasons Chernobyl went boom.

Yeah I'm definitely fucking autistic

[crystallized-crow]

i want more radiation facts so have some facts about medieval european merchants!!! there was a medieval “middle class”! the merchant class was above peasants/serfs but below nobility and were, well, merchants. merchants were also often families in one trade. AND merchants had guilds that would sometimes intermarry for economic reasons. and the process to start a guild was SOO difficult and there were SO MANY hoops to jump through

(i can also infodump abt linguistics and the bible :D)

YAY!!!!! THATS SUCH A COOL SPECIAL INTEREST OMG?? I DID NOT KNOW THAT!!

HERES SOME MORE FUN FACTS!

THE AVERAGE AMERICAN RECEIVES MOST OF THEIR YEARLY DOSAGE OF IONIZING RADIATION FROM INHALING RADON, WHICH NATURALLY OCCURS IN THE AIR

RADIOACTIVITY WAS FIRST SCIENTIFICALLY STUDIED IN 1896 BY A FRENCH PHYSICIST NAMED HENRI BECQUEREL WHEN HE ACCIDENTALLY DISCOVERED IT WHILST RESEARCHING URANIUM SALTS AND X RAYS

and now for my favorite fun fact of all time 😁😁

THE ELEPHANT’S FOOT IS A MASS OF CORIUM CREATED FROM STEEL, MOLTEN CONCRETE, SAND, ZIRCONIUM, AND URANIUM WHICH FORMED BENEATH REACTOR 4 OF THE CHERNOBYL NUCLEAR POWER PLANT DURING THE DISASTER

[materialsscienceandengineering]

Electrons are quick-change artists in molten salts, chemists show

In a finding that helps elucidate how molten salts in advanced nuclear reactors might behave, scientists have shown how electrons interacting with the ions of the molten salt can form three states with different properties. Understanding these states can help predict the impact of radiation on the performance of salt-fueled reactors. The researchers, from the Department of Energy's Oak Ridge National Laboratory and the University of Iowa, computationally simulated the introduction of an excess electron into molten zinc chloride salt to see what would happen. They found three possible scenarios. In one, the electron becomes part of a molecular radical that includes two zinc ions. In another, the electron localizes on a single zinc ion. In the third, the electron is delocalized, or spread out diffusely over multiple salt ions.

Read more.

[jcmarchi]

Nuclear Power Renaissance with Molten Salts - Technology Org

New Post has been published on https://thedigitalinsider.com/nuclear-power-renaissance-with-molten-salts-technology-org/

Nuclear Power Renaissance with Molten Salts - Technology Org

A science team is reinventing nuclear energy systems via molten salt technologies.

A retro wonder gleaming white in the sun, propelled by six rear-facing rotors and four jet engines affixed to the longest wings ever produced for a combat aircraft, the Convair B-36 Peacemaker looks like it flew right out of a 1950s science fiction magazine.

Frozen uranium containing fuel salt (NaF-BeF2-UF4), inside a glovebox in Raluca Scarlat’s SALT lab. Illustration by Sasha Kennedy/UC Berkeley

One of these bombers, which flew over the American Southwest from 1955 to 1957, was unique. It bore the fan-like symbol for ionizing radiation on its tail. The NB-36H prototype was designed to be powered by a molten salt nuclear reactor — a lightweight alternative to a water-cooled reactor.

Nuclear-propelled aircraft like the NB-36H were intended to fly for weeks or months without stopping, landing only when the crew ran short of food and supplies. So what happened? Why weren’t the skies filled with these fantastical aircraft?

“The problem was that nuclear-powered airplanes are absolutely crazy,” says Per F. Peterson, the William S. Floyd and Jean McCallum Floyd Chair in Nuclear Engineering. “The program was canceled, but the large thermal power to low-weight ratio in molten salt reactors is the reason that they remain interesting today.”

Because of numerous concerns, including possible radioactive contamination in the event of a crash, the idea of nuclear-powered aircraft never took off. But nuclear submarines, using water as coolant, completely replaced their combustion-powered predecessors. Civilian reactors were built on the success of submarine systems, and as a result, most nuclear reactors today are cooled with water.

Professor Per Peterson holds a single fuel pebble, which can produce enough electricity to power a Tesla Model 3 for 44,000 miles. Illustration by Adam Lau / Berkeley Engineering

While most water-cooled reactors can safely and reliably generate carbon-free electricity for decades, they do present numerous challenges in terms of upfront cost and efficiency.

Molten salt reactors, like those first designed for nuclear-powered aircraft, address many of the inherent challenges with water-cooled reactors. The high-temperature reaction of such reactors could potentially generate much more energy than water-cooled reactors, hastening efforts to phase out fossil fuels.

Now, at the Department of Nuclear Engineering, multiple researchers, including Peterson, are working to revisit and reinvent molten salt technologies, paving the way for advanced nuclear energy systems that are safer, more efficient and cost-effective — and may be a key for realizing a carbon-free future.

Smaller, safer reactors

In the basement of Etcheverry Hall, there’s a two-inch-thick steel door that looks like it might belong on a bank vault. These days, the door is mostly left open, but for two decades it was the portal between the university and the Berkeley Research Reactor, used mainly for training. In 1966, the reactor first achieved a steady-state of nuclear fission.

Fission occurs when the nucleus of an atom absorbs a neutron and breaks apart, transforming itself into lighter elements. Radioactive elements like uranium naturally release neutrons, and a nuclear reactor harnesses that process.

Concentrated radioactive elements interact with neutrons, splitting themselves apart, shooting more neutrons around and splitting more atoms. This self-sustaining chain reaction releases immense amounts of energy in the form of radiation and heat. The heat is transferred to water that propels steam turbines that generate electricity.

The reactor in Etcheverry Hall is long gone, but the gymnasium-sized room now houses experiments designed to test cooling and control systems for molten salt reactors. Peterson demonstrated one of these experiments in August. The Compact Integral Effects Test (CIET) is a 30-foot-tall steel tower packed with twisting pipes.

The apparatus uses heat transfer oil to model the circulation of molten salt coolant between a reactor core and its heat exchange system. CIET is contributing extensively to the development of passive safety systems for nuclear reactors.

After a fission reaction is shut down, such systems allow for the removal of residual heat caused by radioactive decay of fission products without any electrical power — one of the main safety features of molten salt reactors.

The first molten salt reactor tested at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the 1950s was small enough to fit in an airplane, and the new designs being developed today are not much larger.

Conventional water-cooled reactors are comparatively immense — the energy-generating portion of the Diablo Canyon Power Plant in San Luis Obispo County occupies approximately 12 acres, and containment of feedwater is not the only reason why.

The core temperature in this type of reactor is usually kept at some 300 degrees Celsius, which requires 140 atmospheres of pressure to keep the water liquid. This need to pressurize the coolant means that the reactor must be built with robust, thick-walled materials, increasing both size and cost. Molten salts don’t require pressurization because they boil at much higher temperatures.

In conventional reactors, water coolant can boil away in an accident, potentially causing the nuclear fuel to meltdown and damage the reactor. Because the boiling point of molten salts are higher than the operational temperature of the reactor, meltdowns are extremely unlikely.

Even in the event of an accident, the molten salt would continue to remove heat without any need for electrical power to cycle the coolant — a requirement in conventional reactors.

“Molten salts, because they can’t boil away, are intrinsically appealing, which is why they’re emerging as one of the most important technologies in the field of nuclear energy,” says Peterson.

The big prize: efficiency

Assistant professor Raluca Scarlat uses a glovebox in her Etcheverry Hall lab. Illustration by Adam Lau / Berkeley Engineering

To fully grasp the potential benefits of molten salts, one has to visit the labs of the SALT Research Group. Raluca O. Scarlat, assistant professor of nuclear engineering, is the principal investigator for the group’s many molten salt studies.

Scarlat’s lab is filled with transparent gloveboxes filled with argon gas. Inside these gloveboxes, Scarlat works with many types of molten salts, including FLiBe, a mixture of beryllium and lithium fluoride. Her team aims to understand exactly how this variety of salt might be altered by exposure to a nuclear reactor core.

On the same day that Peterson demonstrated the CIET test, researchers in the SALT lab were investigating how much tritium (a byproduct of fission) beryllium fluoride could absorb.

Salts are ionic compounds, meaning that they contain elements that have lost electrons and other elements that have gained electrons, resulting in a substance that carries no net electric charge. Ionic compounds are very complex and very stable. They can absorb a large range of radioactive elements.

This changes considerations around nuclear waste, especially if the radioactive fuel is dissolved into the molten salt. Waste products could be electrochemically separated from the molten salts, reducing waste volumes and conditioning the waste for geologic disposal.

Waste might not even be the proper term for some of these byproducts, as many are useful for other applications — like tritium, which is a fuel for fusion reactors.

Salts can also absorb a lot of heat. FLiBe remains liquid between approximately 460 degrees and 1460 degrees Celsius. The higher operating temperature of molten salt coolant means more steam generation and more electricity, greatly increasing the efficiency of the reactor, and for Scarlat, efficiency is the big prize.

“If we filled the Campanile with coal and burned it to create electricity, a corresponding volume of uranium fuel would be the size of a tennis ball,” says Scarlat. “Having hope that we can decarbonize and decrease some of the geopolitical issues that come from fossil fuel exploration is very exciting.”

“Finding good compromises”

Thermal efficiency refers to the amount of useful energy produced by a system as compared with the heat put into it. A combustion engine achieves about 20% thermal efficiency. A conventional water-cooled nuclear reactor generally achieves about 32%.

According to Massimiliano Fratoni, Xenel Distinguished Associate Professor in the Department of Nuclear Engineering, a high-temperature, molten salt reactor might achieve 45% thermal efficiency.

So, with all the potential benefits of molten salt reactors, why weren’t they widely adopted years ago? According to Peter Hosemann, Professor and Ernest S. Kuh Chair in Engineering, there’s a significant challenge inherent in molten salt reactors: identifying materials that can withstand contact with the salt.

Anyone who’s driven regularly in a region with icy roads has probably seen trucks and cars with ragged holes eaten in the metal around the wheel wells. Salt spread on roads to melt ice is highly corrosive to metal. A small amount of moisture in the salt coolant of a nuclear reactor could cause similar corrosion, and when combined with extreme heat and high radiation, getting the salt’s chemistry right is even more critical.

Hosemann, a materials scientist, uses electron microscopes to magnify metal samples by about a million times. The samples have been corroded and or irradiated, and Hosemann studies how such damage alters their structures and properties. These experiments may help reactor designers estimate how much corrosion to expect every year in a molten salt reactor housing.

Hosemann says molten salt reactors present special engineering challenges because the salt coolant freezes well above room-temperatures, meaning that repairs must either be done at high temperatures, or the coolant must first be drained.

Commercially successful molten salt reactors then will have to be very reliable, and that won’t be simple. For example, molten salt reactors with liquid fuel may be appealing in terms of waste management, but they also add impurities into the salt that make it more corrosive.

Liquid fuel designs will need to be more robust to counter corrosion, resulting in higher costs, and the radioactive coolant presents further maintenance challenges.

Nuclear engineering graduate students Sasha Kennedy and Nathanael Gardner, from left, work with molten salt. Illustration by Adam Lau/Berkeley Engineering

“Good engineering is always a process of finding good compromises. Even the molten salt reactor, as beautiful as it is, has to make compromises,” says Hosemann.

Peterson thinks the compromise is in making molten salt reactors modular. He was the principal investigator on the Department of Energy-funded Integrated Research Project that conducted molten salt reactor experiments from 2012 to 2018.

His research was spun off into Kairos Power, which he co-founded with Berkeley Engineering alums Edward Blandford (Ph.D.’10 NE) and Mike Laufer (Ph.D.’13 NE), and where Peterson serves as Chief Nuclear Officer.

The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission just completed a review of Kairos Power’s application for a demonstration reactor, Hermes, as a proof of concept. Peterson says that high-temperature parts of Kairos Power’s reactors would likely last for 15 to 25 years before they’d need to be replaced, and because the replacement parts will be lighter than those of conventional reactors, they’ll consume fewer resources.

“As soon as you’re forced to make these high-temperature components replaceable, you’re systematically able to improve them. You’re building improvements, replacing the old parts and testing the new ones, iteratively getting better and better,” says Peterson.

Lowering energy costs

California is committed to reaching net zero carbon emissions by 2045. It’s tempting to assume that this goal can be reached with renewables alone, but electricity demand doesn’t follow peak energy generating times for renewables. 

Natural gas power surges in the evenings as renewable energy wanes. Even optimistic studies on swift renewable energy adoption in California still assume that some 10% of energy requirements won’t be achieved with renewables and storage alone.

Considering the increasing risks to infrastructure in California from wildfires and intensifying storms, it’s likely that non-renewable energy sources will still be needed to meet the state’s energy needs.

Engineers in the Department of Nuclear Engineering expect that nuclear reactors will make more sense than natural gas for future non-renewable energy needs because they produce carbon-free energy at a lower cost. In 2022, the price of natural gas in the United States fluctuated from around $2 to $9 per million BTUs.

Peterson notes that energy from nuclear fuel currently costs about 50 cents per million BTUs. If new reactors can be designed with high intrinsic safety and lower construction and operating costs, nuclear energy might be even more affordable.

Molten salt sits on a microscope stage in professor Raluca Scarlat’s lab. Illustration by Adam Lau/Berkeley Engineering

Even if molten salt reactors do not end up replacing natural gas, Hosemann says the research will still prove valuable. He points to other large-scale scientific and engineering endeavors like fusion reactors, which in 60 years of development have never been used commercially but have led to other breakthroughs.

“Do I think we’ll have fusion-generated power in our homes in the next five years? Absolutely not. But it’s still valuable because it drives development of superconductors, plasmas and our understanding of materials in extreme environments, which today get used in MRI systems and semiconductor manufacturing,” says Hosemann. “Who knows what we’ll find as we study molten salt reactors?”

Source: UC Berkeley

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Molten Salt Reactor (MSR) Market Overview and Upcoming Trends 2032

Overview of the Molten Salt Reactor Market:

Global Molten Salt Reactors market is projected to grow at a CAGR of 5.9% by 2032.

The Molten Salt Reactor (MSR) Market revolves around the development, deployment, and commercialization of nuclear reactors that use molten salt as both fuel and coolant. MSR technology offers unique advantages, including enhanced safety, reduced nuclear waste, efficient fuel utilization, and the potential to operate on a variety of fuel types. The market is driven by the growing interest in advanced nuclear energy solutions that address safety concerns, waste management, and sustainable energy production.

Molten Salt Reactors (MSRs) are a type of advanced nuclear reactor technology that use a liquid mixture of salts as both the fuel and the coolant. MSRs offer several potential advantages, including increased safety, reduced nuclear waste, and the ability to efficiently use thorium as a fuel source. The MSR market has gained attention as a potential solution for addressing energy needs while minimizing environmental impacts.

Scope:

Advanced Reactor Technology: MSRs represent a novel approach to nuclear power generation, utilizing liquid fuel instead of solid fuel rods. The scope includes research, development, and commercialization of MSR designs.

Fuel Flexibility: MSRs can utilize a range of fuels, including thorium and enriched uranium, which expands the scope to exploring alternative fuel cycles for efficient energy production and reduced nuclear waste.

Nuclear Waste Reduction: The inherent design of MSRs can potentially reduce the long-lived nuclear waste compared to conventional reactors, making MSR technology part of waste management solutions.

Safety Features: MSRs offer passive safety mechanisms, including negative temperature coefficients and natural circulation of the molten fuel, which enhances reactor safety.

Thorium Fuel Cycle: The scope includes exploring the potential of thorium as a fuel source in MSRs, as it is more abundant and potentially safer compared to traditional uranium fuel.

Energy Generation: MSRs have potential applications in electricity generation, process heat production, and even hydrogen production, expanding the scope to various industrial sectors.

Research and Development: The scope encompasses ongoing research and development efforts to optimize MSR designs, improve fuel cycle efficiency, and enhance safety features.

Demand:

Clean Energy Generation: Growing demand for clean and low-carbon energy sources to address climate change and reduce greenhouse gas emissions drives interest in advanced nuclear technologies like MSRs.

Nuclear Power Resurgence: The MSR's potential to overcome some limitations of traditional reactors, such as safety concerns and nuclear waste issues, aligns with the global interest in reviving and advancing nuclear power.

Energy Security: MSRs offer a stable and reliable energy source that can contribute to energy security and grid stability, particularly in regions with limited access to traditional energy resources.

Industrial Applications: The high-temperature output of MSRs can be used for industrial processes, such as hydrogen production and desalination, driving demand for efficient and versatile energy solutions.

Opportunities:

Innovation in Nuclear Technology: The development of MSR technology presents opportunities for innovation in reactor design, materials science, and fuel cycle optimization.

Waste Management Solutions: MSRs' potential to reduce nuclear waste and utilize existing waste as fuel offers opportunities for addressing the long-term challenges of nuclear waste disposal.

Energy Transition: MSRs can be a bridge between conventional energy sources and a more sustainable future, presenting opportunities in the global transition to cleaner energy systems.

Collaboration and Investment: Opportunities exist for collaboration between governments, research institutions, and private sector companies to advance MSR technology through funding, expertise, and resources.

Energy Export and Security: Countries with advanced MSR technology can potentially export clean and safe nuclear energy solutions, enhancing energy security and international partnerships.

Nuclear Industry Revival: The development and deployment of MSRs can contribute to a revitalized nuclear industry by addressing public concerns, safety issues, and waste management challenges.

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Market Segmentations:

Global Molten Salt Reactor Market: By Company

• MAN Energy Solutions

• Kairos Power

• Enesoon Holding

• Copenhagen Atomics

• Terrestrial Energy

• Moltex Energy

• ThorCon Power

• Elysium Industries

• Transatomic

• Flibe Energy

• Lightbridge

• Shanghai TaiYang Technology Co.,Ltd

Global Molten Salt Reactor Market: By Type

• Thorium

• Plutonium

• Uranium

Global Molten Salt Reactor Market: By Application

• Oil and Gas

• Power and Energy

• Shipping

• Others

Global Molten Salt Reactor Market: Regional Analysis

The regional analysis of the global Molten Salt Reactor market provides insights into the market's performance across different regions of the world. The analysis is based on recent and future trends and includes market forecast for the prediction period. The countries covered in the regional analysis of the Molten Salt Reactor market report are as follows:

North America: The North America region includes the U.S., Canada, and Mexico. The U.S. is the largest market for Molten Salt Reactor in this region, followed by Canada and Mexico. The market growth in this region is primarily driven by the presence of key market players and the increasing demand for the product.

Europe: The Europe region includes Germany, France, U.K., Russia, Italy, Spain, Turkey, Netherlands, Switzerland, Belgium, and Rest of Europe. Germany is the largest market for Molten Salt Reactor in this region, followed by the U.K. and France. The market growth in this region is driven by the increasing demand for the product in the automotive and aerospace sectors.

Asia-Pacific: The Asia-Pacific region includes Singapore, Malaysia, Australia, Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines, China, Japan, India, South Korea, and Rest of Asia-Pacific. China is the largest market for Molten Salt Reactor in this region, followed by Japan and India. The market growth in this region is driven by the increasing adoption of the product in various end-use industries, such as automotive, aerospace, and construction.

Middle East and Africa: The Middle East and Africa region includes Saudi Arabia, U.A.E, South Africa, Egypt, Israel, and Rest of Middle East and Africa. The market growth in this region is driven by the increasing demand for the product in the aerospace and defense sectors.

South America: The South America region includes Argentina, Brazil, and Rest of South America. Brazil is the largest market for Molten Salt Reactor in this region, followed by Argentina. The market growth in this region is primarily driven by the increasing demand for the product in the automotive sector.

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