#king numa

[allegorypaintings]

An Allegory of Prophecy (King Numa and Augurs)

Artist: Attributed to Antonio Palma (Italian, c.1515 - before 1585)

Date: ca. 1575-1600

Medium: Oil on canvas

Collection: National Trust Collections, London, United Kingdom

Description

The message of the picture was once identified by an old Latin inscription translated as: The wise man seeks out the wisdom of the Ancients and has leisure for the prophets). Here the wisdom of the Ancients appears to be represented by the philosopher-king Numa (although given a contemporary dress with a fleu-de-lys crown, possibly emblematic of Henri III, who returned via Venice from the throne of Poland to that of France in 1574) who is presiding over the Augurs foretelling the future from the flight of birds.

Numa Pompilius was the legendary second king of Rome, successor to Romulus, reigning 715-673 BC. He was credited with the foundation of the Roman religious system and the reform of the Roman calendar, inspired, it was said, with wise advice from his lover, the water-nymph Egeria.

The painting was acquired, with Philosophers Disputing, both then attributed to ‘Bonifacio’ by William Bankes (1786–1855) in 1849, off the ceiling of the Palazzo Capello a San Felice in Venice and intended for the ceiling of the Library of Kingston Lacy. It is now attributed to Antonio Negeti Palma, pupil of Bonifazio de’Pitati and father of Palma Giovane.

[flags-planes-and-fire]

Photo restorations done by Esteban Lemos on Facebook (Credit)

Alt ID is too long so I'll add it here (Spanish has been translated): The Mendoza Plumerillo Airport, 12 of October 1972:

Standing, left to right: Roberto Canessa, José Luis Inciarte, Daniel Shaw, Eduardo Strauch, Alvaro Mangino, Daniel Fernández, Enrique Platero, Roy Harley, Gustavo Nicholich, Rafael Echavarren, Ramón Sabella, Carlos Páez, Diego Storm, Roberto Francois, Fernando Parrado, Daniel Maspons, Juan Carlos Menéndez, Padro Algorta, Felipe Maquirriain, Numa Turcatti, Julio Martinez Lamas.

Crouched, left to right: Arturo Nogueira, Marcelo Pérez, Jorge Hounie, Guido Magri, Gustavo Zerbino, Panchito Abal, Fernando Vásquez, Antonio Vizintin, Carlos Valeta, Gastón Costemalle, Pancho Delgado and Adolfo Strauch.

Photo taken in mid 1972 at a Loyola Club dinner.

From left to right, Alfredo "Pancho" Delgado, Alfredo Cibils and Numa Turcatti

Thank you again to Mr. Lemos for these photos, amazing work! x

[thoughts-of-caly]

yeah all right fine. it was the decemviri who messed up the calendar ok. stop blaming caesar. we can blame him for other things tho

[somedaytakethetime]

Other people: *great, Ultra 4K HD top notch quality content* Me:

[padawan-snack-packer]

Do you ever just go about your day, sip your little drink, open your little email, and then remember that Hardcase—our chaos ADHD king, our walking serotonin shot, our human thermal detonator—sacrificed himself with a grin and a quip so his brothers could escape? That he went out in a blaze of glory, piloting a stolen ship with literally no plan except “blow stuff up real good,” and the last thing he said was "live to fight another day boys, live to fight another day"???

Hardcase, who never stopped calling his brothers “sir” even when they told him to quit it. Hardcase, who probably never got promoted because he was “reckless.” Hardcase, who loved flying and loud noises and sunshine and probably didn’t understand why no one ever let him just have fun—and then he died for everyone else. Just. Like. That.

Do you ever remember Echo? Sweet, by-the-books, “regulations exist for a reason” Echo who lost everything and kept surviving anyway? Echo who got blown up during a rescue mission, turned into a cybernetic lab rat, hooked up to machines like a tool, stripped of his name, his agency, his brotherhood—and he still came back.

He came back and found out Fives was gone. He came back and the war was ending only to find out there was no end to begin with. He came back and nothing was the same, and he still kept going. That man has literally had half his body replaced with cyber-grade hardware and he's still more human than some Jedi.

Do you ever think about Fives? Fives who figured it out. Fives who knew about the chips. Fives who died saying the truth. He didn’t go down in glory. He wasn’t martyred. He bled out in a hangar, shaking and crying and trying to tell the people he trusted that everything was a lie. And NOBODY BELIEVED HIM. They said he lost his mind. THEY. SAID. HE LOST. HIS MIND.

Fives who just wanted to be loyal. Who just wanted to protect his brothers. Who died trying to save them all and didn’t live to see a single one freed.

Do you remember Jesse? That sweet, noble ARC trooper who wore the Republic symbol on his face like a badge of honor and who looked absolutely shattered when he turned on Ahsoka. He didn’t want to. You could see it. You could feel the war inside him. But the chip won. Because "good soldiers follow orders".

Do you remember Tup? That sweet, soft-spoken clone who glitched first. Who killed two jedi, because “Good soldiers follow orders,” like he was possessed. Because he was. Because the war broke him open before anyone was ready.

Do you ever remember Waxer and Boil? Waxer who kept an eye on a scared little Twi'lek girl Numa through a war zone. Waxer who died seeing his brothers were turning against each other because of Krell and his lies, and who apologized with his dying breath?

Do you remember that clones had names? Do you remember that they named themselves? That they forged their identities with paint and banter and nicknames and loyalty and found joy in being individuals even when everything about their existence was designed to erase that?

Do you remember that they aged twice as fast and weren’t supposed to live long enough to get tired?

That the GAR never intended to care for them after the war? That there was no post-war plan? That the Empire swept them aside for cheaper labor?

That Rex had to watch his brothers turn, die, disappear, and he STILL fought in the rebellion with a heart twice the size of Coruscant???

Do you ever think about how the clones were raised in pods, trained like blaster fodder, taught to say “Yes sir” and never think twice, and still found ways to be brave and kind and funny and GOOD???

DO YOU???

Anyway. I’m normal. Totally fine. Just sitting here naming my coffee cups after 501st troopers and crying into my caf. Would die for every single one of them. Even Dogma. ESPECIALLY Dogma. And Rex. And Fives. And Hardcase. And Echo. And Waxer. And-

[uncleclaudius]

The Lyon Tablet, a transcript of the speech Emperor Claudius had given in the Senate in 48 AD, arguing for the admission of senators from Gaul.

1. I should say at the outset that I reject the first thought that will, I am sure, be the very first thing to stand in my way: namely that you will recoil from my suggestion as though I were introducing some revolutionary innovation.  Think, instead, of how many changes have taken place over the years in this state and how many forms and constitutions our state has had, from the time of its very foundation.

2. At one time this city was held by kings, though they did not pass it along to successors from their own families. People from other families came to the throne and even some foreigners.  Numa, for example, succeded Romulus, and was a Sabine; that made him a neighbor, certainly, but at the time he was also a foreigner. Another example is Tarquinius Priscus, who succeded Ancus Marcius: because of his impure blood--his father was the Corinthian Demaratus and his mother was from Tarquinii, to Tarquinius Priscus supposedly had a Greek father and an Etruscan mother. And though well-born she was very poor, which is why she was forced to marry such a husband.--Tarquinius was kept from positions of honor in his own land and thus emigrated to Rome, where he became king.  Between Tarquinius and either his son or his grandson (for our authorities disagree on this point) there came Servius Tullius.  And according to the Roman sources Servius Tullius had as a mother a prisoner of war, Ocresia; according to the Etruscans he had been the faithful companion of Caelius Vivenna and took part in his adventures, and later, when he was driven out by a change of fortune, he left Etruria with all the suriving troops of Caelius and seized the Caeliian hill, which thus takes its name from his leader Caelius, and after changing his name (for his Etruscan name was Mastarna) he was given the name I have already mentioned, and became king, to the very great advantage of the state. Then, after the behavior of Tarquinius Superbus came to be hated by our city--and not only his behavior but that of his sons--the people obviously became tired of monarchy, and the administration of state was transferred to the consuls, who were annual magistates.

3. Why need I mention the dictatorship--more powerful even than the consulship--which was what our ancestors came up with when wars were particularly hard or there was serious civil disturbance?  Or why need I mention the the creation of tribunes of the plebs, to provide assistance for the plebs?  Why mention transfer of imperium from consuls to the decemviri, and at the end of the reign of the decemviri the return of imperium back to the consuls?  Why mention the distribution of the consular power to multiple recipients, called tribunes of the soldiers with consular power, who were first six and then eight in number?  Why should I mention the fact that offices that were once patrician ones were shared eventually with the plebeians, religious ones as well as military?

4. If I were to tell of the wars, which our ancestors started with and which have continued down to the present day, I fear that I would appear too boastful, and look as though I wanted to boast about my glory in extending the empire beyond the Ocean.  But let me instead return to my original point.  Citizenship can ... [some text is lost here]

[column II]

5. Certainly it was a new thing when my great-uncle Augustus and my uncle Tiberius decided to admit into this Senate house the flower of the coloniae and the cities from all over the empire--all of them good and wealthy men of course.  But, you may say, is not an Italian senator more useful than a provincial one?  When I start explaining this aspect of my censorship I will reveal what I think about that.   But certainly I  think that provincials should not be rejected, as long as they will be a credit to the Senate.

6. Behold that most glorious and flourishing colony of Vienne: how long has it provided senators for this chamber?  From Vienne comes an ornament of the equestrian order with few equals, Lucius Vestinus, whom I esteem greatly and retain even now in my service.   May his children, I beseech you, enjoy priesthoods of the first rank, and after that, in the years to come, may they proceed to further honors.  (I will not utter the dire name of that brigand—I detest him, that monster of the wrestling-ring—or the fact that he acquired the consulship for his family before his colony had ever obtained the solid benefit of the Roman citizenship.  And I could say the same thing about his brother, who suffered a pathetic and fate, and was thus no use to you as a senator.)

7. It is time now, Tiberius Caesar Germanicus, to reveal to the senators where your speech is headed; for you have already come to the extreme limits of Gallia Narbonensis.

8. Consider all the distinguished young men I see before me: the fact that they are senators should cause no more regret than that felt by Persicus--a most distinguished man and a friend of mine--when he reads the name Allobrogicus among the images of his ancestors.  And if you agree that this is true, what should I not also point out to you that the land beyond Gallia Narbonensis already sends you senators?  We do not, after all, regret that we have men in the senate from Lugdunum.

9. I was somewhat hesitant, senators, about leaving the boundaries of provinces that were well known to you, but now I must make the case for Gallia Comata with some seriousness.  If anyone concentrates on the fact that the Gauls resisted the divine Julius in war for ten years, he should consider that they have also been loyal and trustworthy for a hundred years, and had this loyalty tried to the utmost when we were in danger.  They it was who provided my father Drusus with secure internal peace when he was conquering Germany, even though he was summoned to the war while in the middle of a census, which was then a new and strange business for the Gauls.  And we know from our own experience how difficult the census can be, even though for us it involves nothing more than the public recording of our resources. (tr. E. M. Smallwood)

[ancientcharm]

History and evolution of the Roman calendar

In early Rome the calendar had 10 months. January and February did not exist. The year began on March 1st, according to tradition Romulus and Remus was born on the 24th of that month.

 Romulus calendar

The first four months were given a specific name.

Martius (March) The first month of the oldest Roman calendar. It is named after Roman god of war, and ancestor of the Roman people through his sons Romulus and Remus. It was the month of the army. From Martius comes the word Martial.

Aprilis (April) derived from aperire, which means to open, because in this month the earth opens its bosom to begin to produce flowers and fruits; it was under the protection of Venus and has been represented as a man dancing to the sound of an instrument. In later times, in Ancient Rome, this month was celebrated to honor Ceres, the goddess of agriculture. According to Roman tradition, Romulus founded the city on the 21st of this month.

Maius (May); month dedicated to the elderly, who were honored for the work they had done for Rome. Much later, this month was also dedicated to the goddess Maia (originally from Greece). For the Romans, Maia embodied the concept of growth, since her name was related to the Latin comparative adjective maius ("greater" or "elder").

Iunius (June). The queen of the gods, Juno, honours the name of this month.

The rest of the months were named after their numerical position:

Quintilis (Fifth) Sextīlis (Sixth)

September (Seventh) October (Eighth)

November (Ninth) December (Tenth)

Numa Pompilius Calendar

After the death of Romulus there was an interregnum (a year without a king) after which Numa Pompilius was elected by the Senate. According to Roman historians and Roman tradition, the Senate was created by Romulus.

The calendar was reformed beginning in the Kings Etruscan period (7th-6th centuries BC), although Roman historians attributed the reform to King Numa Pompilius. In this reform, the length of the months was modified to last 29 and 31 days alternately and two months were added after December: Ianuarius and Februarius.

Ianuarius (January) related to Janus (Ianus) the god of the portals, the beginnings and endings.

Februarius (February) in honor of Februus, god of the dead and purification. During this month the Romans dedicated themselves to rites and religious functions to purify the body and spirit and propitiate the arrival of the new year. Februaris comes in turn from februum which means "purification".

This calendar was in force until the time of the Republic. In 153 BC, the lunar cycle was replaced by the solar cycle. Since the civil year began and ended on the winter solstice, the calendar had to start on January 1. Thus January and February became the first and second months of the year. Despite this change, the six months that were named according to their numerical position kept their names.

But things were not fixed after this reform, as the official lunar calendar was still out of phase with the seasonal course, based on the solar cycle, it was decided to add two months every four years, one of 22 and the other of 23 days, called intercalary. The complicated system of adjusting the months so that the years would fit the solar cycle was controlled by the College of Pontiffs, but this inconsistency was never satisfactorily resolved.

Until JULIUS CAESAR arrived

The Julian Calendar

With the collaboration of the prestigious astronomer Sosigenes of Alexandria, Julius Caesar reformed the calendar definitively.

This reform dated the Roman seasons and festivals according to the astronomical moment in which they occurred. It was agreed that every year should have 365 days, and every four years would have 366 days; these years would be called Leap Years.

The new calendar was implemented in 46 BC; The Romans called it "The last year of confusion."

It was not until this calendar, known first as the Julius Calendar and much later as the Julian, that the months began to have the same number of days as they have to this day.

Following the infamous Ides of March in 44 BC, on the initiative of Mark Antony, the month in which Julius Caesar was born (Quintilis) was dedicated to him and named Iulius (July).

In 8 BC, through the Lex Pacuvia de mense Sextilis, the Senate dedicated the month of Sextilis to Augustus. The homage-requested by Augustus himself- was supposedly because he had been named Consul for the first time in in the month Sextilis but in reality it was because he had conquered Egypt also in that month; such conquest led him directly to absolute power over Rome. Ironically, Augustus died on August 19, AD 14.

Pics: Roman mosaics, “The Calendar”, from the 2nd century, from Tunisia.

[romegreeceart]

Roman Calendar - May 15, Mercuralia

Festival of Mercurius, god of merchants and commerce. On this day Roman merchants took water from the sacred well of Porta Capena, and sprinkled it on themselves, their ships, and their cargo to protect them while travelling. The water from Mercurius' well was believed to to aid in forgiving sins – both those committed in the past as well as any that might be committed in the future – and was thought to bring good luck.

Porta Capena was located near the FAO headquarters that can be seen on the right of the photo 2. During those days the valley between the FAO building and Baths of Caracalla (in the middle of the pic) was forested and there were also lots of caves and springs in the area. It was considered a sacred and mysterious place where Camenae, goddesses of childbirth, wells, fountains and prophecies lived. Livius also tells us that it was here that king Numa Pompilius held meetings with his divine counselor Egeria.

Photo 1: Pompeii, House of Venus and the Four Gods

Atttribution:

Sergey Sosnovskiy, CC BY-SA 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Photo 2: A view From Palatine Hill towards Baths of Caracalla

Rome July 2007

[cursecuelebre]

Roman Spirituality

I always wanted to make a blog about this topic because ever since I’ve heard about the Romans and their history that they copy and pasted Greek religion and their gods and such, I never understood it. This is a peninsula filled with people from different tribes and kingdoms before they synchronized their traditions with the Greeks. They had their own indigenous culture, gods, goddesses, and traditions. There is evidence of this and yes there is a few missing pieces but overall it proves that the Romans and the people living on the peninsula had their own culture. I will break it down in segments or try to at least explain this is mainly focusing on Rome than other kingdoms in Ancient Italy but feel free to jump around it's going to be a long blog, but I hope I did do my diligence of discussing this.

Romans weren’t the only people living on the Italian peninsula.

When we think of Ancient Italy and its history we usually think of Roman Empire and how could we not. The Romans accomplished many things, became the largest empire, influence many rulers, help flourishing Christianity. But before the Republic and the imperialism Rome wasn’t Rome, in fact Rome was a small little kingdom called Latium that resided in central western Italy. Latium - meant “Wide” or “Flatlands” and rested on the left bank of the Tiberius river And much like how Greece was it was a city state filled with many other kingdoms and such next to them.

Tuscans (more advanced politically and culturally). Commonly known as the Etruscans this considered to be the first Italic tribe and the oldest one with their written language inspiring Latin and their written language was similar to that of runes. Many of their political, traditions, religion was adopted or influenced by the Romans more so than Greeks. For instance Tinia their supreme God came to be known as Jupiter. Latins the tribe that will soon become the seat of the Roman Empire uniting itself with Samnites, Umbri from Umbria, Ligures, Oscans or the Osci, Sabines, Apuli, Brutti, Volscians, Lucanians or Lucani and the celts also settled on the Italian peninsula as well as Greek colonists. These tribes had their own languages and cultural traditions, but out of them the Romans took most inspiration from the Sabines and the Etruscans culturally and politically other than the Greeks.

Indigenous Roman Polytheism

Now when I say indigenous, I mean what the original people of Italy believed in during the Iron Age and trying to prove that the Roman gods are originated from Latium is difficult and not logical because remember people share and merge together and Italy is a peninsula and not much room of spacing out of tribes, they were living literally next to each other. However, even if they adopted similar beliefs and traditions, tribes were not the same at times didn’t speak the same language or believed the same way. The best way to compare it to is how in indigenous Americans, yes, they are on the same continent they may share similarities, but they still believed different religions, spoke in different languages, had different cultures. However, regarding with Rome specifically, in rise of the Roman Empire and Italy or Roma became united these beliefs tend to merge into one and adapting them.

So unfortunately, there is not many stories or information on Latium’s religious practices that hasn’t been influenced by outside forces. However, before it has been found that Latium was more animistic than believing in actual human representation of the divine. Animistic and Animism derives from Latin ‘anima’ meaning soul.

Numa

There is a concept called Numen or divine life within each object and such this was carried on in the History of pre-Christian Rome. For instance, they believe springs, rocks, mildew, the air, doors, hinges, etc. had divine life to them. Numa comes from the King Numen who was a great king that created the foundations of religion in Rome also politically. Even created Rome’s first calendar and establishing the Vestal Virgins. It is said he was an agent of the gods and had direct communication with them. Numen became deified and worshipped for his Wisdom and piety.

Before they had human depictions and originally may didn’t see their gods as human alike in appearance rather used metals to represent Mars, rocks or wood from sacred trees for a specific god, their deities were nature itself. It was until they were inspired by Greeks and their Sicilian neighbors as well Etruscans when they adopted a more human appearance for visually depicting the gods.

Latium was also a port with many different outside influences go into their culture very early on and this is most likely why they were inspired by the Greeks. The Mycenaean Greeks colonized parts of Italy and trading with them. When the Romans were adopting similar beliefs and ideas of the Greeks there were resistance of the Latin people wanting to stick to their indigenous beliefs and not wanting to merge with the Hellenism. But they (The Romans) when growing their empire, they did adopt religious beliefs and traditions from Sabines who were on the other side of the Tiber River, it’s said some goddesses were adopted such as Sabine moon goddess called Lala that the Romans called Luna.

Animism in Roman society

Now it be forever taking a god one by one from the Romans to see if they came from an indigenous source is hard and will take hours plus I have a couple of blog posts about specific Roman deities. But rather look at the unique nature of examples of Animism within Roman society certain concepts are link to gods.

Ancestors

Ancestral worship was very prevalent within Roman society and religion. From family members, kings, emperors, friends, even to pets the romans revered their dead. Even had festivals for them and there are three special kinds of spirits relating to ancestral worship or it takes part in these ceremonies.

Lares: Specifically, Lares Familiares The spirits of the ancestors technically speaking a guardian of deceased family members and living and the household, the singular is Lar Familiares. A very important spirit in Roman polytheistic religion, they would have altar called Lararia or Lariarium usually where the family members would gather like a living room or back then a hearth. Domestic Lares would have a special place at the dinner table sharing a space with the family. These Lares would also be prayed and be given offerings daily and annually such as wine, pastries like honeycakes, first fruits (from the haverst), incense, grapes, wheat foods. Lares were gods of boundaries, the public, and fields. Domestic Lares are called Lares Domestici and specifically for family is Lares Familiares but they were used interchangeably if they were displeased or offerings, we’d not met they would have unfavourable reception evolving in angry spirit and makes sure no-good fortune or rewards befallen the family until they are pleased. Their festival is Compitalia which is the annual festival of Lares and other respected household deities of the crossroads, held on December 22 there were shrines of Lares placed in sights of crossroads representing their role in liminal spaces.

Often depicted as a young male, not always winged youth holding a cornucopia or libation dish, at times depicted as dancing. Lares of the household is often portrayed as a deified ancestor or hero ancestor, this ancestor is usually patriarchal and the spirits witnessed special events like marriages, boys coming of age, anniversaries, adoptions, etc. their purpose were very protective and providers of good fortune. They were often associated with the panes or penates.

Manes: Were referred as di manes or the divine dead those who departed became a mane, these were either Lares or Parentes of their respective families. Mane was considered the “divine spark” of a living person their consciousness that resides in their minds. Busts of one’s family member is said to have their mane within the art to be honored and welcome in the home even after they departed. That’s why you many you see many busts of Roman people including emperors, it can be made from wax which would put on the departed face then be made as a death mask where people would wear it during the person’s funeral as a way to honor their legacy. Their busts also be present during gatherings and civil and political gatherings as well so they can be included. They were celebrated during Parentalia, Feralia, and Lemuria.

Parentes: These are spirits of the family much like Lares however the Parentes is immediate family like father, mother, siblings, spouses, children, and grandparents. It the individual’s family members that passed that they knew in life. If one were to travel outside of their home to go somewhere very far. The person would keep embers from their hearth along with small statues of their deceased loved ones. In modern days this is equivalent to carrying a picture of a loved one with us. In the movie Gladiator depicts this tradition when Maximus prays to his deceased wife and son. The starting prayer would be “blessed father” and “blessed mother”. Referring to their own mother and father rather than praying to Jupiter for an archetypal father. The sacred holiday is Parentalia beginning on February 13 ending for nine days ending on the beginning of Feralia which focused on honoring deceased ancestors and recently departed then Carista starts which traditionally a time to focus on honoring living family members.

Household deities

Janus: God of doorways and entrances. Depicted as a two-faced man.

Vesta: Goddess of the hearth and home.

Cardea: Goddess of hinges

Forculus: God of actual doors

Limentinus: God of the threshold

Terminus: God of Boundaries.

General household spirits

Penates: Spirits of the kitchen and pantry and often worshipped alongside the Lares, their shrines would be in cupboards and be offered the first fruits and grain from harvest. They protect the food from any rot, illness that may grow in the kitchen or the food itself. Like the Lares they would also be shared a spot at the dinner table the offerings be burn in the hearth afterwards.

Lemures: Restless spirits that tend to be more malicious if they are displeased. Often show their anger through what we call today a poltergeist. It was believed it was the angry revenants of the departed who were restless because their wills were not fulfilled, offerings weren't given, or hadn't received a proper burial. According to Ovid, Lemures caused chaos in Rome as they were not properly worshipping them so they created a sacred holiday for them called Lemuria held on May 9, 11,and 13th.

Genius Loci: Genius is the spirit form of manhood symbolize by a snake. That is the head of the household it is related to the patriarchal structure of the home. Genius Loci is the spirit of the ground on which the house is built upon. Modern witchcraft and paganism may describe them as a 'land spirit'. But it's not really how the Romans saw it, they believed that the Genius Loci is directly link to the Genius of the household so the father of the house, if the Genius Loci is pleased and worshipped properly then the patriarchal of the house would be prosperous and have good fortune.

Umbrae (Shades): So these are just commonly knowledge as ghosts and apparitions of spirits, depending how and what the context when they make their appearance known then they could understand what type of omen was being crossed to them. For instance seeing a deceased loved one in a dream is consider to be a good omen, but if a stranger it is a bad omen or if they saw the ghost during the day in waking hours was consider to very bad. They were also honored a Feralia and Lemuria and during these festivals people would wear protective charms from the spirits in case of misfortune.

[amythestalithia]

Roman heroes

1. Numa Pompilius

Parentage: Mortal son of a Sabine priestess and Jupiter.

Role: Second king of Rome, known for religious reforms and laws.

Specialty: Diplomacy, divine rites, and sacred law.

Legacy: Credited with creating Rome's priesthoods under Fides’ guidance; prayed to Fides Fonsia at a private well.

2. Lucretia

Parentage: Daughter of Justitia.

Role: Symbol of Roman virtue and resistance.

Specialty: Tactical intelligence, inspiring civic rebellion.

Legacy: Her death triggered the fall of the monarchy; honored as an honorary daughter of Mater Heroum.

3. Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus

Parentage: Son of a minor river god and Roman woman.

Role: Farmer turned dictator.

Specialty: Combat leadership, unshakeable loyalty.

Legacy: Known for surrendering power after victory; exemplar of Nerio Fides.

4. Horatius Cocles

Parentage: Son of a war nymph and a Roman blacksmith.

Role: Defender of the Pons Sublicius.

Specialty: Single combat, shield defense.

Legacy: Called "Eye of Mater Heroum"; wore her pendant into battle.

5. Claudia Quinta

Parentage: Daughter of Neptune.

Role: Accompanied the goddess Cybele’s image to Rome.

Specialty: Naval omens, ship blessing.

Legacy: Known for pulling Cybele’s ship alone; said to speak with Fides in the waves.

6. Marcus Fabius Vibulanus

Parentage: Mortal; accepted into the legion after surviving a curse with loyalty intact.

Role: Hero of the war with Veii.

Specialty: Espionage and endurance.

Legacy: Carried messages through enemy lines; invoked Polemia Fides for tactics.

7. Servius Tullius

Parentage: Son of a slave and a hearth spirit.

Role: Sixth king of Rome.

Specialty: Urban planning and census design.

Legacy: Built shrines to Fides in new districts; called her “Mother of Order.”

8. Marcus Furius Camillus

Known for: Defeated the Gauls, rebuilt Rome

Divine Parent: Bellona, goddess of war-defense and homeland

Why Fides fostered him: He showed unshakable loyalty to Rome and deep strategic insight. A favorite of Mater Heroum, trained to command and rebuild.

9. Gaius Mucius Scaevola

Known for: Burning his own hand to prove Roman resolve

Divine Parent: Vulcan, god of fire and fortitude

Why Fides fostered him: She admired his discipline and devotion. Fides gave him her sword and taught him self-mastery in battle and pain.

10. Decius Mus

Known for: Sacrificing himself in battle for victory

Divine Parent: Mars, god of noble war

Why Fides fostered him: Mars asked her to train his son in true Roman heroism. She gave him the rite of Devotio and stood beside him when he charged into death.

11.Cornelia Graccha (reimagined as demigod)

Known for: Mother of the Gracchi reformers, Roman virtue

Divine Parent: Concordia, goddess of civic harmony

Why Fides fostered her: Cornelia was raised in the Legion's oratory halls, mastering diplomacy and public loyalty. She fostered young recruits in later years.

12. Aulus Manlius Torquatus

Known for: Ruthless but loyal general

Divine Parent: Somnus, god of strategic foresight (Roman equivalent of Hypnos, reinterpreted)

Why Fides fostered him: Sleep granted him vision, but Fides gave him judgment. Known for victory through calm and calculation.

13. Livia Astera (original character)

Known for: Naval strategist under Caesar

Divine Parent: Neptune

Why Fides fostered her: Her father taught her the sea, Fides taught her loyalty and defense. She became admiral of the Thirteenth’s navy wing.

14. Junius Balbus

Known for: Invented safe war roads and covert escape routes

Divine Parent: Mercury, god of paths and logistics

Why Fides fostered him: A clever strategist and the Legion’s supply master. Fides called him “the knife that cuts escape from failure.”

15. Tullia Fortis (original character)

Known For: First woman to lead a Roman engineering corps; rebuilt the walls of Capua in three days during a siege.

Divine Parent: Vulcan, god of crafting, siege tools, and flame.

Why Fides fostered her: Her strategic brilliance in fortifications and loyalty to her engineers made her a living embodiment of Polemia Fides. She carried a hammer enchanted to sound alarms when betrayal was near.

16. Publius Aelius Vatia

Known For: Interrogator of traitors, known for mercy to the repentant and ferocity to the false.

Divine Parent: Veritas, goddess of truth.

Why Fides fostered him: As Nerio-Fides, she trained him to judge the oaths of Rome’s citizens and enemies alike. Wore an iron ring that glowed red when lies were spoken in court.

17. Faustina Nautica

Known For: Roman naval commander who never lost a ship or a soldier to mutiny.

Divine Parent: Salacia, queen of the deep sea.

Why Fides fostered her: Fides Classisia chose her to protect merchant ships and defend coasts. Faustina prayed with salt and silver at every port.

18. Gaius Lartius Quietus

Known For: Peaceful conqueror who negotiated the surrender of twelve cities without bloodshed.

Divine Parent: Concordia, goddess of civic harmony.

Why Fides fostered him: Concordia sent him to Fides after a prophetic dream. His sword remained sheathed throughout most of his life, yet he expanded Rome’s influence with diplomacy and planning.

19. Valeria Ardentis

Known For: Her flaming spear, which could pierce any wall if wielded in defense of Rome.

Divine Parent: Mars

Why Fides fostered her: A half-sister of Bellona, Valeria was forged in battle, but tempered by Fides’ compassion. She learned discipline and loyalty to purpose, not bloodlust.

20. Tiberius Petreius

Known For: Hero of the frozen north, who crossed an iced river with no bridge, carrying the legion’s standard alone.

Divine Parent: Juturna, goddess of springs and rivers.

Why Fides fostered him: She saw his potential as a guardian of life-giving waters. He could find freshwater in the harshest terrain and prayed over every well the Legion used.

21. Agrippina Cordia

Known For: Created a secret network of physicians and herbalists who healed both allies and civilians in wartime.

Divine Parent: Apollo

Why Fides fostered her: Fides respected her loyalty to life and order in times of chaos. Agrippina’s network evolved into a sacred order that survived centuries after the Legion faded.

22. Lucius Junius Umbra

Known For: Master of night raids and ambush strategy, never lost a man in a night operation.

Divine Parent: Somnus (Roman god of quiet and dreams)

Why Fides fostered him: Umbra was taught restraint, discipline, and the strategic silence of waiting. His sword was called Silens and rang like a bell only when drawn in unjust war.

23. Manlia Caecilia

Known For: Renounced her patrician house and led an uprising of abandoned commoners into a defense force that saved Rome from a civil coup.

Divine Parent: Pietas, goddess of dutiful devotion.

Why Fides fostered her: She was called “the first shield of the people.” Fides personally blessed her with a sword that glowed blue when used in defense of others.

24. Sabinus Rufus

Known For: Builder of the Whispering Statues—public listening posts that spread news without scrolls or messengers.

Divine Parent: Mercury, god of communication and travelers.

Why Fides fostered him: Though not a warrior, he was vital to the Legion’s survival. His loyalty to civic truth made him the Herald of Fides.

[byorkewkew]

In case you didn't know Neuvillette used to be the "Patriarch of Pure Waters", and if you think about it Neuvillette is 100% inspired by Numa Pompilius who was Egeria's consort, a priest and a judge. Soooo I was wondering couldyou please draw Neuvillette in a priest clothes? 🙏🙏🙏🙏

plz i ddunno how priests supposed to look like in ancient Rome Numa Pompilius also called the King of Rome by wiki so it's kinda fitting still

[pikagatogirltits]

Have I ever actually mentioned how addicted I am to brewing Magic decks? I currently have 37 Commander decks... that is to say the decks I currently have physically built for playing with. I just thought it might be fun to share a list of them, complete with Moxfield links. I even sorted them into a few different categories for better organization.

Trans Women of Magic (pet project to build a deck around every canon trans woman on a Magic card)

Alesha Says Trans Rights - Alesha, Who Smiles at Death. RWB power 2 or less recursion shenanigans. My personal favorite deck.

Ballroom Blitz - Xantcha, Sleeper Agent. BR goad and group "hug."

Hit and Run Time - Arcee, Sharpshooter. RW +1/+1 counters and combat tricks.

Legends Never Die - Alesha, Who Laughs at Fate. RB reanimator and +1/+1 counters. (Characters who get multiple cards I'm probably only going to hold myself to building one deck per character, but I like how Granny Alesha plays well enough to build her anyways.)

The Doctors Are In - Rose Noble and The Fourteenth Doctor. WURG Doctor Who themed deck, mainly wins via Gallifrey Stands.

When Fluffy Bunnies Attack - Cadira, Caller of the Small. GW tokens.

Other Favorite Decks

Gatewatch Assemble! - Jared Carthalion. 5 color Superfriends.

Let's Go Lesbians! - Halana and Alena, Partners. RG +1/+1 counters.

Squirrels Squirrels Squirrels! - Chatterfang Squirrel General. BG tokens aristocrats.

Ziatora the Burninator - Ziatora the Incinerator. BRG sacrifice with a strong focus on self reanimating creatures.

Artisan Commander (commons and uncommons only)

A Wizard Did It - Balmor, Battlemage Captain. UR wizard typal and spell slinger.

Iron Gut Rampage - Gut, True Soul Zealot + Agent of the Iron Throne. BR tokens aristocrats.

Rograkh and His Puppy - Rograkh, Son of Rohgahh + Anara, Wolvid Familiar. GR Voltron.

That's a Lot of Elves! - Miara, Thorn of the Glade + Numa, Joraga Chieftain. BG elf typal.

The Ups and Downs of Life - Dina, Soul Steeper. BG lifegain.

To Arms! - Akiri, Fearless Voyager. RW equipment.

Typal Decks

Changeling - Morophon, the Boundless. 5 color changeling "typal" aka a bunch of different typal lords combined with changeling cards.

Cleric - Orah, Skyclave Hierophant. WB cleric typal/graveyard shenanigans with a lifegain subtheme.

Dinosaur - Pantlaza, Sun-Favored. RGW dinosaur typal.

Dragon - Miirym, Sentinel Wyrm. GUR dragon typal that makes lots of token copies.

Dwarf - Depala, Pilot Exemplar. RW dwarf typal with an artifact subtheme (with an emphasis on equipment and vehicles.)

Elemental - Omnath, Locus of the Roil. GUR elemental typal with a land subtheme.

Elf - Marwyn, the Nurturer. G elf typal.

Goblin - General Kreat, the Boltbringer. R goblin typal. (General Kreat is the third commander for this deck after Krenko, Mob Boss and Pashalik Mons as I try to hit the sweet spot of "strong but not too strong for my very casual playgroup.)

Pirate - Admiral Beckett Brass. UBR pirate typal with a treasure subtheme.

Rogue - Anowon, the Ruin Thief. UB rogue typal with mill and theft subthemes. (The mill is mostly there to enable stealing from your graveyard.)

Soldier - Darien, King of Kjeldor. W soldier typal. (Currently considering taking this apart and turning it into RW soldier typal with Commander Mustard at the helm.)

Vampire - Anje, Maid of Dishonor. BR vampire typal with a blood subtheme. (Second iteration of the deck, original one was heavily water damaged by a cat dumping it into the dog's water dish right after I had sleeved it...which managed to save some cards at least.)

Warrior - Tazri, Beacon of Unity. 5 color warrior typal with token subtheme. (Originally a Najeela, the Blade-Blossom deck but not one of those Najeela decks so I changed the commander so I wouldn't get auto targeted for running a powerful commander.)

Werewolf - Tovolar, Dire Overlord. RG werewolf and wolf typal.

Wizard - Naban, Dean of Iteration. U wizard typal ETB shenanigans.

Zombie - Wilhelt, the Rotcleaver. UB zombie typal. (My first ever EDH deck, it used to be helmed by Grimgrin, Corpse-Born.)

Other Decks

Daretti's Scrap Shop - Daretti, Scrap Savant. R artifact aristocrats/recursion.

Double-ment Gum - Yenna, Redtooth Regent. GW enchantments.

Oops! All Creatures! - Nikya of the Old Ways. RG all creatures gimmick deck. (Nikya's "you can't cast noncreature spells" isn't a restriction if I'm not running noncreature spells.)

Slimefoot and Friends - Slimefoot, the Stowaway. BG saproling aristocrats.

Ultimate Showdown - Buttercup, Provincial Princess (Sisay, Weatherlight Captain.) 5-color historic/legends matter with a token subtheme. All Universes Beyond deck, and all creature cards are legendary.

[ashyjingles]

The Kings Of Rome

I've just read Chapter 3 of SPQR by Mary Beard which means its time for another post with my comments on it and how I plan/want to use it for my Camp Jupiter fic from Riordan's Heroes of Olympus Series. (Oh, the things I do for you Jason Grace) Why? Because I can. Also this makes it easier so I don't have to go flipping through pages every time I want to find something lol

Before there were the Emperors of Rome, there were the Kings of Rome. Roman literature names around six from the time Romulus, the original founder in some myths, died, to when the Roman Republic started.

The first was Romulus, who isn't counted in the six kings; then there was Numa Pompilius, who played a large part in the religion of Ancient Rome; Tullus Hostilius, a 'renowned warmonger'; Ancus Marcius, founder of Rome's seaport at Ostia; Tarquinius Priscus, who I remembered as the Tarquin Prior to his son (I got confused a lot lmao) and who developed the Roman Forum; Servius Tullius, who created the Roman census; and Tarquinius Superbus who I remembered as the Tarquin that superseded his father and was such a terrible king that he ended the regal era in Rome.

Beard talks about how there was little evidence to support these kings existing, up until the the black stone in the Forum mentioned in chapter 2 was discovered

There was also a set of black stone slabs in the pavement of the Forum, making it distinct from the rest of the flooring in the area. When the stone below it was excavated, an early shrine, possibly to the god Vulcan was found, along with Athenian pottery, early Latin written in stone, and every day trinkets such as cups and jewelry. Some Romans at the time believed it to be an unlucky spot, others believed it to be Romulus’ grave.

with text written in archaic Latin that includes the word rex, or king ("RECEI as it appears in the early form of language used there"). The text is nearly incomprehensible -- much of it missing, making it incomplete and impossible to fully understand like much archeological evidence from so far back. It does, however, provide evidence that Rome was in fact a monarchy of sorts at some point.

Beard mentions how the use of the term "King" might not mean what we expect it to, considering how Rome most likely was still a small community at the time and we don't have the full context of the text. She suggests that Rome may not have been as developed as accounts suggest, and that the kings may have been more chief-like than king-like.

The community, based on archeological evidence and surrounding towns' development, would have been around 20,000 to 30,000 inhabitants. In contrast, one claim was that Rome had 80,000 adult male citizens alone in 200BCE, making the total population around 200,000 which is unlikely for a relatively new community in it's time. Given the smaller community, a more chief-like leader like the one Beard suggested could be more appropriate.

Numa Pompilius and Servius Tullius were two of the listen kings credited with some of Rome's greatest defining qualities, such as the structure of the official Roman religion and the Roman census respectively.

Roman religion was not "particularly concerned with personal salvation or morality" (page 103). Instead, they performed rituals to earn the gods' favour and ensure they aided Rome. They boasted how their devotion brought them good fortune and explained misfortune away as ignoring a bad omen or messing up a ritual.

Numa was credited with establishing a series of priesthoods to take charge of major rituals. One of these priesthoods was the Vestal Virgins, whose job was to keep the flame in the sacred hearth of the Forum burning.

Another feat accredited to Numa was making a twelve month calendar, each with 29 days. It's essentially made up of twelve lunar months, with an extra month added occasionally to keep up with the solar year in a similar fashion to the extra day we add in leap year.

Servius Tullius was credited with the census. Every citizen in the city would have their wealth recorded and would be assigned to a certain classification on the principle of 'the richer you are the more substantial and expensive equipment you can provide for yourself'. The highest class would have a full set of heavy bronze armour, and each lower class would have progressively lighter armour all the way down to the 5th class who would fight with slings and stones. The poorest were exempt from military service entirely. They were put into groups called "centuries".

Despite their name the groups would not be made up of 100 people. Because people in higher classes had more gear, they would be put into smaller centuries. The richest class was split into 80 centuries, the poorest would make 1 large one, and the middle 3 classes in between would each have 20-30 centuries with an additional 18 centuries of elite calvary and some special groups of engineers and musicians to make 193 total centuries.

Each century had 1 vote. So all the poorest class all together would only have 1 vote despite making a large percentage of the population, while the richest would have 80 votes put together. This gives the rich more voting power than the poor and, when combined with the 18 elite calvary, enough weight to outnumber all the lower classes combined in votes. (...I think. The centuries part really confused me and I had to draw a little diagram thing lmao)

Beard comments on how unlikely it would be for such an early period of Rome to come up with this system. She says it fits in with Romans' tendencies to make more modern achievements seem like they happened further in the past to make themselves seem more 'grand.'

"Whether or not anyone called Numa Pompilius ever existed is impossible to know; still less whether he did any of the things described ... But no matter how legendary or, at best, shadowy Numa was, one thing seems certain: some form of the calendar ascribed to him is the product of an early period in Rome's history" (page 104). So while we don't know for certain if these accomplishments credited to the kings were in fact a result of people named Numa Pompilius or Servius Tullius, they did occur due to someone in the regal era.

Tarquinius Priscus, another king of Rome, was murdered by the sons of his predecessor, Servius. Servius was placed on the throne due to being a favourite of Pricsus' wife and was murdered by Superbus. The violent history of the last three kings set them apart from the rest, but so did their history with Etruria.

Some accounts say that Etruscans held Rome for a short time, but there's no archeological evidence to suggest a takeover of the city at any point. Instead, there's lots of evidence of Etruscan towns being well versed in trade.

Lots of Etruscan sites had Athenian pottery and other imports. Natural minerals, especially bronze, was a large export for them and can be found in nearby places and cities.

*TW for mention of rape/sexual assault and suicide in the next set of paragraphs

The last king, Tarquinus Superbus, reinged with tyranny. He exploited the poor citizens of Rome, forcing them to build various projects of his to the point that several committed suicide. One of his sons raped Lucretia, the wife of Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus after the son, Sextus Tarquinius, threatened to kill her and a slave and make it look like a case of infidelity. Lucretia agreed to do what he wanted, and after told her husband and father what happened, and killer herself.

A wife's chastity/infidelity was a defining part of a wife and husband's relationship, making this a powerful story for Romans. Lucius Junius Brutus, who was at the scene of her death, vowed in that moment to rid Rome of kings forever.

Between the labour and the rape, Brutus was able to gain the support of many people and send Tarquin and his sons into exile. Brutus and Lucretia's husband, Collatinus, became the first two consuls of Rome. This was the birth of "the Republic" and several new founding myths were created, such as this was when the Island in the middle of the River Tiber was created, and the Temple of Jupiter on Capitoline Hill was dedicated to this first year.

Long summary. Oops. Anyways, as for my own commentary, I don't have any overarching connections, but I did take a lot of small notes.

Would Jason know archaic Latin? Would Roman demigods in general know archaic Latin? I think considering it's their history and they've brought a lot of it with them to New Rome, I'd go with yes. As someone who doesn't know Latin, I'm wondering what the difference is now though lol.

Having large names in myths/history led to a lot of people in Rome claiming descent from them. (The Brutus involved with Julius Caesar claimed descent from the Brutus in this chapter.) In Camp Jupiter they have legacies descended from other demigods, and the letters tied to their legacy. I can't quite remember it right now and I don't have the book, but it was like a certification of their lineage. I'm wondering if it would be interesting to make some related to certain figures of the past or if I should avoid it.

Part of Rome's historians recording a history far beyond what the city was probably capable of for the time period were many "great battles" between Rome's fighting force and unknown opponents. I think it could be a way to tie mysteries in Rome's history to the Riordanverse by explaining it as fighting monsters.

The civil conflict comes back in this chapter with the Kings and the fight for the throne between the last three kings. I know there's a civil conflict by the time we reach Heroes of Olympus with Octavian and Reyna, but I'm wondering how likely it is that there would be another issue even before Jason disappears, and how much of an interesting storyline/drawn out parallel it would be.

Would New Rome still have the census? Other governments today have adopted it in sorts, and now I'm wondering how similar to the original New Rome would have theirs, if one at all. I'm wondering about the political body in New Rome entirely, if I'm being honest. I know teenagers run Camp Jupiter, but do the praetors also run New Rome? Or do they have their own governing system?? Rick Riordan, I have questions. Like, LOTS.

Would priesthoods like the ones Numa invented still be around? Or are things more personalized and/or run by the praetors and augur. Given the small population, I wouldn't be surprised if that was something the latter were in charge of. Regardless, their devotion is still a large part of their lives.

Speaking of Numa, he's the one who founded the idea of a pontifex, which is what Jason becomes. I think it would be an interesting idea to reference his name at least a few times almost as a way to foreshadow it.

There's lots of bronze found in the Estrucan sites. My first thought, becomes the Riordanverse is ever present in the back of my mind, was celestial bronze. It could be, but given their proximity to the Romans who primarily use imperial gold, I'm not sure. Is there a potential the Romans used both at one point, but in their effort to separate the two parties their minds were wiped of celestial bronze? Either way, I think Jason and Reyna talking about wanting to visit these sites, partly for their history, but also because they wonder about the weapons, would be interesting, especially once they start running out. (In HoO they talk about wanting to visit the founding lands despite it being forbidden. I think it's a wonderful part of their relationship that I want to include.)

I will admit this chapter has me thinking about what the politics of New Rome would look like, but the next chapter is on the creation of Rome's political system during the time of the Republic so I'm saving my thoughts until I get through that section.

Sorry for the underwhelming notes lmao some chapters really are more of a history lesson for me than a way to tie Ancient Rome to the Riordanverse.

Jason Grace & Cicero Parallels || Chapter 1 on Cicero (and Catiline) Lupa || Chapter 2 on Roman Founding Myths Kings Of Rome || Chapter 3 on the Regal Period

[ancientrome]

Jupiter, or Jove, in Roman mythology is the king of the gods and the god of sky and thunder, equivalent to Zeus in Greek traditions. Jupiter was the chief deity of Roman state religion throughout the Republican and Imperial eras, until Christianity became the dominant religion of the Empire. In Roman mythology, he negotiates with Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome, to establish principles of Roman religion such as sacrifice. Jupiter is usually thought to have originated as a sky god. His identifying implement is the thunderbolt, and his primary sacred animal is the eagle. x

[ancientcharm]

Statuette of Jupiter found in Herculaneum.

Jupiter is not the Roman version of Zeus, as many people believe, he is one of the oldest gods originating from Rome, as well as the gods Mars, Juno, Vesta, among others; The cult of Jupiter was introduced by the second Roman king Numa Pompilius.

Picture: screenshot from a documentary

[blueiscoool]

Rome's Vestal Virgins: Protectors of The City's Sacred Flame

Chosen as young girls, the priestesses of Vesta, goddess of the hearth, swore a 30-year vow of chastity and in turn were granted rights, privileges, and power unavailable to other women in Rome.

Marcus Licinius Crassus was one of the richest and most powerful Roman citizens in the first century B.C. Yet he nearly lost it all, his life included, when he was accused of being too intimate with Licinia, a Vestal Virgin. He was brought to trial, where his true motives emerged. As the first-century historian Plutarch recounts, Licinia was the owner of “a pleasant villa in the suburbs which Crassus wished to get at a low price, and it was for this reason that he was forever hovering about the woman and paying his court to her.” When it became clear that Crassus’ wooing was motivated by avarice rather than lust, he was acquitted, saving both his and Licinia’s lives.

One of the most remarkable elements of this story is the fact that Licinia owned a villa in the first place. Unlike other women, Licinia could own property precisely because she was a Vestal Virgin. The story of her trial also reveals how that privilege came with a price: A Vestal Virgin had to abstain from sex, a sacred obligation to one of Rome’s most ancient customs that would continue until Christianity ended the cult in A.D. 394.

FIRE GODDESS: The remains of the Temple of Vesta stand in the Roman Forum. Unlike most temples, it did not contain a central image of the goddess. It was the site of the holy fire and a repository of various sacred artifacts.

Vestal Veneration

According to Roman authors, the cult was founded by Numa Pompilius, a semi-mythical Roman king who ruled around 715 to 673 B.C. Unlike most Roman religious cults, worship of Vesta was run by women. The hearth was sacred to this goddess, one of Rome’s three major virgin goddesses (the other two being Minerva and Diana). The rites surrounding the Vestals remained relatively fixed from the time of the Roman Republic through the fourth century A.D.

Six virgin priestesses were dedicated to Vesta as full-time officiates who lived in their own residence, the Atrium Vestae in the Roman Forum. The Vestals’ long tradition gave Romans a reassuring thread of continuity and may explain the Temple of Vesta’s traditional circular form, a style associated with rustic huts in the city’s deep past.

KEEP THE FIRE The Vestal Virgins tend the sacred fire of Vesta, on whose protection Rome depends. 17th-century oil painting by Ciro Ferri, Galleria Spada, Rome

This place of worship, which lay alongside the Atrium, was where the priestesses tended the goddess’s sacred fire. Once a year, in March, they relit the fire and then ensured it remained burning for the next year. Their task was serious as the fire was tied to the fortunes of their city, and neglect would bring disaster to Rome.

To become a Vestal was the luck of the draw. Captio, the process whereby the girls were selected to leave their families and become priestesses, is also the Latin word for “capture”—a telling turn of phrase that evokes the kidnapping of women for brides that took place in archaic Rome. Records from 65 B.C. show that a list of potential Vestals was drawn up by the Pontifex Maximus, Rome’s supreme religious authority. Candidates had to be girls between the ages of six and 10, born to patrician parents, and free from mental and physical defects. Final candidates were then publicly selected by lot. Once initiated, they were sworn to Vesta’s service for 30 years.

On being selected, their life was spent at the Atrium Vestae in a surrogate family, presided over by older Vestals. In addition to room and board, they were entitled to their own bodyguard of lictors. For the first 10 years they were initiates, taught by the older priestesses. Then they became priestesses for a decade before taking on the mentoring duties of the initiates for the last 10 years of their service.

Training the Novices

"The School of the Vestal Virgins" 19th-century colorized engraving by L. Hector Leroux.

After lots were drawn from the list of young girls who could serve Vesta, initiates were brought to the Atrium Vestae, where their training would begin. The training was overseen by the chief priestess, the Vestalis Maxima, who came under the authority of the Pontifex Maximus. The first 10 years were spent training for their duties. They would spend the second decade actively administering rites, and the final 10 were spent training novices. The chastity of the priestesses was a reflection of the health of Rome itself. Although spilling a virgin’s blood to kill her was a sin, this did not preclude the infliction of harsh corporal punishment. First-century historian Plutarch writes: “If these Vestals commit any minor fault, they are punishable by the high-priest only, who scourges the offender.”

Public monies and donations to the order funded the cult and the priestesses. In Rome religion and government were tightly intertwined. The organization of the state closely mirrored that of the basic Roman institution: the family. The center of life of the Roman home, or domus, was the hearth, tended by the matriarch for the good of her family and husband. In the same way, the Vestals tended Vesta’s flame for the good of the state.

A silver denarius, also from the second century B.C., bears a representation of the circular Temple of Vesta.

Unlike other Roman women, Vestals enjoyed certain privileges: In addition to being able to own property and enjoying certain tax exemptions, Vestals were emancipated from their family’s patria potestas, patriarchal power. They could make their own wills and give evidence in a court of law without being obliged to swear an oath.

Thirty Years of Chastity

These rights came at a high price: 30 years of enforced chastity. Many historians believe that the health of the state was tied to the virtue of its women; because the Vestals’ purity was both highly visible and holy, penalties for a Vestal breaking her vow of chastity were draconian. As it was forbidden to shed a Vestal Virgin’s blood, the method of execution was immuration: being bricked up in a chamber and left to starve to death. Punishment for her sexual partner was just as brutal: death by whipping. Throughout Roman history, instances are cited of these grim sentences being passed.

Jealousy or malice made the women vulnerable to false accusations. One story, celebrated by several Roman writers, concerns the miracle of the Vestal Virgin Tuccia, who was falsely accused of being unchaste. According to tradition, Tuccia beseeched Vesta for help and miraculously proved her innocence by carrying a sieve full of water from the Tiber.

Allegations of crimes against the Vestals’ chastity sometimes went to the top of the social order. The flamboyantly eccentric, third-century emperor Elagabalus actually married a serving Vestal Virgin. It is a sign of the enduring symbolic importance of the cult that this heresy was one major factor that led to his deposal and murder.

The Vestal Tuccia, falsey accused of breaking her chastity vow, is saved by the intervention of Vesta, who enables her to carry water in a sieve from the Tiber back to the temple. 17th-century painting by Giovanni Battista Beinaschi.

Vestal Vestments

The ceremonial dress of Vestals highlights their dual, and somewhat contradictory, embodiment of both the maternal and the chaste. Physical appearance was an integral part of their role, making them stand out as different from other women, but also echoing physical traits of conventional women.

Dressed in white, the color of purity, the Vestal Virgins wore stola, long gowns worn by Roman matrons. Hair and headdresses played an important symbolic function. The Vestal hairstyle is described in Roman sources using an ancient Latin phrase, the seni crines. Historians cautiously agree it means “sixbraids,” and is mentioned as the coiffure of both Vestal Virgins and brides. A Vestal wore the suffibulum, a short, white cloth similar to a bride’s veil, kept in place with a brooch, the fibula. Around their heads they wore a headband, the infula, which was associated with Roman matrons.

Daily rites for Vestals were often centered around the temple. Most important was maintaining the holy fire. If the fire went out, the attending Vestals would be suspected not only of neglect but also of licentiousness, since it was believed impurity in a Vestal’s relations would cause a fire to go out. Other typical duties included the purification of the temple with water, which had to be drawn from a running stream. In readiness for the numerous festivals that required their attendance, the priestesses were required to bake salsa mola, a cake of meal and salt that was sprinkled on the horns of sacrificed animals. Important religious festivals included the Vestalia, dedicated to their goddess, Vesta, and the Lupercalia, which highlights the contradictory role of the Vestal Virgins, as it was closely associated with fertility.

A representation of a Vestal Virgin.

A Roman Tradition

A bust of Numa Pompilius from the Villa Albani Museum in Rome, believed to have been sculpted in the Roman Imperial Period.

Romans believed the cult of the Vestal Virgins was instituted under the eighth-century B.C. king Numa Pompilius, the successor of Rome’s founder, Romulus. First-century A.D. historian Plutarch wrote that Numa may have “considered the nature of fire to be pure and uncorrupted and so entrusted it to uncontaminated and undefiled bodies.“ Numa is credited by Livy, in his History of Rome, with formalizing other key Roman cults, including those of Jupiter and Mars. Many historians believe Numa was legendary, and that the worship of Vesta and other cults developed slowly out of pre-Roman customs, perhaps dating back to the older Etruscan culture that dominated Italy before the rise of Rome.

In the innermost part of their temple, the priestesses looked after their secret talismans. Among these objects was the sacred phallus, the fascinus, the representation of a minor god of the same name. The fascinus (the root of the word “fascinate”) is closely bound with magic and fertility. It was also in this part of the temple that they probably kept the palladium, the statue of Pallas Athena that the legendary founder of Rome, Aeneas, brought to Italy after the destruction of Troy, his home city—another aspect of the Vestal cult that tied Rome’s origins into an ennobling and ancient tradition.

Romans regarded these priestesses with a sense of awe. Plutarch points out “they were also keepers of other divine secrets, concealed from all but themselves.” It was believed they possessed magical powers: If anybody condemned to death saw a Vestal on his way to being executed, he was to be freed, so long as it could be proven the meeting was not by design. Vestals, it was said, could stop a runaway slave in his tracks.

The privileged position of the Vestal Virgins in Roman society survived for more than a thousand years, passing through Rome’s changing systems of monarchy, republic, and empire. The cult would not, however, survive Christianity. In A.D. 394 Theodosius closed the House of the Vestals forever, freeing the virgins from their obligations, but also removing their privileges.

VIEW OF THE VESTAThe ruins of the Atrium Vestae stand in the Roman Forum. The rectangular pools formed a part of the complex’s long, central patio. To the right of the Atrium are the remains of the Temple of Vesta, and behind the wall are the three remaining columns of the Temple of Castor and Pollux.

Even as their flame was extinguished, aspects of the cult may have passed into the new faith as it swept through the Mediterranean. Just as the position of the Pontifex Maximus lived on in the papal title “pontiff,” young women in the early years of Roman Christianity embraced virginity and celibacy in their desire to be “eunuchs for the love of heaven.” Scholars believe the role of the Christian nun was inspired, in part, by the chaste figures who dutifully tended the holy flame of Vesta.

By Elda Biggi.