#death in dessau

[rwpohl]

oury jalloh, death in dessau 2005

*

die bettwurst, rosa von praunheim 1971

[abwwia]

Yet another female artist let down by society... left for certain death... :(

Otti Berger (4 October 1898 - 1944/45) was a textile artist and weaver. She was a student and later teacher at the #Bauhaus.

#HolocaustRemembranceDay

Berger was born in Zmajevac in Austro-Hungarian Empire (present-day Croatia). She completed education at the Collegiate School for Girls in Vienna before enrolling in the Royal Academy of Arts and Crafts in Zagreb, now the Academy of Fine Arts, University of Zagreb.

She continued her studies in Zagreb until 1926 before attending Bauhaus in Dessau, Germany. There, Berger studied under László Moholy-Nagy, Paul Klee, and Wassily Kandinsky, among others. Berger has been described as "one of the most talented students at the weaving workshop in Dessau."

...

Not allowed to work in Germany under Nazi rule because of her Jewish roots, Berger closed her company down in 1936. Berger fled to London, where attempts to emigrate to United States to work with her fiancee Ludwig Hilberseimer and other Bauhaus professors failed. She wrote to László Moholy-Nagy, Naum Gabo, Walter Gropius, and other friends trying to gain a teaching visa in 1937 but never acquired one.

Berger was unable to find steady work in London, in part because she did not speak the language, but also because she had impaired hearing, and no social circle.

Berger returned to Zmajevac in 1938 to help her family with her mother's poor health. From there, she was deported with her family to the Auschwitz concentration camp in April 1944, where she was murdered. Via Wikipedia

see also: Bauhaus 100: Otti Berger, Lost Woman of the Bauhaus (2019)

https://rachelwithane.com/womens-history/bauhaus-100-otti-berger-lost-woman-of-the-bauhaus

#womenofbauhaus #OttiBerger

[squadron-goals]

Rumbeke, 31 October 1917

On 28 October 1917, Erwin Böhme visited Oswald Boelcke's parents in honour of his death a year earlier. Afterwards he was able to go to Hamburg to visit Annamarie. During this visit they became engaged.

Dearest Gerhard! Now I have a bride! You, my dear brother, shall know such tales at once. Today at noon I returned from my trip to Dessau and spent half a day in Hamburg. I arrived at noon, and at midnight my train left for the front - in these short hours I fetched my happiness from heaven. It still has to remain a secret until Annamarie's parents have agreed. Because, of course, it is Annamarie from the Hubertusmühle, whom I have told you about so often. Since we met at the famous "emergency landing" in May last year, we have been in correspondence. It was love at first sight, for me and, as she has now confessed to me, for her too. But neither dared to open up, each was always too worried not to betray their heart in the letters - she out of girlish shyness, I in my reserved way. At the same time, we were both tormented by the uncertainty of what it looked like in the other's hearts. Now you understand the heavy mood that was upon me that summer. I finally had to make things clear. Annamarie is quite the girl that suits me: a genuinely feminine being, fresh and natural, without any trace of the kind of modern man-woman I detest, and yet clever, brave and with the strong will of a man. I also find her very beautiful, with her lively dark eyes, from which kindness and loyalty shine and sometimes mischieve blossoms. Am I now a frivolous man? Without a secure position in life, without a definite plan for the near future, to chain another fate to mine! But I firmly count on the favour of the good spirits who always help the brave and strong. Boy, I wouldn't have believed that an old man, made serious and austere by life, could once again become so happy. Rejoice, Gerhard, with your old, rejuvenated brother!

[dimensivjournal]

The Viciousness of German Structural Racism

We are globally noted for our humanity. That shouldn't absolve us from our responsibility to look inward when outside events prompt us to. #USAProtest #GeorgeFloyd #Rassismus

Image: “Wut in Dessau: Oury Jalloh-Demo 2018” by tim.lueddemann, licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 Black Lives Matter protests in the United States have kicked off a long overdue debate on structural Racism in Germany. Whoever believed Germany to be a progressive leader is badly mistaken. 6 Minutes Fifteen years ago, in 2005, Sierra Leonian asylum seeker Oury Jalloh burned to death in his jail…

[immemorymag]

Edith Tudor-Hart 1908-1973

Austrian British Photographer

During the mid-twentieth century Edith Tudor-Hart (née Suschitzky) documented the unstable conditions of the Viennese and British working class. In a secret that was only revealed to her family nearly twenty years after her death, Tudor-Hart had also worked as an important spy for the Soviet Union.

The daughter of a bookshop owner in Vienna, she worked there as a Montessori kindergarten teacher but she had also studied photography at the Bauhaus in Dessau.

An anti-fascist activist and Communist, she saw photography as a tool for disseminating her political ideas. She married Alex Tudor-Hart, who belonged to a well-known radical and artistic family, and fled to England with him in 1933 so that she could avoid prosecution for Communist activities in Austria.

[bandiera--rossa]

During the mid-20th century Edith Tudor-Hart (born Suschitzky) documented, using photographs, the unstable conditions of the Viennese and British working class.

In a secret that was revealed to her family only nearly twenty years after her death, she had also worked as a prominent spy for the Soviet Union.

Tudor-Hart was born in Vienna to atheistic Jewish parents in 1908. The passion for politics was born in the family, where her father was a Social Democrat.

She studied photography at the Bauhaus in Dessau and shortly thereafter she began photographing workers' demonstrations. The failure of Social Democratic politicians to alleviate the suffering of the workers in Vienna probably influenced her decision to join the Communist Party.

She married a British doctor and fellow anti-fascist activist, Alex Tudor-Hart, and in 1933 the couple fled to Britain to avoid political persecution. While living in South Wales, Edith began taking photographs for national magazines. Her photograph was formed on her communist ideals of hers, which served as a means of documenting the social inequality and deprivation to which the working class was subjected.

Although still active in the 1950s, the difficulties of finding work as a female photographer eventually led her to abandon photography altogether. She died, relatively unknown, in 1973 and only two years after her death was the importance of her documentary photography recognized.

*****

1) Communist-Party-demonstration in Hyde-Park c.1934

2) Selfportrait - c.1936

3) Home - No Dole - London -1931

4) Slums at Gee St - Clerkenwell -1936

5) Unemployed Workers’ Demonstration - 1932

6) Slum Housing - Vienna - 1931

[princessvictoriamelita]

Agnes, Duchess consort of Saxe-Altenburg née Anhalt-Dessau, 1880s.

Maternal aunt of Princess Louise Margaret, Duchess of Connaught.

On 28 April 1853, Agnes married Ernst of Saxe-Altenburg.

They had one daughter, Princess Marie of Saxe-Altenburg.

As their only son died as an infant, the duchy would be inherited by their nephew Ernst upon Ernst I's death in 1908.

[venicepearl]

Sophie Elisabeth of Anhalt-Dessau (10 February 1589 – 9 February 1620) was a German princess of the House of Ascania. She was the last abbess of Gernrode (r.1593-1614). After leaving the abbey, Sophie Elisabeth married George Rudolf of Liegnitz and was duchess of Liegnitz until her death in 1620.

[cyberhobi]

Please everyone sign the petition below to get justice for Oury Jalloh. He came to Germany as an asylum seeker from Sierra Leone. On 7th January 2005 he was burnt to death by police in a cell in Dessau, Germany. The petition is really close to its goal! #JusticeForOuryJalloh

https://www.change.org/p/mein-freund-ouryjalloh-es-war-mord-wir-fordern-l%C3%BCckenlose-aufkl%C3%A4rung

[paranormalyyourz]

Cemetery

A cemetery is a place in which dead human bodies and cremated remains are buried, usually with some form of marker to establish their identity. The term originates from the Greek κοιμητήριον, meaning sleeping place, and can include any large park or burial ground specifically intended for the deposit of the dead. Cemeteries in the Western world are also typically the place where the final ceremonies of death are observed, according to cultural practice or religious belief. Cemeteries are distinguished from other burial grounds by their location and are not usually adjoined to a church, as opposed to a "graveyard" which is located in a "churchyard," which includes any patch of land on church grounds. A public cemetery is made open for use by a surrounding community; a private cemetery is used only by a portion of the population or by a specific family group.

Contents

1 History

2 Establishments and regulations

3 Famous cemeteries worldwide

4 References

5 External Links

6 Credits

1.1 Cemetery reform

1.2 Military cemeteries

1.3 Later developments

2.1 Family cemeteries

A cemetery is generally a place of respect for the dead where the friends, descendants, and interested members of the public may visit to remember and honor those buried there. For many, it is also a place of spiritual significance, where the dead may visit from the afterlife, at least on occasion.

Green-Wood Cemetery, Brooklyn, New York

History

The grave of an infant at Horton, Northamptonshire.

The term cemetery was first used by early Christians and referred to a place for the Christian burial of the dead, often in Roman catacombs. The earliest cemetery sites can been traced back to the fifteenth century and have been found throughout Europe, Asia, and North America in Paleolithic caves and fields of prehistoric grave mounds, or barrows. Ancient Middle Eastern practices often involved the construction of graves grouped around religious temples and sanctuaries, while early Greek practices buried the dead along the roads leading to their cities.

Early burial grounds consisted of earthen graves, and were often unsightly and hasty places to dispose of the dead. European burial was customarily under the control of the church and took place on consecrated church ground. Though practices varied, in continental Europe, most bodies were buried in a mass grave until they had decomposed. The bones were then exhumed and stored in ossuaries either along the arcaded bounding walls of a cemetery or within the church, under floor slabs and behind walls.

The majority of fifteenth century Christian burial grounds became overcrowded and consequently unhealthy. The first Christian examples of cemeteries outside of a churchyard were founded by Protestants in response to overcrowded churchyards and the desire to physically and spiritually separate the dead from the living, a concept often intertwined with the Roman Catholic faith. Early cemetery establishments include Kassel (1526), Marburg (1530), Geneva (1536), and Edinburgh (1562). The structure of early individual grave sites often reflected the social class of the dead.

Cemetery reform

The formation of modern cemetery structures began in seventeenth century India when Europeans began burying their dead in cemetery structures and erecting vast monuments over the graves. Early examples have been found in Surat and Calcutta. In 1767, work on Calcutta’s South Park Street Cemetery was completed and included an intricate necropolis, or city of the dead, with streets of mausolea and magnificent monuments.

In the 1780s and 1790s similar examples were to be found in Paris, Vienna, Berlin, Dessau, and Belfast. The European elite often constructed chamber tombs within cemeteries for the stacking of family coffins. Some cemeteries also constructed a general receiving tomb for the temporary storage of bodies awaiting burial. In the early 1800s, European cities faced major structural reforms that included the restructuring of burial grounds. In 1804, for hygienic reasons, French authorities demanded that all public cemeteries be established outside city limits. Entrusted with a project to bury the dead in a way that was both respectful and hygienic, French architect Alexandre Brogniart designed a cemetery structure that included an English landscape-garden. The result, Mont-Louis Cemetery, would become world famous.

In 1829, similar work was completed on St. James Cemetery in Liverpool, designed to occupy a former quarry. In 1832 Glasgow’s Necropolis would follow. After the arrival of cholera in 1831, London was also forced to establish its first garden cemeteries, constructing Kensal Green in 1833, Norwood in 1837, Brompton in 1840, and Abney Park in 1840, all of which were meticulously landscaped and adorned with intricate architecture. Italian cemeteries followed a different design, incorporating a campo santo style which proved larger than medieval prototypes. Examples include Certosa at Bologna, designed in 1815, Brescia, designed in 1849, Verona, designed in 1828, and the Staglieno of Genoa, designed in 1851 and incorporating neoclassical galleries and an extensive rotunda.

Over time, all major European cities were equipped with at least one reputable cemetery. In larger and more cosmopolitan areas, such cemeteries included great architecture. U.S. cemeteries of similar structure included Boston’s Mount Auburn Cemetery, designed in 1831, Phildelphia’s Laurel Hill Cemetery, designed in 1839, and New York City’s Green-wood Cemetery, designed in 1838. Many southern U.S. cemeteries, such as those in New Orleans, favored above ground tomb structures due to strong French influence. In 1855, architect Andrew Downing suggested that cemetery monuments be constructed in such a way as to not interfere with cemetery maintenance; with this, the first "lawn cemetery" was constructed in Cincinnati, Ohio, a burial park equipped with memorial plaques installed flush with the cemetery ground.

Military cemeteries

Arlington National Cemetery, Washington D.C.

American military cemeteries developed out of the duty of commanders to care for their comrades, including those that had fallen. When the casualties of the American Civil War reached incomprehensible numbers, and hospitals and burial grounds overflowed with the bodies of the dead. General Montgomery Meigs proposed that more than 200 acres be taken from the estate of General Robert E. Lee for the purpose of burying the causalities of war. What followed was the development of Arlington National Cemetery, the first and most prestigious of war cemeteries to be erected on American soil. Today Arlington National Cemetery houses the bodies of those who died as active-duty members of the Armed forces, veterans retired from active military service, Presidents or former President of the United States, and any former member of the armed services who received a Medal of Honor, Distinguished Service Cross, Silver Star, or Purple Heart.

Other American military cemeteries include the Abraham Lincoln National Cemetery, the Gettysburg National Cemetery, the Knoxville National Cemetery and the Richmond National Cemetery. Internationally, military cemeteries include the Woodlands Cemetery near Stockholm (1917), the Slovene National Cemetery in Zale (1937), the San Cataldo Cemetery in Modena (1971), and the Cemetery for the Unknown in Hiroshima, Japan (2001).

Later developments

The change in cemetery structure sought to re-establish the "rest in peace" principle. Such aesthetic cemetery design contributed to the rise of professional landscape architects and inspired the making of grand public parks. At the turn of twentieth century, cremation offered a more popular, though in some places, controversial option to casket burial.

A "green burial" ground or "natural burial" ground is a type of cemetery which places a corpse into the soil to naturally decompose. The first of such cemeteries was created in 1993 at the Carlisle Cemetery in the United Kingdom. The corpse is prepared without traditional preservatives, and is buried in a biodegradable casket or cloth shroud. The graves of green burials are often minimally marked as to not interfere with the landscape of the cemetery. Some green cemeteries use natural markers such as shrubs or trees to denote a grave site. Green burials are posed as an environmentally friendly alternative to customary funeral practices.

Establishments and regulations

Internationally, the style of cemeteries has varied greatly. In the United States and many European countries, cemeteries may use tombstones placed in open spaces. In Russia, tombstones are usually placed in small fenced family lots. This was once a common practice in American cemeteries, and such fenced family plots can still be seen in some of the earliest American cemeteries constructed.

Cemeteries are not governed by laws that apply to real property, although most states have established laws that specifically apply to cemetery structures. Some common regulations require that each grave must be set apart, marked, and distinguished. Cemetery regulations are often required by departments of public health and welfare, and may prohibit future burials in existing cemeteries, enlargement of existing cemeteries, or the establishment of new ones.

Cemeteries in cities use valuable urban space, which may pose a significant problem within older cities. As historic cemeteries begin to reach their capacity for full burials, alternative memorialization, such as collective memorials for cremated individuals, became more common. Different cultures have different attitudes toward the destruction of cemeteries and subsequent use of the land for construction. In some countries it is considered normal to destroy the graves, while in others the graves are traditionally respected for a century or more. In many cases, after a suitable period of time has elapsed, the headstones are removed and the cemetery can be converted into a recreational park or construction site.

Trespassing against, vandalizing, or destruction of a cemetery or individual burial plot are considered criminal offenses, and can be prosecuted by the heirs of the involved plot. Large punitive damages, intended to deter further acts of desecration, may be awarded.

Family Cemeteries

A Buddhist graveyard. Kyoto, Japan.

In many cultures, the family is expected to provide the "final resting place" for their dead. Biblical accounts describe land owned by various important families for the burial of deceased family members. In Asian cultures, regarding their ancestors as having spirits who should be honored, families carefully selected the location for burial so as to keep their ancestors happy.

While uncommon today, family or private cemeteries were a matter of practicality during the settlement of America. If a municipal or religious cemetery was not established, settlers would seek out a small plot of land, often in wooded areas bordering their fields, to begin a family plot. Sometimes, several families would arrange to bury their dead together. While some of these sites later grew into true cemeteries, many were forgotten after a family moved away or died out. Groupings of tombstones, ranging from a few to a dozen or more, have on occasion been discovered on undeveloped land. Usually, little effort is made to remove remains when developing, as they may be hundreds of years old; as a result, the tombstones are often simply removed.

More recent is the practice of families with large estates choosing to create private cemeteries in the form of burial sites, monuments, crypts, or mausolea on their property; the mausoleum at architect Frank Lloyd Wright's Fallingwater is an example of this practice. Burial of a body at such a site may protect the location from redevelopment, such estates often being placed in the care of a trust or foundation. State regulations have made it increasingly difficult to start private cemeteries; many require a plan to care for the site in perpetuity. Private cemeteries are nearly always forbidden on incorporated residential zones.

Famous cemeteries worldwide

Père-Lachaise, Paris.

Since their eighteenth century reform, various cemeteries worldwide have served as international memorials, renowned for their meticulous landscaping and beautiful architecture. In addition to Arlington National Cemetery, other American masterpieces include Wilmington National Cemetery, Alexandria National Cemetery and the Gettysburg National Cemetery, a military park offering historic battlefield walks, living history tours, and an extensive visitor center.

Parisian cemeteries of great renown include the Père Lachaise, the world’s most visited cemetery. This cemetery was established by Napoleon in 1804, and houses the graves of Oscar Wilde, Richard Wright, Jim Morrison, and Auguste Comte among others. Paris is also home to the French Pantheon, completed in 1789. At the start of the French Revolution, the building was changed from a church into a mausoleum to hold the remains of noteworthy Frenchmen. The pantheon includes the graves of Jean Monnet, Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas, and Marie Curie.

London’s Abney Park, opened in 1840, is also an international place of interest. One of London’s seven magnificent cemeteries, it is based on the design of Arlington National Cemetery. The remaining magnificent seven include Kensal Green Cemetery, West Norwood Cemetery, Highgate cemetery, Nunhead Cemetery, Brompton Cemetery, and the Tower Hamlets Cemetery. England’s Brookwood Cemetery, also known as the London Necropolis, is also a cemetery of note. Established in 1852, it once was the largest cemetery in the world. Today more than 240,000 people have been buried there, including Margaret, Duchess of Argyll, John Singer Sargent, and Dodi Al-Fayed. The cemetery also includes the largest military cemetery in the United Kingdom. The ancient Egyptian Great Pyramid of Giza, marking the tomb of Egyptian Pharaoh Khufu, is also a well-known tourist attraction.

References

Curl, James Stevens. 2002. Death and Architecture. Gloucestershire: Sutton. ISBN 0750928778

Encyclopedia of U.S. History. Cemeteries. U.S. History Encyclopedia. Retrieved June 4, 2007.

Etlin, Richard A. 1984. The Architecture of Death. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Gale, Thomas. Cemeteries. Thomas Gale Law Encyclopedia. Retrieved June 4, 2007.

Oxford University Press. Cemetery. Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture. Retrieved June 4, 2007.

Worpole, Ken. 2004. Last Landscapes: The Architecture of the Cemetery in the West. Reaktion Books. ISBN 186189161X

External Links

All links retrieved January 23, 2017.

Cemeteries and Cemetery Symbols

London Cemetery Project: 130 cemeteries with high-quality photos.

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats. The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

Cemetery  history

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

History of "Cemetery"

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

[radicalgraff]

Memorial graffiti and posters across Germany for Oury Jalloh, a refugee from Sierra Leone who was burned to death on the 7th of January 2005 in a police cell in Dessau, Germany.

The hands and feet of Jalloh, who was alone in the cell, were tied to a mattress. A fire alarm went off, but was turned off without further action by an officer. The case caused national and international outrage.

In 2007, two officers were charged with causing bodily harm with fatal consequences and with manslaughter, respectively, but were acquitted in December 2008 for lack of evidence. According to the presiding judge, contradictory testimony had prevented clarification of the circumstances and had obstructed due process.

According to the investigators, the fire broke out in the cell around midday. The fire alarm went off on two occasions. Noises and cries for help coming from the acoustically controlled cell were registered but ignored. Supposedly, the supervising police officer turned off the sound of the acoustic system shortly before twelve because he could not understand a telephone conversation. Only when the air-control alarm went off did he go down into the basement where the cell was located. But by that time Jalloh was found lying on a burning mattress, his body severely burned and his hands bound to the bed frame.

[arbeaone]

News: New Podcast From Kim Noble With Julian Barratt, Adam Buxton and Kim’s Mum

By Bruce Dessau on 10/8/2020

Award-winning performance artist and comedian Kim Noble is set to launch a brand new 10-part podcast entitled ‘Futile Attempts (At Surviving Tomorrow)’, with weekly episodes released on all Podcast Apps, from 19th August.

Unlike any podcast you’ve heard before, ‘Futile Attempts (At Surviving Tomorrow)’ mixes live field recordings with a voice over narrative from Kim. Armed with a hidden mic stuck under his jacket, Kim captures recordings from characters who become embroiled in his absurd life. Featuring archive footage of various break ups from his past, phone calls to Kevin Costner’s agent and conversations with his Mum, this ludicrous comedic sonic journey takes you to Sting’s mansion, down a sewer, underneath a church altar and into the arms of a Hounslow based cult.

Produced by Novel, each episode sees Kim attempt to find reasons and methods to survive life. Exploring a universal theme in each episode, Kim takes the listener on a journey to the centre of his warped reality. Starring Julian Barratt as God, Adam Buxton as himself and a ‘bloke Kim sometimes chats to on a park bench’ as himself, with sound by award-winning composer Benbrick.

Using his provocative and humorous style to expose the human condition: Kim Noble explores notions of death, sexuality, gender and religion with dry comedic wit of tragedy meshed with absurdity.

Kim Noble was one half of the Perrier best newcomer Award-winning, BAFTA-nominated experimental art-comedy duo Noble and Silver. He's since featured in shows including The Mighty Boosh, and performed critically acclaimed solo shows worldwide including Kim Noble Will Die in 2009 and the award winning You're Not Alone in 2015, about loneliness and his father's dementia.

Futile Attempts (At Surviving Tomorrow) will be released weekly on all Podcast apps from 19th August and released as a full box-set series on Spotify on the same date.

[cincinnatusvirtue]

On this day in history:  Battle of Leuthen (1757): Frederick the Great perfects his oblique order.

The Seven Years War (1756-1763) is regarded by many as the first true world war.  It was fought on five continents and in many oceans, it was at its heart a battle of supremacy for worldwide influence, namely between Britain and France.  Its origins were in colonial conflict between these two powers in North America which became known as the French & Indian War.  However, it was also fought with a particularly ferocity in Europe.  Britain was not a main participant involved in the European theater, instead this sector of fighting largely centered around their two main allies in this conflict and question of continental supremacy in Central Europe.  it was the seeds to the so called German Question, would German speaking lands of Europe, then divided into the many entities of the Holy Roman Empire, be lead by the continual leadership of the Hapsburg Realm known based in the Archduchy of Austria or would it follow the Kingdom of Prussia?

Prelude: The German Question

-By the 18th century, the Holy Roman Empire, Central Europe and the German speaking peoples of Europe had largely been under the leadership of Vienna and the Hapsburg dynasty, then known as the Archduchy of Austria with its rulers serving as Holy Roman Emperor.  A title that conveyed certain ceremonial & political weight with it.  The Holy Roman Empire was a collection of mostly German speaking states that was concentrated in modern day Germany mostly alongside other parts of Central Europe.  The Hapsburgs were its leading family and also held sway directly over parts of Italy, Bohemia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Croatia, Italy and other parts of the Balkans.  In the past its traditional enemy was the Ottoman Empire, long seen as the last bastion between Christendom and the spread of Islam throughout Europe.

-Its success against the Ottomans in the Great Turkish War (1683-1699) alongside Russia, Poland, Venice and other nations has essentially reversed the trend of Ottoman encroachment.  Instead, the Turks now found themselves on the defensive and largely having to compete at against an expansionist Russia.  Meanwhile, Austria challenged its longtime enemy France, now run by the Bourbon dynasty for control over influence within continental Europe.

-Austria sought Britain and the Dutch Republic’s assistance in containing French supremacy in Western and Central Europe, all these nations had a mutual interest in containing the expansion in French power which was coupled with the Bourbon’s taking over Spain and its empire too.

-Austria and France clashed in the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) and the subsequent War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748).

-It was in the last 17th and early 18th century and the aforementioned wars, that the Kingdom of Prussia, centered in northeastern Germany and run by the Lutheran Hohenzollern dynasty looked to gain power and influence.

-Prussia was comparatively small relative to Hapsburg lands but it built its reputation on its military prowess, starting with Frederick WIlliam, Elector of Brandenburg.  As a member state of the Holy Roman Empire, it had a vote in the election of the Holy Roman Emperor, who was not a direct rule of other members of the fragmentary “empire” but a “first among equals” and one who held the most sway over the collective.

-Frederick William, his son and grandson (Frederick I) & (Frederick William I) were recognized Electors of Brandenburg and in the latter two’s case as Kings in Prussia and they made many military reforms that improved Prussia’s army.

-Under Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau who served as Prussia’s royal military overseer a number of key reforms which set it apart from all other European armies were implemented.  Firstly, he replaced the traditional wooden ramrod of muskets with which a soldier must plunge the musket ball into the barrel with an iron ramrod.  The difference was stark, a more durable iron ramrod had a longer shelf-life than wood, was less prone to breaking and therefore was quicker for reloading.  Secondly, he introduced the goose-step march which slowed the march of the army, conserving their energy when going into battle and providing for more uniform cohesion.  Thirdly, he increased the role of the fife and drum musicians, making musicians out of some soldier and increasing the size of military marching bands, which was seen to boost morale.  Fourth, he introduced relentless drilling with emphasis on the rate of fire and the maneuverability of units in formation.  Fifth, the officer corps were directed and limited to the Junker (Prussian nobility) class which had a good miltary education and was firmly loyal to the Prussian nation and King.  Additionally, firm but harsh corporal punishment was introduced to instill discipline and deter desertion.  Finally, politically the introduction of mandatory conscription was more enforced in Prussia.

-All these elements left in place the Prussian Army becoming perhaps the most well oiled war machine in Europe at the time with only Austria, France, Britain and Russia being competitors, in time they would come to find out just how well trained and efficient this force was.

-As Prussia’s military reputation grew, so did its influence in the world of German politics and Austria clearly began to see it as a rival.  Though initially, in the War of the Spanish Succession, both nations were together to curb French influence, with the Prussians serving with distinction as mercenaries under the Holy Roman Empire’s banner.

-1740, however changed things when two new rulers came to rule over Prussia & Austria.  It started with Frederick II, the new King of Prussia.  Frederick had a troubled relationship with father, Frederick William I.  His father was well educated in government and military affairs and had hoped his son and heir would be inclined towards such matters too.  Frederick was instead, prone to the burgeoning trends of the Enlightenment then coming into full flourish and sweeping Europe’s philosophy circles.  Frederick was more interested in music, the arts and philosophy.   His father also physical and mentally abused him, beating him with a cane and calling him many insults.  To add to the strain, he appears to have been a homosexual, something punishable by death even for a royal during that time.  Famously, he attempted to flee to Britain with his tutor/lover Han Hermann von Katte to escape the abuse by his father.  However, both Frederick & Katte were caught in 1730 during their flight.  Katte and Frederick were technically army officers and Frederick William I wanted to make an example of them for their flight as a betrayal of the nation.  Though Katte’s initial sentence was imprisonment until the King’s death, Frederick William I instead ordered his execution.  He made his son watch his friend and lover die by beheading, Frederick is said to have passed out at the sight of his lover’s execution by his father’s order.  Frederick himself was also imprisoned by his father for the next two years.

-Eventually, father and son somewhat reconciled.  In part, because he got Frederick to marry a woman, Elizabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfsbuttel.  However, Frederick remained a semi-closeted gay man and never had children with his wife nor had any physical intimacy with her, though appears to have had no affairs with other women either.  Instead, he always maintain an interest in the military and quite probably had male lovers & confidantes.  Instead, the couple maintained separate residences over the course of their lives and Frederick knew full well the marriage was for political purposes.  It was to last from 1733 until his death in 1786.

-Frederick came to the throne in 1740, having inherited a Prussia with a stable economy, efficient administration & most important of all, well trained and sizable army relative to its population.  All things despite their often strained relationship he owed to his father.  Of his father after his death he said:

“What a terrible man he was. But he was just, intelligent, and skilled in the management of affairs... it was through his efforts, through his tireless labor, that I have been able to accomplish everything that I have done since.”

 -1740, also saw accession to the Austrian throne, Maria-Theresa, daughter of Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor and Archduke of Austria.  She had married, Francis, Duke of Lorraine, a Franco-German, portion of the Holy Roman Empire.  Together, they would co-rule the Hapsburg Empire & give rise to the Hapsburg-Lorraine branch of the family, as Maria-Theresa was the last in the senior line of the Hapsburg family, which is declared to “die out” due to no more direct male heirs.  Their subsequent branch would head the family and rule Austria in its many iterations through World War I in the form of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

-The issue of Maria-Theresa’s gender came to be the powder keg for growing Austro-Prussian conflict.  However, it was a smokescreen to expand Prussian power at Austrian expense, being just a convenient excuse other rulers needed to undermine Hapsburg rule as Holy Roman Emperors.  Charles VI, aware of the problems caused by having no male heirs and relying on a system of primogeniture, where the eldest surviving legitimate male son or nearest male relative was given to rule, was forced to spend much of his reign using diplomacy and concessions to the other Electors of the Holy Roman Empire and great powers of Europe, to recognize his daughter as his heir and as Holy Roman Empress and ruler of Hapsburg lands.  The Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 was the recognition by the other powers of Europe of her succession to these lands.  

-However, looking to weaken the Austrians and get the balance of power set about in a more favorable fashion, France & Prussia backing the relative of Maria-Theresa, Charles-Albert of Bavaria, proclaimed his right to become Holy Roman Emperor.  Making him in effect Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor.  He was of the House of Wittelsbach and his reign interrupted the Hapsburg claim to the title for the preceding 300 years.  Citing, Salic Law, from the Middle Ages, neither France nor Prussia could truly “respect” a woman’s claim to hold the title of Holy Roman Emperor or to rule over the Hapsburg lands.  For France it was about controlling the balance of power, for Frederick of Prussia, now Frederick II, it was a chance to increase Prussia’s profile.  So launched the 8 year long War of the Austrian Succession.  The war saw Frederick II invade Austrian Silesia in modern day Poland.  With this Maria-Theresa & Frederick II were ever after archrivals.  

-  By 1745, Frederick’s army time and again surprised the Austrians and  Europe at large and had more or less secured its war aims, Silesia.  He secured for himself a reputation as a great tactician and for the Prussian army, a sense of true respect for their performance. The treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle in 1748 ended the war, Maria-Theresa was declared to be Holy Roman Empress and ruler of all Hapsburg lands with her husband who became Francis I as Holy Roman Emperor.  Their family would continue to succeed them ever after.  However, Frederick got to retain control of Silesia and this caused simmering tension and resentment with Maria-Theresa.  

Diplomatic Revolution:

-In the years following the Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle, the political goals of Europe’s great powers realigned.  Britain and France still retained colonial rivalries the world over and both sought to have a favorable balance of power on the continent as well.  Austria & Britain had been traditional allies for decades but with British support for Prussian claims to Silesia, Maria-Theresa no longer felt Britain could be a dependable ally in what she sought, a reclaiming of Silesia, she needed help to achieve this and turned to an unlikely place, its former rival...France.

-Meanwhile, Britain felt Austria itself was too weak to take on France and therefore was willing to subsidize other powers to contain French ambition on the continent while the Royal Navy & British Army took French colonies elsewhere.  So a partner switch developed.  Prussia & Britain signed an alliance in January 1756.  

-Meanwhile. France at first declared neutrality thanks to diplomacy from Austria which no longer had borders on France’s natural borders and this lead to a thawing of icy relations.  A series of treaties was signed between Austria and France in 1756-57 which formed an anti-Prussian coalition between the two and later supplemented by Russia & Sweden.  France agreed to support Austria regaining Silesia, and subsidies for Austria to maintain a large army against the Prussians.  In exchange at the war’s end, France would gain the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium).  This would allow France new ports to threaten Britain.

War:

-War had broken out 1756 officially between Britain and France though their North American colonies had been fighting since 1754.  

-Frederick II, sensing the growing alliance against him wanted to preempt any Austrian attack against Silesia and thusly invaded the Austrian ally, the Electorate of Saxony in August 1756, this kicked off the war and lead to many back and forth battles over the next 7 years.

-The war shifted in 1757 to Austrian Bohemia (Czech Republic) and left Prague under siege by the Prussians at one point.  Frederick garnered many important early victories but was forced to withdraw in this instance.

-By late 1757, the French were providing Austria the long awaited support for its thrusts into Silesia.  Prussia was gradually pushed back following the retreat from Prague and now was facing pressure from multiple approaches.  

-This approach culminated in the November 1757 Battle of Rossbach, the only physical battle to involve both France & Prussia against each other.  Frederick caught the Austro-Franco army by surprise and inflicted 10,000 casualties to his less than 1,000.  France essentially remained a non-entity in this theater for the next several years, though they did continue to fund the Austrians.  Austria’s real support would come later from Russia & Sweden against Prussia.

Battle of Leuthen:

-Meanwhile, another and even larger Austrian army was looking to engage Frederick, this one was lead by Maria-Theresa’s brother in law, Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine.  He sought to engage the Prussians and defeat Frederick decisively.  Indeed he did defeat the Prussians, not under Frederick’s command at the Battle of Breslau in late November 1757 which threatened all of Prussian Silesia in December with 66,000 soldiers under his command.

-Frederick meanwhile had 33,000 meaning his troops would be outnumbered 2 to 1.  Learning of the fall of Breslau, he moved his troops, 170 miles in just 12 days, a very accomplished maneuver given the roads and transport of the times.

-Prince Charles, aware of Frederick’s approach’s toward Breslau, the provincial capital of Silesia.  He sought to stop the advance 17 miles west at the town of Leuthen.

-The Austrians hoped to check any Prussian countermove with a force running north to south spread out around Leuthen, knowing the Prussians would come from the west.

-Charles had placed his command in the village church tower to give him more of a vantage point over the rolling countryside displayed before his army.  This meant he should be able to anticipate any move Prussia made.

-Frederick however, was quite familiar with the land, having used the Silesians countryside around Leuthen as parade and drilling grounds for the Prussian Army during peace time.  Rarely one, to do the expected Frederick wanted to use his tactical prowess against the Austrians.  

-His first step was to survey the land and hatch a plan.  Austria’s strongest concentration of troops was on the left wing (south end) and their front stretched five miles north to south.  Frederick, decided he would make the Austrians think he was in one place and then show in an unexpected place.  His goal was to get the Austrians to react to this deceit which would provide an opening to his advantage.

-Realizing a series of low lying hills running almost parallel to the Austrian line lie in front of both armies.  Frederick planned to use these hills to cover his troops movements for the main strike.  First however, a force of cavalry would would launch an attack to distract the Austrians on the north end of the battlefield, the more lightly concentrated side.  The Austrians thinking the attack was now coming from the north instead of the south would transfer the greatest concentration of troops from the south to north and check the Prussian attack.  Meanwhile, Frederick employing his favorite tactic, oblique order would march from behind the hills to the now weakened south end of the Austrian line, perform a right angle turn and blast volleys into the weakened line, and roll it up from the south end, essentially performing a bait and switch on the Austrians.

-On the morning of December 5th, 1757, fog came onto the field, making it hard to see either side, this helped the Prussians more than the Austrians.

-Prince Charles saw Frederick’s initial moves early in the morning but interpreted them possibly as a retreat at first  Meanwhile, Prussian cavalry attacked the north end of the Austrian line from the woods, indeed it seemed as if the Prussians were attacking the north end, having expected a southern end attack initially hence the greater concentration of troops.  The worry was this attack coming from an unexpected direction could contribute to the Prussians rolling up the Austrian line.

-Charles reacted by shifting his entire southern flank’s reserve to reinforce and extend the line to the north.  His transfer of troops drew out the line’s length and weakened the southern flank.  They would in fact be facing the weaker Prussian attack, while the stronger attack would hit their originally anticipated southern flank, now weakened by deception.  Little did he realize, he had fallen in Frederick’s trap.

-Indeed, Frederick marched his troops quietly in the fog and behind the hills before the Austrians, before he performed a right turn and executed oblique order, essentially moving the bulk of one’s forces against the weakened flank of the enemy and pushing them back so as to create an opening that forces the enemy line to shift, contort and break.  His troops were well timed and disciplined to pull off such a maneuver.

-The main Prussian force marching south behind the hills was in two parallel columns.  They moved past the length of the Austrian line and out of sight totally before veering eastward until they formed virtually a right angle with the Austrian line who was surprised by the sight of the Prussian army emerging from fog in battle line formation.  The Prussian infantry opened fire with devastating volleys, keep in mind, the rate of five for Prussian infantrymen was 5 shots a minute per man compared to the 3-4 averaged by other European armies of the time.  Their hard training had paid off with a faster and consequently more damaging rate of fire than their enemy.  

-The Prussians now pushed forward against the confused and bedazzled Austrian army, which ironically, seeking to avoid being rolled up in the opposite direction, weakened their originally stronger side only to be rolled up anyway from a now completely unexpected direction.

-The Austrians had a few regiments try to check the Prussian advance from the south and indeed some artillery pointed south held them at bay but Frederick ordered some artillery of his own to be placed on one of the hills to the west of Leuthen, which in turn enfiladed the Austrian guns and forced them to withdraw.

-Meanwhile the Austrians tried to shift everything south in order to maintain control of the situation but the Prussian cavalry which had launched the screening attack on the Austrin north flank intially had withdrawn until was called into action by Frederick once more, causing more confusion for the Austrians who ultimately withdrew from the field, heading northeast.

-Frederick wanted to pursue but snowfall made him call off the pursuit.  That night, Frederick arrived at the castle at nearby Lissa, occupied by both Austrian officers and refugees from villages caught near the battle.  He politely surprised the Austrians by acknowledging they did not expect his presence their that night but did ask for lodging.  Subsequently he went on to besiege Breslau and force an Austrian surrender.

-The war was far from over and Frederick and indeed Prussia’s fortunes fluctuated until its conclusion in 1763, in which Prussia would technically be the winner, retaining Silesia, in exchange for the recognition of Maria-Theresa’s son, Joseph as her heir.  Though the war exhausted both sides in terms of manpower but ultimately, Frederick stopped Austrian +other Germans, French, Russian & Swedish armies from ending Prussia and his reign altogether.

-As a result of his tactical & strategic performance in this war and the preceding War of the Austrian Succession, he earned the historical moniker, Frederick the Great.  The Battle of Leuthen was one illustration of the man’s tactical prowess, perhaps the most perfect example of this and more broadly of how far Prussia’s army had come from a comparative German backwater to the premier army on the European continent.

[kattestrophe]

- "[...] Find me two crosses of the Order Mérite and send them to me, Old Dessauer has kicked the bucket. [...]" - "[...] The old Prince will be so happy when he meets all the devils he kept calling out to; and nobody except Geheimrat Deutsch will wish him a pleasant journey. [...]"

Frederick II. (the Great) to his chamberlain Michael Gabriel Fredersdorf and Fredersdorf’s answer concerning the death of Leopold von Anhalt-Dessau, April 8th and 9th of 1747.

Original German:

Frederick: “[...] schaffe mihr 2 creützer ordre Merite und Schike sie mihr; der alte Dessauer ist verreket. [...]”

Fredersdorf: “[...] Der Alte Fürst wirdt sich recht freuen, wann Er Bey alle die Teuffel komen wirdt, die Er immer so fleißig gerufen; und Niemand wirdt Ihm eine glückliche reise wünschen, als der Geheimtrath Deutsch. [...]”

[ctl-yuejie]

@ my german speaking followers

i’d like to share this docu series about the death of Oury Jalloh while in police custody 15 years ago.

not only because the state ministry of justice just blocked and hindered two special agents of the state parliament but also because some of my followers might not be aware of this having happened..

every year there are silent vigils so i hope you will take part next time to send a strong signal that this case isn’t resolved yet + to send a message to seehofer that an investigation of racial profiling is very much needed in this country.

[germanaustriannoblesandroyals]

House of Hohenzollern: Princess Wilhelmine of Prussia

Friederike Sophie Wilhelmine, simply referred to as Wilhelmine, was the third child and first daughter of “The Soldier King” Frederick William I. in Prussia and his wife Princess Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, the daughter of the later King George I. of Great Britain and Ireland. She was their first child to survive into childhood and is older and favourite sister of Frederick the Great.

During her childhood, she was abused by her governess Leti. She beat her almost everyday. It got even worse when Wilhelmine started to respond only vaguely to questions about her mother’s and maternal grandfather’s marriage plans for her. Leti had been bribed by Friedrich Wilhelm von Grumbkow and Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau, to convince Friederike of a marriage to The Prince’s nephew Frederick William, Margrave of Brandenburg-Schwedt. Only when Madame de Roucoulles, the governess of the Prussian princes, explained to Wilhelmine’s oblivious mother in 1721 that she would probably one day become disabled from all those beating, Leti was let go and Dorothea Luise “Sonsine” von Wittenhorst-Sonsfeld was employed in her stead.

Wilhelimne knew of the escape plans of her brother Frederick which failed in the August of 1730. Like her brother, she had been friends with Hans Hermann von Katte. He two had known about the escape plans and would ultimately become the scape goat for Frederick William’s fury. While Frederick and Hans were imprisoned at Küstrin, Wilhelmine was locked in her room. For over a year, she and her brother had to fear to be executed. In the end their father decided to only execute Hans but made Frederick watch the execution. Wilhelmine on the other hand was to be married off. Her governess was told to make the princess obedient to her father’s orders. If she did not succeed, she would be put into a correction facility with the public whores.

Some contemporaries say that Wilhelmine’s husband was initally intended for her younger sister Princess Sophia Dorothea of Prussia, who would later become The Margravine of Brandenburg-Schwedt, but other’s say that Frederick, The Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth, had always been intended to be Wilhelmine’s spouse. They were married on November 20th, 1731, in Berlin. When Wilhelmine left Berlin for Bayreuth on January 11th, 1732, she was already two month pregnant. Her only child Elisabeth Friederike Sophie was born on August 30th that year and would later be called “the most beautiful princess in Europe” by no one less than Casanova himself.

But Wilhelmine did not like her new home particularly much. It was simpler then the Prussian court she was used to and her thought the castle to be dark and in bad condition. However, to her parents and her brother she wrote positively about her welcome in Bayreuth, unlike in her memoires.

In her time as Margravine, she built many things in Bayreuth that still atract many tourists today. Next to building, Wilhelmine was a passionate champion of the arts and practised most of them herself. She loved to paint and act and was also a talented musician from early age on. Wilhelmine even composed her own pieces including an entire opera. But she was also interested in science and philosophy and corresponded with Voltaire.

There was also a time when her relationship with her young Brother Frederick the Great soured for a time. It all began when Wilhelmine decided to get rid of  Wilhelmine Dorothee von der Marwitz, her lady-in-waiting turned mistress of her husband, and arranged a marriage for her with the Austrian Count Otto von Burghauß. Austria and Prussia were enemies at the time and Wilhelmine Dorothee’s inheritance from her Prussian father would by this marriage go to Austria. Frederick was not amused about this since the Prussian nobility was forbidden to marry outside of Prussia without the King’s approval. As a consequence, Frederick disinherited Dorothee from her father’s inheritance. Another issue that soured their relationship was that Austrian diplomats tried to influence the Prussian court via Bayreuth and Wilhelmine’s open admiration of Maria Theresia who was the ruling Archduchess of Austria as well as Queen regnant of Bohemia and Hungary at the time. The two women even met during the Slesian war in 1745. Wilhelmine and Frederick met one another in person the last time in June 1745.

Wilhelmine died on October 14th, 1758, in Bayreuth; the same day her brother lost Battle of Hochkirch in the Seven Years War and also lost his friend James Keith in the same battle. Ten years after her death, Frederick built the Temple of Friendship in Sanssouci Park to remember his sister. From 2008 to 2016, the city of Bayreuth gave out the Markgräfin-Wilhelmine-Preis der Stadt Bayreuth für Toleranz und Humanität in kultureller Vielfalt [Margravine-Wilhelime-Price of the city of Bayreuth for tolerance and humanity in cultural diversity] in her honor. Wilhelmine’s life is well documented thanks to her self-written memoire, although it should also be taken with a grain of salt since it was written later in life and only reflect her personal opinion at the time of writing and not neccessarily the truth, as it is with every memoire. The autobiography has been published in at least French, German and English.

// Anna Willecke as Wilhelmine von Preussen in Friedrich - Ein deutscher König (2011)