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theparanormalperiodical · 4 years ago

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Top 10 Scariest Haunted & Cursed Cars You Don’t Want To See In Your Rear View

The Flying Dutchman is an age-old ghost story.

It’s cherished. It’s the OG. It’s an urban legend we can trace back as far as the 17th century.

Supposedly containing the spirits of sailors that died at sea and sighted throughout imperial history, it is a myth we still pass down through the generations via word of mouth.

But this is not the only ship associated with the paranormal.

From the Caleuche to the Queen Mary, vessels glowing with a ghostly green aura or containing lost spirits are supposedly still sailing the seven seas.

This isn’t the 17th century.

As the years went by, advancements in travel did, too.

Humans no longer travel mainly by boat. They started taking trains and they started using cars.

And so a new era of ghostlore was born: the phantom vehicle.

They’re the cursed cars that have driven through striking moments in our history. They’re the apparitions of trains that choo-choo on the anniversary of tragic events.

They’re haunted ‘n’ haunting.

And we’re going to talk about them.

*revvs engine*

*stalls*

*finally gets in the right gear*

What is a phantom vehicle?

This is a vehicle that operates with no driver. It doesn’t just relate to cars operating all by themself, it is actually a term used in the insurance industry.

But back to the spooky.

The role of cars, trains n’ planes in ghostlore extends much further than forgetting to put your handbrake on your mum’s new VW Beetle when you snuck out to the pub after curfew.

Yeah, you can’t blame that dent where it backed up into the streetlight on a lost soul.

The paranormal phenomena associated with phantom vehicles is not just about cars driven by invisible spirits, however. The stories vary, whether it’s claims of mysterious curses killing all those that got behind the wheel, ghostly figures appearing near where they are stationed, or cars appearing in the rearview mirror and then vanishing into thin air.

Here’s the thing: cars, trains and motorcycles have grounded themselves mainly in modern urban legends. But ghost stories?

They aren’t as well known. They should be.

As cars amongst other forms of transport are commonplace in our daily lives, many tragic tales involve them.

When car production and ownership soared in 20th century America, the phantom vehicle took grip here first. It then began to traverse borders, migrating and evolving as it travelled most - notably to Asia. But such claims crop up all over the world.

Some of the most significant moments of our history involve cars. They have seen enough pain - and enough passengers - to surely capture some essence of the human spirit?

They’ve been owned by the dead, guided people to their final fate and transported the bodies back to resting places. That being said, human spirits are not the only entities mentioned in some of these tales.

All of these theories have been thrown up in the face of history, tragedy and the unexplained.

Black Volga

We start with an urban legend. The sort that is unfortunately based on an all-too-true story.

Throughout Russia, eastern Europe, Greece and Mongolia children are often told the tale of a black GAZ-21 car that slowly rolls through the streets looking for people to abduct. As with most urban legends, it encompassed local fears that came with the time. And most of these were rooted in prejudice.

The people behind the wheel were named as either priests, nuns, Jews, communists, the mafia, vampires or satanists. So, anyone the teller of the tale didn’t like.

The car is believed to be jet black with white rims and white curtains. Of course, this varies.

The most popular victims were children supposedly used to help cure the diseases of rich Westerners or Arabs, or for organ theft. If children weren’t being nicked to help cure leukemia, the car would rock up to simply kill innocent people.

Alternative versions talk of a more demonic version of the car (featuring horns and ‘666’ on the license plate cause, you know, less is more). In this case, the driver might ask a passer-by for the time before killing them when they came up to answer, or the time the passer-by gave would be the time they’d die the next day.

If Black Volga happens to roll down your street, simply answer ‘it’s god’s time’ and they’ll speed off into the distance.

The legend of Black Volga might not be based on actual satanists or even involve the devil himself. But it can be traced back to one of the darker chapters in eastern European and Russian history:

The GAZ-M1 cars were actively used by an internal Soviet ministry for mass repression. But the nature of the car kidnapping children is based on the predatory behaviour of the head of this ministry, Lavrentiy Beria.

During WW2, he would be driven around the streets of Moscow and merely point at various young women. They’d be smuggled away to his mansion to be brutalised by this known sexual predator.

The Lincoln Special

The circumstances surrounding Abraham Lincoln’s death were just as mysterious as what happened after it. Lincoln had his own encounters with the paranormal, predicting his own death and appearing in his old office long after he died.

But legend has it you can still see his funeral procession every year.

In 1865, The Lincoln Special finally hit the train tracks holding the body of Lincoln and his young son (who died a few years prior and was to be reburied with his father). It left Washington DC on April 21st 1865 for a 12 day journey to Illinois, leaving mourners up and down the country an opportunity to say goodbye to their president.

On the anniversary of the 12-day journey, people report witnessing a ghostly, white train glowing in the distance and hear a whistle call out to the darkness.

One of the most famous accounts of this was recited in the Wichita Herald in 1879 with a former switchman of the Hudson River Railroad:

“It was the night of April 24, 1866, as far as I can remember, that I first saw it. It was a phantom train. I was at my switch station and had a good while to wait before the next regular train was due I was about to retire into my little house when I heard a sullen, rumbling sound that gave me warning of the approach of a train.

Looking down the road I saw a headlight whose power and intensity I had never seen equaled in my experience of thirty years. There was a chill about the air that I couldn’t understand.”

He then went on to describe in detail the black procession including the people that were riding it. He claimed he saw it twice more after this sighting.

JFK’s Limousine

Lincoln was not the only US president to be on the other side of an assassin’s gun. And he was not the only one to have a vehicle draped in paranormal mystery.

If you don’t know the full story of Kennedy’s final moments, let me bring you up to speed: on November 22nd 1963, JFK and his wife rode in the back of a 1961 Lincoln 74A Convertible through Texas. However, Lee Harvey Oswald, a disturbed ex-marine that had been in-and-out of altercations with the law shot JFK and the governor of Texas, killing the president.

The Lincoln was still kept in service 8 years after his death with a colour change and greater safety precautions put in place so as to not remind the public of what took place in that car.

It can be seen in the Henry Ford Museum where it has been on display since 1978. But an apparition dressed in grey is often seen lingering near it, especially near November and the anniversary of the shooting.

Bullet Baba

This one is odd. Like, really odd.

In 1988, Om Singh Rathore lost control of his motorbike whilst travelling to Chotila (India) and he hit a tree. He died instantly - but the motorbike fell into a nearby ditch.

The morning after, the motorbike was taken to the police station. But when the dawn of a new day came, the police had a surprise on their hands. The bike was nowhere to be seen.

It was found back at the site of the accident.

So, they took it back, emptying the fuel tank and locking it up at the police station to make sure no one was tampering with the vehicle and taking it back to the site of the accident.

But it happened again. Every time they brought it back to the station, by the morning it would return to the ditch it was found in. The locals quickly got wind of the story, believing it to be a miracle and worshipping the ‘Bullet Bike’.

They even built a temple to worship it. Those that visit the shrine pray to the bike and its owner to protect them in their travels. Those that fail to pray are allegedly in for a difficult and dangerous journey.

The Golden Eagle

Turns out the 60s was crawling with cursed cars. But this 1964 Dodge 330 was not the site of a murder - it’s believed to be the killer itself.

Legend has it it started out as a police car in Maine. Three officers drove it, and all of them died.

Of course, police officers do a dangerous job. Death is probably common in their line of duty. But they didn’t meet their fate behind the wheel. They all went on to murder their entire family before they turned the gun on themselves.

It was then purchased by an elderly man before being sold yet again to the current owner. These latter owners so far have remained unscathed. But in the 80s and 90s, it took yet more victims.

During these decades, local members of the church attempted to vandalise it. And they met their end in very unique ways.

One was hit by lightning. Another was decapitated by an 18-wheeler. One child who was dared to simply tough the car in 2008 followed the example of the former police officers and murdered their entire family before setting the house alight.

At the behest of the local church, the car was dismembered and sent to junkyards to prevent it from taking any more lives. But the current owner, Wendy Allen, claims it hasn’t given up on its evil purpose just yet. Doors will fling open on the highway, seat belts will be released randomly, and the steering wheel jams on occasion.

The Taxis Of Japan

Following the devastation of the 2011 earthquake and tsunami which claimed 20,000 lives, there was a dramatic surge in reported paranormal phenomena.

People claimed to be visited by mysterious people who would leave a trail of water in their wake after vanishing, others said they were possessed by the spirits of those killed by the natural disaster.

Whether these sightings were credible or not is not for us to say; this was a form of national mourning for a tragic event. But it was taxi drivers who reported the most perplexing phenomena.

Whilst driving through a hard-hit area of Japan in the early morning summer heat, one was hailed by a young woman who looked rather odd. She wore a heavy winter coat and her hair was drenched. She then asked to be taken to Minamihama which too had been ravaged by the tsunami.

“That area is almost empty. Are you sure?”

She replied: “Have I died?”

The cab driver turned around to see the young woman had vanished.

He was the only one in the car.

Numerous cab drivers have reported similar stories from which they are asked to take passengers to locations, arrive there and realise there is no one on the back seat.

This chimes closely with the Japanese ghostlore. Their ghosts (yurei) are as a result of unfinished business or not being laid to rest. The number missing still stands at above 2500 people ten years on.

The Organ Thefts Of South Korea

585 miles from Japan, another terrifying tale involving taxis unfolded.

And this urban legend is probably one you’ve already heard. Around 1999, numerous websites and forums across the internet reported strange stories of passengers picked up by taxi drivers…

And then waking up days later minus a kidney.

Rumour has it passengers would be drugged with a needle to the neck, have their kidney surgically removed and then often wake up in a random location, such as in the middle of a farm field.

Interestingly enough, these sort of urban legends run rampant in the summer months in South Korea - as opposed to the Autumn months in Western countries. Even their horror films hit the cinema in the warmer season and not nearer Halloween.

The Jumping Car Of Cape Town

The Renault Megane was once a staple car on UK roads. It’s a decent family size vehicle that wouldn’t break the bank. But over in South Africa, it amassed a rather different reputation in 2004.

One night, this car turned on by itself and began ‘jumping’ back and forth all by itself across a family's backyard. Multiple witnesses came forward including two police officers. No one could explain it. How could a car with no keys in the ignition and the parking brake on do this?

Unless, of course, a dark force was at play...

Renault later claimed a rusty starter cable was probably the cause of strange activity. But what about the revving of the engine? It was as if something had its foot down on the gas pedal.

Archduke Franz Ferdinand’s Limousine

JFK was not the only political figure whose car would bear the memory of his murder. But the thing is, what happened after Ferdinand was killed would lead to 21 million more deaths, to simplify a complex war.

Ferdinand and his wife were shot by a Bosnian anarchist in 1914, triggering WW1. But the limo saw more death than this historic assassination.

It would go on to have 15 different owners after this incident. And there were 6 accidents and 13 deaths to follow.

The first man to own it - an Austrian general, Potiorek - went mad simply driving it through Vienna. The next owner, the governor of Yugoslavia, lived through 4 car accidents and lost an arm. He was convinced it was cursed and then decided to sell it to a friend.

The friend was dead within 6 months after a car accident.

Several more would be killed in its wake, whether the result of suicides or collisions. By 1926, it was taken to the War History Museum of Vienna where (thankfully) it has not taken any more lives.

The Vauxhall Astra Of Surrey

We end with one final tragic tale of loss.

On December 11th 2002, the UK police began to receive numerous calls reporting a crash on the A3 in Surrey. Multiple eyewitnesses saw the headlights of a car veering off the road and were concerned about the driver.

But when the police turned up, they saw something quite perplexing. Yes, a car had veered off the road. But this car had been there for months.

5 months.

The police found a Vauxhall Astra nose down in a ditch and covered in mossy undergrowth. Inside was a decomposing human body.

Was this a spirit trying to draw attention to his unburied body?

Some say you can see the accident repeat itself, with headlights swerving off the A3 often reported to no avail. However, as a very popular road that goes through Surrey right up to central London, accidents are very common.

Have you ever seen a phantom vehicle?

Let me know in a comment below!

While you’re there, make sure you like and reblog this post. Want to hear an article about the paranormal every Saturday? Hit follow as well!

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newstfionline · 4 years ago

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Thursday, March 4, 2021

The ‘free world’ keeps shrinking (NYT) Three-quarters of the people on earth live in countries where freedom is declining. That’s one of the grim takeaways in an annual report produced by Freedom House, the Washington-based pro-democracy think tank and watchdog. This year’s survey, published Wednesday, marked the 15th consecutive year of global democratic backsliding—“a long democratic recession,” in the organization’s words, that is “deepening.” Freedom House grades individual countries on 25 indicators that evaluate the health of a given nation’s democracy (or lack thereof). The cumulative score then enables the organization, which has been in operation since 1941, to rank a given country as “Free,” “Partly Free,” or “Not Free.” Of the 195 independent countries evaluated, 73 saw aggregate score declines and only 28 saw growth. That margin is the widest of its kind in the past decade and a half. Moreover, 54 countries are now labeled “Not Free,” or about 38 percent of the world’s population, the highest share since 2005. Less than 20 percent of the world’s population lives in countries now classified as “Free.”

Vaccine Passports, Covid’s Next Political Flash Point (NYT) The next major flash point over coronavirus response has already provoked cries of tyranny and discrimination in Britain, protests in Denmark, digital disinformation in the United States and geopolitical skirmishing within the European Union. The subject of debate: vaccine passports—government-issued cards or smartphone badges stating that the bearer has been inoculated against the coronavirus. The idea is to allow families to reunite, economies to restart and hundreds of millions of people who have received a shot to return to a degree of normalcy, all without spreading the virus. Some versions of the documentation might permit bearers to travel internationally. Others would allow entry to vaccinated-only spaces like gyms, concert venues and restaurants. While such passports are still hypothetical in most places, Israel became the first to roll out its own last week, capitalizing on its high vaccination rate. Several European countries are considering following. President Biden has asked federal agencies to explore options. And some airlines and tourism-reliant industries and destinations expect to require them.

US infrastructure gets C- from engineers as roads stagnate (AP) America’s infrastructure has scored near-failing grades for its deteriorating roads, public transit and storm water systems due to years of inaction from the federal government, the American Society of Civil Engineers reports. Its overall grade: a mediocre C-. In its “Infrastructure Report Card” released Wednesday, the group called for “big and bold” relief, estimating it would cost $5.9 trillion over the next decade to bring roads, bridges and airports to a safe and sustainable level. That’s about $2.6 trillion more than what government and the private sector already spend. “America’s infrastructure is not functioning as it should, and families are losing thousands of dollars a year in disposable income as a result of cities having to fix potholes, people getting stuck in traffic or due to repairs when a water line breaks or the energy grid goes down,” said Greg DiLoreto, one of the group’s past presidents.

Pandemic puts 1 in 3 nonprofits in financial jeopardy (AP) More than one-third of U.S. nonprofits are in jeopardy of closing within two years because of the financial harm inflicted by the viral pandemic, according to a study being released Wednesday by the philanthropy research group Candid and the Center for Disaster Philanthropy. The study’s findings underscore the perils for nonprofits and charities whose financial needs have escalated over the past year, well in excess of the donations that most have received from individuals and foundations. The researchers analyzed how roughly 300,000 nonprofits would fare under 20 scenarios of varying severity. The worst-case scenario led to the closings of 38% of the nonprofits. Even the scenarios seen as more realistic resulted in closures well into double digit percentages. “If you are a donor who cares about an organization that is rooted in place and relies on revenue from in-person services, now is the time probably to give more,” said Jacob Harold, Candid’s executive vice president.

Biden Sanctions Russia Over Navalny Poisoning (Foreign Policy) The United States imposed sanctions Tuesday on a number of Russian individuals and entities linked to the poisoning of Russian opposition figure Alexei Navalny. The move was made in concert with the European Union, which issued separate asset freezes and travel bans on four Russians. The Russian Foreign Ministry has brushed off the impact of the moves, while threatening a reciprocal response. “Irrespective of America’s ‘sanctions addiction,’ we will continue to consistently and decisively defend our national interests, rebuffing any aggression. We urge our colleagues not to play with fire,” Maria Zakharova, a Russian foreign ministry spokeswoman, said on Wednesday. According to White House officials, more U.S. sanctions targeting Russians involved in the SolarWinds hack, the alleged bounty program on U.S. soldiers in Afghanistan, and Russian interference in the 2020 election are expected soon.

Biden’s Afghan dilemma (The New Yorker) Afghanistan presents Joe Biden with one of the most immediate and vexing problems of his Presidency. If he completes the military withdrawal, he will end a seemingly interminable intervention and bring home thousands of troops. But, if he wants the war to be considered anything short of an abject failure, the Afghan state will have to be able to stand on its own.

Greece: Thousands spend night outdoors after powerful quake (AP) Fearful of returning to their homes, thousands of people in central Greece were spending the night outdoors late Wednesday after a powerful earthquake, felt across the region, damaged homes and public buildings. The shallow, magnitude-6.0 quake struck near the central city of Larissa. One man was hurt by falling debris but no serious injuries were reported. Officials reported structural damage, mainly to old houses and buildings that saw walls collapse or crack. One of them was a primary school, stone-built in 1938, in the quake-hit village of Damasi where 63 students were attending classes. “The teachers kept their cool and the pupils stuck to the emergency drill, and everyone got out okay,” headmaster Grigoris Letsios said while on a video call with Greek Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis. The army set up tents and meal counters at a nearby soccer field as local officials urged people to remain outside their homes until they could be inspected. A series of powerful aftershocks of up to 5.2 magnitude kept many residents on edge.

Indian Government Regulation Squeezes Christian Charities (CT) For Christians trying to care for the poor in India, there is always a need for more prayer, more hands, and more money. Much of that money comes from donors in other countries. Recently, though, Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s government has tightened regulations on foreign funding to nonprofits, including Christian groups that feed orphans, run hospitals, and educate children. Since Modi took office in 2014, the Indian government has revoked permission for more than 16,000 nongovernmental organizations to receive foreign funding, using the Foreign Contribution Regulation Act (FCRA). “It is deliberately an assault against the nonprofit sector,” said Vijayesh Lal, the general secretary of the Evangelical Fellowship of India, “and that includes the churches.” While the FCRA is not designed specifically to target Christian groups, experts say its cumbersome regulations have been used by the ruling parties in India to stifle political and religious dissidents since the law’s adoption in 1976.

Intense preparations before pontiff meets Iraqi ayatollah (AP) In Iraq’s holiest city, a pontiff will meet a revered ayatollah and make history with a message of coexistence in a place plagued by bitter divisions. One is the chief pastor of the world-wide Catholic Church, the other a pre-eminent figure in Shiite Islam whose opinion holds powerful sway on the Iraqi street and beyond. Their encounter will resonate across Iraq, even crossing borders into neighboring, mainly Shiite Iran. Pope Francis and Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani are to meet on Saturday for at most 40 minutes, part of the time alone except for interpreters, in the Shiite cleric’s modest home in the city of Najaf. Every detail was scrutinized ahead of time in painstaking, behind-the-scenes preparations that touched on everything from shoes to seating arrangements. For Iraq’s dwindling Christian minority, a show of solidarity from al-Sistani could help secure their place in Iraq after years of displacement—and, they hope, ease intimidation from Shiite militiamen against their community. Iraqi officials in government, too, see the meeting’s symbolic power—as does Tehran. The 90-year-old al-Sistani has been a consistent counterweight to Iran’s influence. With the meeting, Francis is implicitly recognizing him as the chief interlocutor of Shiite Islam over his rival, Iranian Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei.

Pentagon: US contractor dies in rocket attack at Iraq base (AP) A U.S. contractor died Wednesday when at least 10 rockets slammed into an air base housing U.S. and other coalition troops in western Iraq, the Pentagon said. Pentagon spokesperson John Kirby said the contractor “suffered a cardiac episode while sheltering” and died shortly afterward. He said there were no service members injured and all are accounted for. British and Danish troops also are among those stationed at the base. The rocket attack was the first since the U.S. struck Iran-aligned militia targets along the Iraq-Syria border last week, killing one militiaman and stoking fears of another cycle of tit-for-tat attacks as happened more than a year ago. Those attacks included the U.S. drone strike in January 2020 that killed Iranian Gen. Qassim Soleimani in Baghdad and set off months of increased troops levels in the region. Wednesday’s death of the contractor heightens worries that the U.S. could be drawn into another period of escalating attacks.

Reports: Myanmar security forces kill at least 33 protesters (AP) Myanmar security forces dramatically escalated their crackdown on protests against last month’s coup, killing at least 33 protesters Wednesday in several cities, according to accounts on social media and local news reports compiled by a data analyst. That is highest daily death toll since the Feb. 1 takeover, exceeding the 18 that the U.N. Human Rights Office said were killed on Sunday, and could galvanize the international community, which has responded fitfully thus far to the violence. Videos from Wednesday also showed security forces firing slingshots at demonstrators, chasing them down and even brutally beating an ambulance crew. Demonstrators have regularly flooded the streets of cities across the country since the military seized power and ousted the elected government of leader Aung San Suu Kyi. Their numbers have remained high even as security forces have repeatedly fired tear gas, rubber bullets and live rounds to disperse the crowds, and arrested protesters en masse.

China’s vaccine diplomacy campaign (AP) The plane laden with vaccines had just rolled to a stop at Santiago’s airport in late January, and Chile’s president, Sebastián Piñera, was beaming. “Today,” he said, “is a day of joy, emotion and hope.” The source of that hope: China—a country that Chile and dozens of other nations are depending on to help rescue them from the COVID-19 pandemic. China’s vaccine diplomacy campaign has been a surprising success: It has pledged roughly half a billion doses of its vaccines to more than 45 countries, according to a country-by-country tally by The Associated Press. With just four of China’s many vaccine makers claiming they are able to produce at least 2.6 billion doses this year, a large part of the world’s population will end up inoculated not with the fancy Western vaccines boasting headline-grabbing efficacy rates, but with China’s humble, traditionally made shots. Inoculations with Chinese vaccines already have begun in more than 25 countries, and the Chinese shots have been delivered to another 11, according to the AP tally.

Taiwanese urged to eat ‘freedom pineapples’ after China import ban (The Guardian) Taiwanese pineapples have become the latest victim of deteriorating cross-strait relations, after Chinese authorities suddenly banned imports of the fruit. The ban, which began on Monday and is indefinite, was announced by the Chinese customs office on Friday. The customs office said harmful pests had been detected in recent shipments. Taiwan’s government rejected the claim, accusing Beijing of making an “unacceptable” unilateral decision, and urging citizens and international allies to eat “freedom pineapples” in support of the domestic industry, echoing the campaign to support Australia’s wine producers after Beijing imposed tariffs last year. Beijing has a history of enacting trade sanctions during international disputes, most recently with Australian wine, coal and barley, action that can cause significant economic damage to industry and put pressure on rival governments. Relations with Taiwan are at the lowest in decades. Despite the Communist party never ruling Taiwan, Beijing considers it to be a province of China, and has vowed to unite it with the mainland, by force if necessary.

Lebanese anger at economy grows as political deadlock persists (Reuters) Protesters blocked some roadways in Lebanon for a second day on Wednesday after the currency’s fall to a new low further enraged a population long horrified by the country’s financial meltdown. In the past year, Lebanon has been through a popular uprising against its political leaders, the bankruptcy of the state and banking system, a COVID-19 pandemic and, in August, a huge blast that killed 200 people and destroyed parts of Beirut. The financial crisis has wiped out jobs, raised warnings of growing hunger and locked people out of their bank deposits. The collapse of the Lebanese pound, which fell to 10,000 to the dollar on Tuesday, slashed about 85% of its value in a country relying heavily on imports. It was the last straw for many who have seen prices of consumer goods such as diapers or cereals nearly triple since the crisis erupted. Demonstrators burnt tyres and rubbish containers across many parts of Lebanon to block roads on Tuesday night.

#headlines #news

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otto-bot · 4 years ago

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The reason why North and South Korea are there is because of the Korean War that was only fought because the Soviet Union and America were measuring their dicks (referring to your “huhhh” in response to the post about colonizers not being ashamed of their history)

Eeeh that’s debateable. The Kim family leads north korea because they lead a communist resistance movement centered in the north. The UN position was that both occupation zones should be allowed to vote on their new leaders, but the soviets refused, breaking off the negotiations and a chance at peaceful reunification (the americans interfered with their elections anyways so in the end the UN declaration was meaningless)

Two years later, North Korea invaded the South. Since the south was a member of the UN, the UN security council authorized a UN intervention to come to the South’s aid. That’s the most important part: it was a multinational UN force defending against the North. The reason the force was mainly of US composition was because the US had stationed troops in the South during the occupation. However many other UN nations also fought. Canada, Thailand, the Philippines, Greece and even Etheopia sent forces.

Long story short, it’s not so much a proxy war, as the inability to unite Korea through negotiations lead to a conflict in which the US made up the majority of the UN support for the south.

#history #the korean war is usually ignored for the more infamous vietnam war #so I don’t really blame anyone for not knowing the full story

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miairviin · 5 years ago

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Kunst

If I only had one word to describe Vienna it would be polished. As soon as we stepped off of the plane and sought out the train that would take us to the hostel this was evident. The train smelled like a new house and the chairs were cushioned. The metro station was spotless, except for a few pieces of graffiti that covered the wall. At night, Vienna was very quiet. Our very first night, by the time Madeline and I made it to the hostel it was 11 pm. In Greece and every other country I have visited so far, the streets would be alive with movement. The restaurants would be full of people still eating. In Vienna, however, this was not the case. All the restaurants were empty, the employees sweeping the front steps and stacking chairs on tables. Luckily, we were able to find a pizza place that was just about to close. We capitalized on this, and because they were closing, high tailed it back to the hostel where we feasted like Queens on the last slices of pizza in all of Vienna.

We had an 8 am wake up call, but not necessarily because of a tour or train to catch. Simply to guarantee we would make it to the free breakfast provided by the hostel. We ate as much as we could and put together a couple sandwiches together to go. We were going to milk this breakfast for every penny. Our first day in Vienna was truly one of wandering. It was so liberating to have absolutely nowhere to be and everywhere to go. Vienna continued its pattern from the previous night, absolutely everything in perfect order. I was amazed with the clean streets and the perfectly constructed buildings. We hit the Volksgarden which was a garden complete with statues, a pond where a duck was taking in the morning sun, and unfortunately lines of small trees with brown bags tied over them. The next place we found was the Hoffburg Palace complete with a historical figure who’s name I do not know riding his majestic steed.

Next, we went to the Museumquartier, jokingly following a little girl on a scooter. Our philosophy there being that you should always trust a local on a scooter. And good thing we did, because it brought us to Museum Leopold which we had seen a brochure for in our hostel. Both Madeline and I were familiar and curious about the work of Gustav Klimt, and some of his pieces would be there. We decided to head in. Art museums are always interesting to me. I love looking at the work and reading about the different colors used and the themes the artist is trying to address. But the Museum Leopold offered so much more. They presented an in-depth biography about the artists work at the beginning of their kunst, (art) and once you were in their exhibit, some of the pieces came with a short blurb about the social ramifications the piece might have stirred up, the artists inspiration, and the story the painting was telling. It felt so much different than other museums I had visited. It felt like I was staring back in time. It was easier to picture a distraught Richard Gerstl brushing madly against a canvas when you found out his muse was the wife of his best friend, and the two carried on an affair for some time. When you knew Gustav Klimt's last words were “send for Emilie” it made his work even more beautiful, more complicated. The museum also presented art like interior design, and discussed why one architect faced public outrage when he made cafes a more open concept, appealing to the lower and middle class. Or how posters revolutionized the streets, turning them into an art gallery for the poor man. Museum Leopold left me with so much to think about. Art is truly a revolution.

After the museum, we snacked on our lunch as we walked to the next stop, Belvedere Palace. The next stop was decorated with so many spots along the way. This included one of many parks we meandered through, Beethovenplatz, a butterfly house, and many beautiful buildings. That was the thing, it never felt like I was on the way to something. Everything was a view. Everything was kunst.

Vienna came alive during the day. The part of the city we were in definitely determined the age group that dominated the sidewalks. The older, more European looking Vienna with tall buildings decorated with statues and columns separated by open streets seemed to have an older population. Conversely, the younger people seemed to occupy the contemporary looking office spaces and more city-esque streets.

The Belvedere Palace was nothing short of extravagant. The gardens were kept symmetrical and spotless, the gravel walk looked freshly swept despite the many tourists walking along it. Uniformly groomed trees lined the gravel leading up to the palace. A few empty fountains stood in between us and the palace, their porcelain statues looking only a tad out of place without water showering down upon them. The palace was so wide, so magnificent. It was hard not to think of the grandeur of days past. When people would walk through the grounds just to take the air in. I wondered if they thought one day people would travel far and wide to marvel at their home.

We turned back and headed for the St. Stephen’s Cathedral. The wind and cold chased us into a small cafe so we could stop for a moment to warm up, and from there it was right back outside and towards the cathedral. Much like Florence and the Duomo, you turned down a normal street with a souvenir shop on one side and a bar on the other and there it stood. It was tall, it was ornate, it was holy. We walked around it, trying to take it all in. It was impossible. Because the city had truly grown up around it, there wasn’t much room to wander so our next stop was simply to head in. The inside was just as awe-inspiring. The architecture was exceptionally detailed, portraits of people like Mother Theresa on the walls. There was a quiet reverence amongst all of the tourists as we walked in the specifically designated areas. I’m sure the cathedral would look beautiful in the daytime with sunlight pouring in. But seeing it at dusk gave it a gothic charm I was grateful to witness.

We left the St. Stephens Cathedral and sought out a bathroom. An employee of a souvenir shop informed us the closest bathroom was just a minute away in the metro. When we made it down the escalator, my bladder definitely dancing the delicate line of being too full for comfort, we were faced with a coin machine. Paying for the bathroom was not something new. We had run into this problem in Italy a few times. In part protest of this capitalistic concept and in part because I’m cheap, Madeline and I had taken a stand and decided to refuse these set ups. We would hold it. But not only was this classist, we noticed it was .50 for a women and .20 for a man! It was sexism! We couldn’t believe it. Since we are both angsty feminists, this was a topic of discussion (mainly jokes) that carried on for a little while.

After the bathroom fiasco, we made our way through the maze of a mall that surrounded the cathedral. Stores like Louis Vuitton were the general theme, and we joked about trying to head in and getting stopped by the door man. “You girls work on commission right? Big mistake. Huge.” We would use these lines if we ever came back. We saw the parliament building where stoic statues sat pondering the great issues of our time as they looked out over Vienna. The air was perfumed with the scent of cigarettes and horse, as a few horse drawn carriages were carrying some tourists who probably shopped at Louis Vuitton.

We decided it was time for dinner and set out to find the cheapest schnitzel we could. Ultimately it was a quiet spot down an alley near our hostel. We ate our schnitzel the German way: with ketchup mixed with mayonnaise and beer. It was fantastic. Unfortunately, nothing has touched the jaegerschnitzel I had that first night in Berlin, but it was a formidable competitor.

However our night was not finished yet. We wanted to hit Sigmund Freud park, just to say we did. It was a short walk, marked by only a few signs. There was a small piece of art, benches, grass, and it seemed to be the place to be if you were an Austrian teen on a Friday night. One thing we picked up on is how proud Austria is of their alumni. Beethoven, Motzart, Klimt, and Freud all have squares, streets, parks, and cafes all named after them.

We picked up a few small dessert pastries and headed back for the hostel. I meant to write this post as well as pen a journal entry but the 13 miles we had ended up walking day snuck up on me, and exhaustion creeped in. Plus, we had an early wake up for the bus ride to Budapest, where I am writing this from. Vienna, as Billy Joel promises, will be waiting for me when we return on Monday.

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aokane-eldarya · 7 years ago

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Theory : The parallel between Earth and Eldarya

First of all, I wanted to thank you, @yashiro-hatsuki and @bitchimunique, for your interest in my theory <3

As I was asked, I am sharing the theory I wrote about the parallel between Earth and Eldarya. I had proposed this theory on the dedicated topic on the french forum, but only a player had loved, the few others thinking that the writers surely had not done something so worked, because for them, there was too many holes in the script, and that was enough to say that it was not so worked.

Meh. I really like my theory and I'll keep it until something proves me wrong. Being an fantasy author myself, I know that you can work a lot in your world but still have some problems in your plot, as you can't prepare anything and write a perfectly coherent text.

Anyway, here is the theory. It is quite long, I hope it will be understandable with my hesitant English. So, first, so that you can locate you, I have placed landmarks on a map of Europe, you will only have to report to the corresponding number.

1 - Glas Gow = Glasgow

In her mission report, Cameria explains that after recovering the corrupted crystals in the Gran Ysmisse mines and fought an over-contaminated Magi, she found herself on the trail of the kidnapper. She followed the trail to Glas Gow and lost track there. In our world, Glasgow is Scotland's largest and most populated city.

2 - The mines of Gran Ysmisse = The sunken city of Ys.

It is in the mines of Gran Ysmisse that Cameria recovers some of the corrupt crystals that she brought back from her mission.

How did I get to the legendary city of Ys? It's very simple, I relied on the transformation of Glasgow= > Glas Gow, sensing that the team had rearranged the spelling so that it sounds better.

Gran Ysmisse = Grand Ys missed.

Ys is a legendary city of Brittany, France. Like Atlantis, Sodom and Gomorrah and other places, she would have suffered divine wrath because of the sins of her people and especially those of the princess, Dahut.

There are many variations, but there are similarities and Dahut is the central character of this legend. By mixing a little bit of everything, we can say of her that she is the daughter that the legendary king of Cornwall Gradlon had with a queen of the North, Malgven. The latter being designated as a valkyrie, she transmits to her daughter its fairy nature. Dahut is considered a fairy with the ability to change into a mermaid.

Some versions make Dahut the guardian of the floodgates that prevent water from invading the city. She and her mother are women of the Other World. It is the equivalent of Hell and Paradise among the Celts. The gates of the Other World were guarded either by Fairies or by Banshees. Dahut was one of those guardians.

In other words, she occupied more or less the same role as Enthraa.

The biggest sin that Dahut has been accused of provoking divine wrath is having sex with the devil.

When we look at the location of Gran Ysmisse and Glas Gow based on the position of their equivalents on Earth, we see that this route was quite accessible to Cameria

3 - Balenvia = Hamelin/Hameln

This is the comparison made by a French youtuber (la dreameuse) in one of her videos and I agree with her

As a reminder, Hamelin/Hameln, a german village, is known for his legend of the flute player. This legend is repeated in Eldarya: the flute player is the ancestor of Huang Hua. He would have used the powers of his flute to free the faerys, then he would have opened the mountain in two, allowing the faerys and some children of the village to end up on Eldarya.

This is how we find Balenvia, where there is a mountain cut in two. Huang Hua explains that his ancestor certainly didn’t open a mountain in two and that it is an exaggeration of the storytellers.

What happened in my opinion is that, arrived in front of the mountain, the fenghuang used the flute to open a portal on Eldarya, displaying the vision of the cut mountain of Balenvia. Once the portal closed, the mountain on Earth reappeared whole. Incredulous eyes may have thought that he had actually opened the mountain in two, when in reality they had had a glimpse of Eldarya.

4 - The Jade Coast (Kappa region) = Messenia - Laconia

To try to find the location of the area where the Kappas live, I used exploration map. At the bottom right is the Amphea river; we know it thanks to the exploration points. So I looked for the equivalent of Amphea on Earth and discovered that it was the name of an ancient city of Messenia that was on the border between Messenia and Laconia, two departments of the Peloponnese, a region of Greece. This is the first city captured by the Spartans during the first year of the first messenian war

(map in French)

Another detail that makes me think that I aim well with Greece is the Phibea sea. Phibea is the name of the first woman to have plunged into these waters (accordind to the exploration map), but it is also a name that is very similar to Phoebe, which is the name of several characters from Greek mythology. (In French, Phoebe = Phébe)

5 - Ezarel’s homeland, Lund'Mulhingar = Nordic countries

It’s difficult to clearly place a country / region. But by simply returning the name to a search engine, I quickly found a match. Two to be precise, namely two cities. The first, Lund, is a town in southern Sweden, not far from Denmark. The second, Mullingar, is a city in Ireland.

In the game, when we show the nomads the brooch, one of them says they don’t usually go to the Northern Kingdoms, which brings a new correspondence with the Nordic countries. Finally, the elves come from the myths and legends of these countries. Note: on my map, Glas Gow is included in Lund'Mulhingar. It should be treated cautiously, I chose the ease by drawing the route Lund-Mullingar. Maybe the border is not quite there, maybe it's a circle over Glas Glow. We know that Cameria has made it easy, but we don’tt know the political situation of Ezarel’country.

6 - Gorona Gorges = Canary Islands.

This is an NPC/PNJ that mentions these gorge in episode 21. He tells Miiko that it is there he found traces of mermaid. Leiftan explains to the gardienne that this is a volcanic region where lava flows.

While searching Gorona, I found a single interesting but surprising occurrence: Gorona del Viento, the name of a hydroelectric power station located on El Hierro island, the smallest of the Canary Islands. It was not enough as a clue for me, but it gave me at least a trail, the Spanish origin. But impossible to find a meaning in Gorona.

So I became interested again in the station, because the name had to come from somewhere. I finally found out what I needed: an article in Spanish dedicated to the name of the company.

That's how I learned that gorona was a common word in guanche and meant stone circle. The Guanche people were the indigenous people of the Canary Islands. This time, I had something solid. The guanches were of Berber origin. There are few written sources, so there were plenty of assumptions, including that they descended from the Atlanteans.

Anyway, that's how I breng the Gorona Gorges and the Canary Islands.

7 - The Dantea region = Greece-Bulgaria

One of the most difficult to find, especially since we are talking about a region. My first reflex was to look for Dantea, without success. I realized I had to look for the spelling of the word and thought of a French contraction. Dantea => d’Anthea (”of Anthea” in english).

And there, bingo ! Anthea exists. It is the name of several mythological female characters. This is also one of the epithets of the goddess Hera. Although it gave me an indication of the origin, I needed something else. I did not find a place called this, but I learned that Anthea was the Romanized form of Antheia.

And cities / villages bearing this name, I found several, mainly names of ancient cities. I had to fumble a bit for geographical clues related to these ancient places. The good thing is that we stay in the same geographical area, as you can see on this map.

And yes, if my hypothesis is correct, Danthea region is close to the Kappa’s.

8 - The Umbra valley = la Valle Umbra

Yes, it's not more complicated than that xD In the game, the Umbra Valley is the place where the nomads come from. In our world, la Valle Umbra is a vast plain with alluvial origin located in the center of Italy

? # 1 - The Eel region?

We don’t have much clues about Eel's location. I placed it here for a question of logic taking into account the positioning of Balenvia, which is not that far from the HQ according to the game

? # 2 - The Fenghuangs Temple?

Several players were surprised that we take the boat to go to the Kappas and that we go through the mainland to go to the Fenghuangs. This is because unconsciously, the fact that both are in the Jade Kingdom suggests that they are necessarily close geographically. Except this is not indicated at any time in the game. Lille and Marseille are two cities in France, yet they are opposite each other.

Differences and similarities of topography

In seeking these correspondences, I realized something for the places whose topography we knew. Some have similarities, reminders with their earth equivalent while others are the opposite, as in negative

Similar places:

- The mines of Gran Ysmisse and the sunken city of Ys: for these two places, we find the idea of depth

- The Jade coast and Messenia / Laconia: the contours of the two areas are very similar, there is even a mountain.

- Balenvia and Hameln/Hamelin: A small village, a path that leads to a mountain. Both villages have the same configuration

Places with opposite topographies:

- Gorona Gorges and the Canary Islands: For both we are on a volcanic land. But while Gorona Gorges are, well, gorges with visible lava that flows to the bottom, the Canary Islands have reliefs that can peak to more than 3000m above sea level.

Finally, there is another detail that I have noticed about the places that have similarities : there is always a portal, that it takes place in our legends or in the lore of Eldarya:

- The City of Ys: According to legend, Princess Dahut was the guardian of a door leading to the Other World

- On the exploration map of the Jade coast, there is a Torii, which was an ancient portal

- The ancestor of Huang Hua opened a portal in the village of Hamelin/Hameln

Ok, It finished. I am not saying that all my correspondences are accurate, but I think there is a good basis.

Thank you to all who have had the courage to read me to the end! <3 <3 <3

#eldarya rambles #eldarya theory #eldarya ask

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thephilosopheroftheboudoir · 6 years ago

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Grim History

Propaganda Due: Italy’s Rogue Masonic Lodge

In 1976, the Masonic Grand Orient of Italy withdrew its charter for the Propaganda Due lodge, otherwise known as the P2 Lodge. At that time, they were surrounded by controversy. Overseen by the notorious Licio Gelli, the organization had been involved in political scandals, violent crime, money laundering schemes and conspiracy. The P2 Lodge were deeply committed to far-right politics and a number of prominent Italian men were connected to it. Whether their ideas and practices had much impact on the real world, or even a realistic chance of having any influence at all, is a matter up for debate.

The lodge originally opened its doors in 1877. Initially simply called the Propaganda Lodge, its highly exclusive membership was limited to the elitist of the elite in Italian upper-class society. Otherwise, it was unremarkable; an ordinary Masonic lodge that mainly functioned as a social club for the rich and well-connected. The Propaganda Lodge went into decline; the members of the fraternal order lost interest and eventually it was little more than a list of names. When Benito Mussolini and the fascists took over in the 1930s, Propaganda, as well as all Masonic lodges, were banned by law. After the Axis defeat in World War II, ex-fascist Licio Gelli revived the defunct lodge with a plan to use it for his own nefarious purposes.

Born in Tuscany, Licio Gelli started his political career as a liaison officer for the Italian fascists and Germany’s Nazi party. With fascism apparently dead, the American government encouraged the Italians to ratify a new law allowing freemasonry to flourish in Italy once again, mainly as a bulwark against communism and a haven for free-thinkers and pro-democracy theorists. The Grand Lodge of Italy appointed Gelli to re-open the Propaganda Lodge, thereby renaming it Propaganda Due. The center-left Christian Democrat party was in power so Gelli used his contacts in right-wing extremist circles to build up a network of quasi-fascist businessmen and other people of influence; some of them were never formally initiated into Masonic ceremonial but were considered members nonetheless. Included in this consortium were high ranking members of the establishment including politicians, judges, journalists, bankers, police officials, secret service agents, mafiosi and Vatican representatives. The son of former king Victor Emmanuel belonged as did then media magnate and future prime minister Silvio Berlusconi. They soon would embark on a plot to permanently rid Italy of all leftist politics.

By the end of the 1960s, the left-leaning government started growing suspicious of the Masons. They asked for a membership list. When Gelli submitted his list of P2 members, it mentioned only the “sleepers”, the people associated with P2 who had never actually been initiated into the rites of the brotherhood. This made the Grand Orient of Italy suspicious and, deciding that P2 was too hot to handle, they revoked their charter in 1976 and officially banned them from practicing freemasonry. Gelli himself claimed their charter had only been suspended and the lodge continued to operate under the radar without official standing.

Five years of secret activity came to an end in 1981 with the death of Roberto Calvi, the president of Banco Ambrosiano. Calvi’s corpse was found in London. At first, the police deemed it a suicide but subsequent investigation revealed that he was murdered. The Banco Ambrosiano had collapsed and investigations into Calvi’s death revealed a trail that led through Mafia hitmen to the Vatican and finally to Propaganda Due itself. The bank apparently had been laundering money for the Vatican who were funneling funds supplied by the American Central Intelligence Agency to the P2 Lodge in an effort to combat the Communist Party of Italy who were growing in popularity and becoming the biggest communist party in Europe.

The scandal of the Banco Ambrosiano led to the discovery of the P2 Lodge who had been operating clandestinely since being banned half a decade earlier. When police raided Gelli’s home, they found a list of P2 Lodge members. Then in 1982, a Propaganda Due manifesto was discovered in the false bottom of a suitcase belonging to Gelli’s daughter. In an attempt to flee the country, officials found the document when she tried to clear the airport’s passport control in Rome. The papers laid out detailed plans for infiltrating, at the highest levels no less, all the major institutions of Italy for the sake of establishing a dictatorial regime to permanently govern the Italian nation. It all seemed clear, especially since Licio Gelli had once, in a newspaper interview, claimed that he aspired to be the puppet master of Italian politics.

A further revelation was that the P2 Lodge was somehow associated with terrorist activities. On the morning of August 2, 1980, a bomb exploded in the central train station of Bologna, Italy. 80 people were killed and more than 200 were injured. The police prosecuted a neo-fascist group called the Armed Revolutionary Nuclei as the perpetrators of the attack. The group proclaimed their innocence and the trial was not conducted well; that is possibly because it was later learned that a couple high-ranking police officials were P2 Lodge members who had used their influence to hamper the investigation. Whether Propganda Due orchestrated the attack or not has never been proven.

The long term effects of the P2 Lodge were mostly legal and not in the organization’s favor. The Italian government passed legislation banning secret societies. Although fraternal orders are still allowed to remain open, government officials are forbidden to join them. Propaganda Due may no longer exist but when Silvio Berlusconi became the prime minister of Italy, Licio Gelli declared that it was a sign that the P2 Lodge was being reborn. Gelli died in 2015. Now with the current swell of neo-fascist and right-wing extremist groups emerging again in Europe, some with Masonic-associated names like the Golden Dawn in Greece and the anti-Muslim Knights Templar orders in other countries, we should be aware that, regrettably, the spirit of the P2 Lodge lives on.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propaganda_Due

https://grimhistory.blogspot.com/

#grim history #propaganda due #p2 lodge #italian history #secret societies #freemasons

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halocantik · 4 years ago

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After: American Journal of the College of Nutrition, 2008, 27: 677-689

Honey for Nutrition and Health: a Review

Stefan Bogdanov, PhD, Tomislav Jurendic, Robert Sieber, PhD, Peter Gallmann, PhD1

Swiss Bee Research Centre, Agroscope Liebefeld-Posieux Research Station ALP, Berne, Switzerland

Key words: honey, nutrition, composition, glycemic index

Due to the variation of botanical origin honey differs in appearance, sensory perception and composition. The main nutritional and health relevant components are carbohydrates, mainly fructose and glucose but also about 25 different oligosaccharides. Although honey is a high carbohydrate food, its glycemic index varies within a wide range from 32 to 85, depending on the botanical source. It contains small amounts of proteins, enzymes, amino acids, minerals, trace elements, vitamins, aroma compounds and polyphenols. The review covers the composition, the nutritional contribution of its components, its physiological and nutritional effects. It shows that honey has a variety of positive nutritional and health effects, if consumed at higher doses of 50 to 80 g per intake.

1 Adress reprint requests to: Peter Gallmann, PhD, Swiss Bee Research Centre, Agroscope Liebefeld-Posieux Research Station ALP, CH-3003 Bern, Switzerland

Abbreviations: CHO = carbohydrate, GI = glycemic index, GL = glycemic load, ORAC = oxygen radical absorbance capacity; PGE = prostaglandin E; PGF = prostaglandin F, RDI

= recommended daily intake

Key teaching points:

· About 95% of the honey dry matter is composed of carbohydrates, mainly fructose and glucose. 5-10 % of the total carbohydrates are oligosaccharides, in total about 25 different di- and trisaccharides.

· The Glycemic Index of honey varies from 32 to 85, depending on the botanical source which is lower than sucrose (60 to 110). Fructose-rich honeys such as acacia honey have a low GI.

· Besides, honey contains small amounts of proteins, enzymes, amino acids, minerals, trace elements, vitamins, aroma compounds and polyphenols.

· Honey has been shown to possess antimicrobial, antiviral, antiparasitory, anti- inflammatory, antioxidant, antimutagenic and antitumor effects.

· Due to its high carbohydrate content and functional properties honey is an excellent source of energy for athletes.

· Most of the health promoting properties of honey are only achieved by application of rather high doses of honey such as 50 to 80 g per intake.

INTRODUCTION

As the only available natural sweetener honey was an important food for Homo sapiens from his very beginnings. Indeed, the relation between bees and man started as early as Stone Age [1]. In order to reach the sweet honey, man was ready to risk his life (Figure 1). The first written reference to honey, a Sumerian tablet writing, dating back to 2100-2000 BC, mentions honey’s use as a drug and an ointment [2]. In most ancient cultures honey has been used for both nutritional and medical purposes [2-5]. According to the bible, King Solomon has said: “Eat honey my son, because it is good” (Old Testament, proverb 24:13). The belief that honey is a nutrient, a drug and an ointment has been carried into our days. For a long time in human history it was an important carbohydrate source and the only largely available sweetener until industrial sugar production began to replace it after 1800 [2]. In the long human tradition honey has been used not only as a nutrient but also as a medicine [3]. An alternative medicine branch, called apitherapy, has developed in recent years, offering treatments based on honey and the other bee products against many diseases. The knowledge on this subject is compiled in various books [e.g.

6,7] or on relevant web pages such as www.apitherapy.com, www.apitherapy.org. The major use of honey in healing today is its application in the treatment of wounds, burns and infections which is not a subject of this review since it is reviewed elsewhere [8].

At present the annual world honey production is about 1.2 million tons, which is less than 1% of the total sugar production. The consumption of honey differs strongly from country to country. The major honey exporting countries China and Argentina have small annual consumption rates of 0.1 to 0.2 kg per capita. Honey consumption is higher in developed countries, where the home production does not always cover the market demand. In the European Union, which is both a major honey importer and producer, the annual consumption per capita varies from medium (0.3-0.4 kg) in Italy, France, Great Britain, Denmark and Portugal to high (1-1.8 kg) in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Portugal, Hungary and Greece, while in countries such as USA, Canada and Australia the average per capita consumption is 0.6 to 0.8 kg/year [see http://www.apiservices.com/].

Different surveys on nutritional and health aspects of honey have been compiled [8- 13]. However, as they are not complete and comprehensive, we undertook the task to review all the available relevant sources on this topic.

COMPOSITION

Table 1 The overall composition of honey is shown in Table 1. The carbohydrates are the main constituents, comprising about 95% of the honey dry weight. Beyond carbohydrates, honey contains numerous compounds such as organic acids, proteins, amino acids, minerals, polyphenols, vitamins and aroma compounds.

Summarising the data shown in Table 1 it can be concluded that the contribution of honey to the recommended daily intake is small. However, its importance with respect to nutrition lies in the manifold physiological effects [16]. It should be noted that the composition of honey depends greatly on the botanical origin [17], a fact that has been seldom considered in the nutritional and physiological studies.

Table 2

Carbohydrates

The main sugars are the monosaccharides fructose and glucose. Additionally, about 25 different oligosacharides have been detected [18,19]. The principal oligosaccharides in blossom honey are the disaccharides sucrose, maltose, trehalose and turanose, as well as some nutritionally relevant ones such as panose, 1-kestose, 6-kestose and palatinose. Compared to blossom honey honeydew honey contains higher amounts of the oligosaccharides melezitose and raffinose. In the process of digestion after honey intake the principal carbohydrates fructose and glucose are quickly transported into the blood and can be utilized for energy requirements by the human body. A daily dose of 20 g honey will cover about 3% of the required daily energy (Table 2).

Proteins, enzymes and amino acids

Honey contains roughly 0.5% proteins, mainly enzymes and free amino acids. The contribution of that fraction to human protein intake is marginal (Table 2).

The three main honey enzymes are diastase (amylase), decomposing starch or glycogen into smaller sugar units, invertase (sucrase, α-glucosidase), decomposing

sucrose into fructose and glucose, as well as glucose oxidase, producing hydrogen peroxide and gluconic acid from glucose.

Table 3

Vitamins, minerals and trace compounds

The amount of vitamins and minerals is small and the contribution of honey to the recommended daily intake (RDI) of the different trace substances is marginal (Table 2). It is known that different unifloral honeys contain varying amounts of minerals and trace elements [26]. From the nutritional point of view chromium, manganese and selenium are important, especially for 1 to 15 years old children. The elements sulphur, boron, cobalt, fluoride, iodide, molybdenum and silicon can be important in human nutrition too, although there are no RDI values proposed for these elements (Table 3).

Honey contains 0.3-25 mg/kg choline and 0.06 to 5 mg/kg acetylcholine [12]. Choline is essential for cardiovascular and brain function as well as for cellular membrane composition and repair, while acetylcholine acts as a neurotransmitter.

Aroma compounds, taste-building compounds and polyphenols

There is a wide variety of honeys with different tastes and colours, depending on their botanical origin [29]. The sugars are the main taste-building compounds.

Generally, honey with a high fructose content (e.g. acacia) are sweeter compared to those with high glucose concentration (e.g. rape). The honey aroma depends also on the quantity and type of acids and amino acids present. In the past decades extensive research on aroma compounds has been carried out and more than 500 different volatile compounds were identified in different types of honey. Indeed, most aroma building compounds vary in the different types of honey depending on its botanical origin [30]. Honey flavour is an important quality for its application in food industry and also a selection criterion for the consumer’s choice.

Polyphenols are another important group of compounds with respect to the appearance and the functional properties of honey. 56 to 500 mg/kg total polyphenols were found in different honey types [31,32]. Polyphenols in honey are mainly flavonoids (e.g. quercetin, luteolin, kaempferol, apigenin, chrysin, galangin), phenolic acids and phenolic acid derivatives [33]. These are compounds known to have antioxidant properties. The main polyphenols are the flavonoids, their content can vary between 60 and 460 μg/100 g of honey and was higher in samples produced during a dry season with high temperatures [34].

Contaminants and toxic compounds

The same as any other natural food, honey can be contaminated by the environment, e.g. by heavy metals, pesticides, antibiotics etc. [35]. Generally, the contamination levels found in Europe do not present a health hazard. The main problem in recent years was the contamination by antibiotics, used against the bee brood diseases, but at present this problem seems to be under control. In the European Union antibiotics are not allowed for that purpose, and thus honey containing antibiotics is also not permitted to be traded on the market.

A few plants used by bees are known to produce nectar containing toxic substances. Diterpenoids and pyrrazolidine alkaloids are two main toxin groups relevant in nectar. Some plants of the Ericaceae family belonging to the sub-family Rhododendron, e.g. Rhododendron ponticum contain toxic polyhydroxylated cyclic hydrocarbons or diterpenoids [36]. The substances of the other toxin group, the pyrrazolidine alkaloids, found in different honey types and the potential intoxication by these substances is reviewed [37]. Cases of honey poisoning have been reported rarely in the literature and have concerned individuals from the following regions: Caucasus, Turkey, New Zealand, Australia, Japan, Nepal, South Africa, and also some countries in North and South America. Observed symptoms of such honey poisoning are vomiting, headache, stomach ache, unconsciousness, delirium, nausea and sight weakness. In general the poisonous plants are known to the local beekeepers and honey, which can possibly contain poisonous substances, is not marketed. To minimise risks of honey born poisoning in countries where plants with poisonous nectar are growing tourists are advised to buy honey in shops and not on the road and from individual beekeepers.

Table 4

Glycemic index and fructose

The impact of carbohydrates on human health is discussed controversially, especially the understanding of how the carbohydrates of a given food affect the blood glucose level. Today, the dietary significance of carbohydrates is often indicated in terms of the glycemic index (GI). Carbohydrates with a low GI induce a small increase of glucose in blood, while those with a high GI induce a high blood glucose level. The only comprehensive data on honey GI are the one presented in Table 4, based mainly on data of different Australian honeys [38,39]. There is a

significant negative correlation between fructose content and GI, probably due to the different fructose/glucose ratios of the honey types tested. It is known that unifloral honeys have varying fructose content and fructose/glucose ratios [17]. Some honeys, e.g. acacia and yellow box, with relatively high concentration of fructose, have a lower GI than other honey types (Table 4). There was no significant correlation between GI and the other honey sugars. The GI values of 4 honeys found in one study varied between 69 and 74 [40], while in another one the value of a honey unidentified botanical origin was found to be 35 [41]. As the GI concept claims to predict the role of carbohydrates in the development of obesity [42], low GI honeys might be a valuable alternative to high GI sweeteners. In order to take into consideration the quantity of ingested food, a new term, the glycemic load, was introduced. It is calculated as follows: the GI value is multiplied by the carbohydrate content in a given portion and divided by 100. Values lower than 10 are considered low, between 10 and 20 are intermediate and above 20 belong to the category high. For an assumed honey portion of 25 g the glycemic load of most honey types is low and some types are in the intermediate range (Table 4).

The GI concept was developed to provide a numeric classification of carbohydrate foods, assuming that such data are useful in situations where the glucose tolerance is impaired. Therefore, food with a low GI should provide benefits with respect to diabetes and to the reduction of coronary heart disease [43]. The consumption of honey types with a low GI, e.g. acacia honey might have beneficial physiological effects and could be used by diabetes patients. An intake of 50 g honey of unspecified type by healthy people and diabetes patients led to smaller increases of blood insulin and glucose than the consumption of the same amounts of glucose or of a sugar mixture resembling to honey [44,45]. It was shown that consumption of honey has a favourable effect on diabetes patients, causing a significant decrease of plasma glucose [46-48]. Honey was well tolerated by patients with diabetes of unspecified type [49] and by diabetes type-2 patients [50-52]. According to recent studies, long term consumption of food with a high GI is a significant risk factor for type-2 diabetes patients [53]. However, the GI concept for the general population is still an object of discussions [54].

Fructose is the main sugar in most honey types (Table 1). A surplus consumption of fructose in today’s American diet, mainly in the form of high-fructose corn syrup, is suspected to be one of the main causes for overweight problems [55]. By reviewing

clinical studies these authors found that fructose ingestion causes a rise of de-novo lipogenesis, which has an unfavourable effect on energy regulation and on body weight. In rat feeding experiments the hypertriglyceridemic effect observed after intake of fructose does not take place after feeding of honey [56]. Compared to rats fed with fructose, honey-fed rats had higher plasma a-tocopherol levels, higher a- tocopherol/triacylglycerol ratios, lower plasma NOx concentrations and a lower susceptibility of the heart to lipid peroxidation. These data suggest a potential nutritional benefit of substituting fructose by honey in the ingested diets.

Ingestion of both honey (2 g/kg body weight) and fructose prevented the ethanol- induced transformation of erythrocytes in mice. In humans faster recovery from ethanol intoxication after honey administration has been reported while a higher ethanol elimination rate has also been confirmed [58,59].

Table 5

Table 6

DIFFERENT PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Antimicrobial, antiviral and antiparasitic activity

Honey inhibits the growth of micro-organisms and fungi. The antibacterial effect of honey, mostly against gram-positive bacteria, is well documented [60-63]. Both bacteriostatic and bactericidal effects have been reported for many strains, many of them pathogenic (Table 5). Further, it was reported that honey has also been shown to inhibit Rubella virus in vitro [64], three species of the Leishmania parasite [65] and Echinococcus [66].

The antimicrobial effect of honey is due to different substances and depends on the botanical origin of honey [60-63]. The low water activity of honey inhibits bacterial growth. Honey glucose oxidase produces the antibacterial agent hydrogen peroxide [67], but the peroxide production capacity depends also on honey catalase activity [68]. There are also other non-peroxide antibacterial substances with different chemical origin, e.g. aromatic acids [69], unknown compounds with different chemical properties [63] and phenolics and flavonoids [70,71]. The low honey pH can also be responsible for the antibacterial activity [72].

Contrary to the non-peroxide activity, the peroxide one can be destroyed by heat, light and storage [63] (Table 6). These different factors had a bigger effect on the antibacterial activity of blossom honey than on honeydew honey. Thus, for optimum antibacterial activity, honey should be stored in a cool, dark place and be consumed when fresh.

Table 7

Antioxidant effects

The term “oxidative stress” describes the lack of equilibrium between the production of free radicals and the antioxidant protective activity in a given organism. Protection against oxidation is thought to prevent some chronic diseases [73]. The oxidative modification of the lipoproteins is considered to be an important factor for the pathogenesis of arteriosclerosis [74]. Honey has been found to contain significant antioxidant activity including glucose oxidase, catalase, ascorbic acid, flavonoids, phenolic acids, carotenoid derivatives, organic acids, Maillard reaction products, amino acids and proteins [31,75-84]. The antioxidative activity of honey polyphenols can be measured in vitro by comparing the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) with the total phenolics concentration (Table 7). There is a significant correlation between the antioxidant activity, the phenolic content of honey and the inhibition of the in vitro lipoprotein oxidation of human serum [85]. Furthermore, in a lipid peroxidation model system buckwheat honey showed a similar antioxidant activity as 1 mM ��-tocopherol [83]. The influence of honey ingestion on the antioxidative capacity of plasma was tested in two studies [86,87]. In the first one, the trial persons were given maize syrup or buckwheat honeys with a different antioxidant capacity in a dose of 1.5 g/kg body weight. In comparison to the sugar control, honey caused an increase of both the antioxidant and the reducing serum capacity. In the second study humans received a diet supplemented with a daily honey serving of 1.2 g/kg body weight. Honey increased the body antioxidant agents: blood vitamin C concentration by 47%, β-carotene by 3%, uric acid by 12%, and glutathione reductase by 7% [87]. It should be borne in mind that the antioxidant activity depends on the botanical origin of honey and varies to a great extent in honeys from different botanical sources [31,77,78,88-90].

The impact of heat and storage time on the antioxidant capacity of clover and buckwheat honey was analysed recently [91]. While processing of clover honey did not significantly influence its antioxidant capacity, storage during 6 months reduced it by about 30%. After a given storage period the antioxidant capacity of processed and raw honeys was similar. In another study both antioxidant activity and brown pigment formation increased upon heat treatment and storage [92].

Antimutagenic and antitumor activity

Mutagenic substances act directly or indirectly by promoting mutations of the genetic structure. During the roasting and frying of food heterocyclic amines are formed, e.g. Trp-p-1 (3-Amino-1,4-dimethyl-5H-pyridol [4,3-b] indole). The antimutagenic activity of honeys from seven different floral sources (acacia, buckwheat, fireweed, soybean, tupelo and Christmas berry) against Trp-p-1 was tested by the Ames assay and compared to a sugar analogue as well as to individually tested simple sugars [93]. All honeys exhibited a significant inhibition of Trp-p-1 mutagenicity. Glucose and fructose were found to have a similar antimutagenic activity as honey. Nigerose, another sugar, present in honey [18,19] has an immunoprotective activity [94]. The anti-metastatic effect of honey and its possible mode of anti-tumor action was studied by the application of honey in spontaneous mammary carcinoma in methylcholanthrene-induced fibrosarcoma of CBA mice and in anaplastic colon adenocarcinoma of Y59 rats [95]. A statistically significant anti-metastatic effect was achieved by oral application of honey. These findings indicate that honey activates the immune system and honey ingestion may be advantageous with respect to cancer and metastasis prevention. In addition, it is postulated that honey given orally before tumour cell inoculation may have a decreased effect on tumour spreading. In another study of the same group the effect of honey on tumour growth, metastasising activity and induction of apoptosis and necrosis in murine tumour models (mammary and colon carcinoma) was investigated [96]. A pronounced antimetastatic effect was observed when honey was applied before tumour-cell inoculation (per oral 2 g kg-1 for mice or 1 g kg-1 for rats, once a day for 10 consecutive days).

In another study the anti-tumour effect of honey against bladder cancer was examined in vitro and in vivo in mice [97]. According to these results honey is an effective agent for inhibiting the growth of different bladder cancer cell lines (T24, RT4, 253J and MBT-2) in vitro. It is also effective when administered intralesionally or orally in the MBT-2 bladder cancer implantation mice models.

Anti-inflammatory effects

Anti-inflammatory effects of honey in humans were studied by Al Waili and Boni [98] after ingestion of 70 g honey. The mean plasma concentration of thromboxane B(2) was reduced by 7%, 34%, and 35%, that of PGE(2) by 14%, 10%, and 19% at 1, 2,

and 3 hours, respectively, after honey ingestion. The level of PGF(2a) was decreased by 31% at 2 hours and by 14% at 3 hours after honey ingestion. At day 15, plasma concentrations of thromboxane B(2), PGE(2) and PGF(2a) decreased by 48%, 63% and 50%, respectively. The ingestion of honey decreased inflammation in an experimental model of inflammatory bowel disease in rats [99]. Honey administration is as effective as prednisolone treatment in an inflammatory model of colitis. The postulated mechanism of action is by preventing the formation of free radicals released from the inflamed tissues. The reduction of inflammation could be due to the antibacterial effect of honey or to a direct antiinflammatory effect. The latter hypothesis was supported in animal studies, where antiinflammatory effects of honey were observed in wounds with no bacterial infection [100].

Various physiological effects

The effect of honey on the antibody production against thymus-dependent antigen in sheep red blood cells and thymus-independent antigen (Escherichia coli) in mice was studied [101]. Oral honey intake stimulates antibody production during primary and secondary immune responses against thymus-dependent and thymus- independent antigens.

In animal experiments honey showed an immunosuppressive activity [102]. This might explain why it has been hypothesised, that ingestion of honey can relieve pollen hypersensitivity.

In a study humans received a diet supplemented with a daily honey consumption of

1.2 g/kg body weight [87]. The effects observed in blood serum were an increase of monocytes (50 %), iron (20%), copper (33%), a slight increase of lymphocyte and eosinophil percentages, zinc, magnesium, hemoglobin and packed cell volume and a reduction of: ferritin (11%), immunoglobulin E (34%), aspartate transaminase (22%), alanine transaminase (18%), lactic acid dehydrogenase (41%), creatine kinase (33%) and fasting sugar (5%).

NUTRITION AND HEALTH EFFECTS

Oral health

There is much debate whether honey is harmful to teeth. Some reports show a cariogenic effect of honey [103-106] or a much less cariogenic effect than sucrose

[107]. Due to its antibacterial activity honey ingestion inhibits the growth of bacteria, causing caries [108,109] and might induce a carioprotective effect [110,111]. It was shown that Manuka honey, a very potent antimicrobial honey, has a positive effect against dental plaque development and gingivitis [112] and can be used instead of refined sugar in the manufacture of candy [109].

According to electron microscope studies the ingestion of honey causes no erosion of tooth enamel as observed after drinking fruit juice [113]. Ten minutes after consumption of fruit juice tooth erosion was observed, while 30 minutes after honey ingestion the erosion was only very weak. This effect can be explained only partially by the calcium, phosphorous and fluoride levels of honey and other colloidal honey components might also play a role.

Summarising the different findings, it can be concluded that honey is probably not as cariogenic as other sugars and in some cases it can be carioprotective. But to be on the safe side, it is advised to clean the teeth after consumption of honey.

Gastroenterology

According to the Muslim holy book “The Holy Hadith”, dating back to the 8th century AD prophet Mohamed recommended honey against diarrhoea [114]. Also, the Roman physician Celsus (ca. 25 AD) used honey as a cure for diarrhoea [115]. The application of honey for prevention and treatments of gastro-intestinal disorders such as peptic ulcers, gastritis, gastroenteritis has been reported in various books and publications from Eastern Europe [6,7,116-120] and from Arab countries [121].

Honey is a potent inhibitor of the causing agent of peptic ulcers and gastritis, Helicobacter pylori [122-124]. In rats honey acted against gastric ulcers experimentally induced by indomethacin and alcohol [125-128]. Honey is not involved in prostaglandin production, but it has a stimulatory effect on the sensory nerves in the stomach that respond to capsaicin [125,129]. A second mechanism of action has been proposed, postulating that this effect is due to the antioxidant properties of honey. Honey intake in rats prevented indomethacin-induced gastric lesions in rats by reducing the ulcer index, microvascular permeability, and myeloperoxidase activity of the stomach [130]. In addition, honey was found to maintain the level of non-protein sulfhydryl compounds (e.g. glutathione) in gastric tissue subjected to factors inducing ulceration [125,129,131,132]. Ingestion of dandelion honey reduced gastric juice acidity by 56% [133]. The gastric emptying of

saccharides after ingestion of honey was slower than that after ingestion of a mixture of glucose and fructose [134].

Other important effects of honey on human digestion have been linked to oligosaccharides. These honey constituents have prebiotic effects, similar to that of fructo-oligosaccharides [135,136]. The oligosaccharide panose was the most active oligosaccharide. The oligosaccharides cause an increase of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli and exert the prebiotic effect in a synergistic mode of action [137].

According to an invitro study on five bifidobacteria strains honey has a growth promoting effect similar to that of fructose and glucose oligosaccharides [138]. Unifloral honeys of sour-wood, alfalfa and sage origin stimulated the growth of five human intestinal bifidobacteria [139]. In another study honey increased both in vivo (small and large intestines of rats) and in vitro the building of Lactobacillus acidophilus and Lactobacillus plantarum, while sucrose had no effect [140].

In clinical studies with infants and children honey shortens the duration of bacterial diarrhoea and did not prolong the duration of non-bacterial diarrhoea [141].

In certain cases, consumption of relatively large amounts of honey (50 to 100 g) can lead to a mild laxative effect in individuals with insufficient absorption of honey fructose [142,143]. Fructose alone is less readily absorbed in the intestinal tract than fructose together with glucose [144]. The mild laxative properties of honey are used for the treatment of constipation in Eastern Europe [6].

Supplementation of honey in concentrations of 2, 4, 6 and 8 g/100 g protein fed to rats, improved protein and lipid digestibility [145].

Cardiovascular health

The effects of ingestion of 75 g of natural honey compared to the same amount of artificial honey (fructose plus glucose) or glucose on plasma glucose, plasma insulin, cholesterol, triglycerides (TG), blood lipids, C-reactive proteins and homocysteine, most of them being risk factors for cardiovascular diseases, were studied in humans [47]. Elevation of insulin and C-reactive protein was significantly higher after glucose intake than after honey consumption. Glucose reduced cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C). Artificial honey slightly decreased cholesterol and LDL-C and elevated TG. Honey reduced cholesterol, LDL-C, and TG and slightly elevated high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C). In patients with hypertriglyceridemia, artificial honey increased TG, while honey decreased TG. In

patients with hyperlipidemia, artificial honey increased LDL-C, while honey decreased LDL-C. In diabetic patients, honey compared with dextrose caused a significantly lower rise of plasma glucose [47].

Honey can contain nitric oxide (NO) metabolites which are known indicators for cardiovascular disease risk. Increased levels of nitric oxides in honey might have a protecting function in cardiovascular diseases. Total nitrite concentration in different biological fluids from humans, including saliva, plasma, and urine was measured after ingestion of 80 g of honey [146,147]. Salivary, plasma and urinary NO metabolite concentrations showed a tendency to increase. Different honey types contained various concentrations of NO metabolites, darker or fresh honeys containing more NO metabolites than light or stored honey. After heating, NO metabolites decreased in all honey types.

Compared to fructose-fed rats, honey-fed rats had a higher plasma a-tocopherol level, and a higher a-tocopherol/triacylglycerol ratio, as well as lower plasma nitrate levels and lower susceptibility of the heart to lipid peroxidation [56].

Infants

The application of honey in infant nutrition used to be a common recommendation during the last centuries and there are some interesting observations. Infants on a diet with honey had better blood formation and a higher weight gain than when a diet without honey was applied [148]. Honey was better tolerated by babies than sucrose

[149] and compared to a water based placebo significantly reduced the crying phases of infants [150]. Infants had a higher weight increase when fed by honey than by sucrose, and showed less throw up than the sucrose controls [151]. When infants were fed on honey rather than on sucrose an increase of haemoglobin content, a better skin colour and no digestion problems were encountered [152,153]. Infants on honey diet had a better weight increase and were less susceptible to diseases than infants fed normally or when given blood building agents [148].

The positive effects of honey in infant diet are attributed to effects on the digestion process. One possible cause is the well established effect of oligosaccharides on B. bifidus [154], see also section Gastroenterology. When fed on a mixture of honey and milk infants showed a regularly steady weight gain and had an acidophilic micro- organism flora rich in B. bifidus [155]. Another experiment with honey and milk showed that infants were suffering less frequently from diarrhoea, and their blood

contained more haemoglobin compared to those on a diet based on sucrose sweetened milk [152]. Honey fed infants had an improved calcium uptake, and lighter and thinner faeces [156].

However, there is a health concern for infants regarding the presence of Clostridium (Cl.) botulinum in honey. Since the presence of this bacterium in natural foods is ubiquitous and honey is a non sterilized packaged food from natural origin the risk of a low contamination level cannot be excluded. Spores of this bacterium can survive in honey, but they cannot build toxin. Thus, in the stomach of infants younger than one year the bacteria spores from honey can survive and theoretically build the toxin, while children older than 12 months can ingest honey without any risk. In some cases, infant botulism has been attributed to ingestion of honey [157-160]. In Germany one case of infant botulism per year is reported [160]. As a result of the reported infant botulism cases some honey packers (e.g. the British Honey Importers and Packers Association) place a warning on the honey label that “honey should not be given to infants under 12 months of age”. Recently, a scientific committee of the EU examined the hazard of Cl. botulinum in honey [161]. It has concluded that microbiological examinations of honey are necessary for controlling the spore concentration in honey, as the incidence of Cl. botulinum is relatively low and sporadic and as such tests will not prevent infant botulism. In the EU countries the health authorities have not issued a regulation for placing a warning label on honey jars.

Athletic performance

The physiological action of gel and powdered forms of honey as a carbohydrate source for athlete performance was studied recently under controlled conditions by Kreider and coworkers [162-165]. Honey increased significantly the heart frequency and the blood glucose level during the performance [162]. It did not promote physical or psychological signs of hypoglycaemia in fasted athletes [163], or during resistance training [164]. In another trial the effect of low and high GI carbohydrate gels and honey were tested on a 64 km cycling performance [162,165]. Both high (glucose) and low GI (honey) gels increased cycling performance and the effect of honey was slightly better than the one of glucose. According to the above studies honey is well tolerated and can be an effective carbohydrate source for athletic performance.

Different health enhancing effects

A positive effect of honey on hepatitis A patients was found after ingestion of clover and rape honey, causing a decrease of the alanine aminotranferase activity (by 9 to 13 times) and a decrease of bilirubin production by 2.1 to 2.6 times [133].

Honey has a supportive effect on patients who have undergone a cancer radiation therapy by reducing the incidence of radiation mucositis. Patients with head and neck cancer treated with radiation therapy were given honey. There was a significant reduction in the symptomatic grade 3/4 mucositis among honey-treated patients compared to the controls; i.e. 20% versus 75%. The compliance of the honey-treated group of patients was better than the controls. 55% of the patients treated with honey showed no change or a positive gain in body weight compared to the controls, the majority of which lost weight [166]. Honey was administered to chemotherapy patients with neutropenia and was found to reduce the need for colony-stimulating factors [167]. Febrile neutropenia is a serious side effect of chemotherapy.

Allergy

Honey allergy seems relatively uncommon; allergies reported can involve reactions varying from cough to anaphylaxis [145]. In this study it was reported that patients allergic to pollen are rarely allergic to honey, although there is one reported case of combined honey pollen allergy [168]. The incidence of honey allergy, reported in a group of 173 food allergy patients was 2.3% [cited in 169]. In this study the honey allergy is explained by the presence of components of bee origin.

CONCLUSION

Due to variation of botanical origin honey differs in appearance, sensory perception and composition. It contains mainly carbohydrates. The glycemic index of honey varies from 32 to 87, depending on botanical origin and on fructose content. The main nutrition- and health relevant components are the carbohydrates, which make it an excellent energy source especially for children and sportsmen. Besides its main components, the carbohydrates fructose and glucose, honey contains also a great number of other constituents in small and trace amounts, producing numerous nutritional and biological effects: antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiviral, antiparasitic, antiinflammatory, antimutagenic, anticancer and immunosuppressive activities.

Different nutritional studies have confirmed various effects after honey ingestion, e.g.

enhanced gastroenterological and cardiovascular health. Besides, honey showed physiological effects on blood health indicators as well as effects on hepatitis A and radiation mucositis patients. However, it should be pointed out that most of these studies were based on relatively high honey intakes of 50 to 80 g. Honey compositions, and also its different biological effects, depend to a great extent on the botanical origin of honey. This fact was often not considered in the reviewed studies.

1 Figure 1: Prehistoric man gathering honey

2 A rock painting, made around 6000 BC. La Arana shekter, Bicorp, Eastern Spain.

6 Table 1: Honey composition (data in g/100 g) [14,15]

Blossom honey

Honeydew honey

average

min. - max.

average

min. - max.

Water

17.2

15-20

16.3

15-20

Monosaccharides

fructose

38.2

30-45

31.8

28-40

glucose

31.3

24-40

26.1

19-32

Disaccharides

sucrose

0.7

0.1-4.8

0.5

0.1-4.7

others

5.0

2-8

4.0

1-6

Trisaccharides

melezitose

<0.1

4.0

0.3-22.0

erlose

0.8

0.5-6

1.0

0.1-6

others

0.5

0.5-1

3.0

0.1-6

Undetermined oligosaccharides

3.1

10.1

Total sugars

79.7

80.5

Minerals

0.2

0.1-0.5

0.9

0.6-2.0

Amino acids, proteins

0.3

0.2-0.4

0.6

0.4-0.7

Acids

0.5

0.2-0.8

1.1

0.8-1.5

pH-value

3.9

3.5-4.5

5.2

4.5-6.5

1 Table 2: Honey nutrients (values compiled after different authors [14,20-27] and

2 recommended daily intake [28])

Ingredient

Amount in 100 g

Recommended Daily Intake1

1-4

years old

4-15

years old

After 15 years old

Energy

kcal

Carbohydrates

kcal

300

1000-1100

1400-2700

2400-3100

Proteins

0.5

13-14

17-46

44-59

Fats

Minerals

Sodium (Na)

1.6-17

300

410-550

550

Calcium (Ca)

3-31

600

700-1200

1000-1200

Potassium (K)

40-3500

1000

1400-1900

2000

Magnesium (Mg)

0.7-13

120-310

300-400

Phosphorus (P)

2-15

500

600-1250

700-1250

Zinc (Zn)

0.05-2

5-9.5

7-10

Copper (Cu)

0.02-0.6

0.5-1

Iron (Fe)

0.03-4

8-15

10-15

Manganese (Mn)

0.02-2

1-1.5

1.5-5

2-5

Chromium (Cr)

0.01-0.3

0.02-0.06

0.02-0.1

0.03-1.5

Selenium (Se)

0.002-0.01

0.001-0.004

0.001-0.006

0.003-0.007

Vitamins

Phyllochinon (K)

ca. 0.025

20-50

60-70

Thiamin (B1)

0.00-0.01

0.6

0.8-1.4

1-1.3

Riboflavin (B2)

0.01-0.02

0.7

0.9-1.6

1.2-1.5

Pyridoxin (B6)

0.01-0.32

0.4

0.5-1.4

1.2-1.6

Niacin2

0.10-0.20

10-18

13-17

Panthothenic acid

0.02-0.11

4-6

Ascorbic acid (C)

2.2-2.5

70-100

100

4 *-only major components considered

5 1 after the German Nutrition Society [28]

6 2 Niacin equivalents: 1 mg nicotinamide = 1 mg niacin = 60 mg tryptophan (= niacin-precursor)

2 Table 3: Other trace elements in honey [14,20-27]

Element

mg/100 g

Element

mg/100 g

Aluminium (Al)

0.01-2.4

Lead (Pb)*

0.001-0.03

Arsenic (As)

0.014-0.026

Lithium (Li)

0.225-1.56

Barium (Ba)

0.01-0.08

Molybdenum (Mo)

0-0.004

Boron (B)

0.05-0.3

Nickel (Ni)

0-0.051

Bromine (Br)

0.4-1.3

Rubidium (Rb)

0.040-3.5

Cadmium (Cd)*

0-0.001

Silicon (Si)

0.05-24

Chlorine (Cl)

0.4-56

Strontium (Sr)

0.04-0.35

Cobalt (Co)

0.1-0.35

Sulfur (S)

0.7-26

Floride (F)

0.4-1.34

Vanadium (V)

0-0.013

Iodide (I)

10-100

Zirconium

0.05-0.08

4 *- elements regarded as toxic, can be partially of man-made origin

8 Table 4: Glycemic index (GI) and glycemic load (GL) for a serving (25 g) of honey 9 [38,39]

honey

origin

Fructose

g/100 g

g/serving

GL (per

serving)

Acacia (black locust)*

Romania

Yellow box

Australia

35±4

Stringy bark

Australia

44±4

Red gum

Australia

46±3

Iron bark

Australia

48±3

Yapunya

Australia

52±5

Pure Australia

Australia

58±6

Commercial blend

Australia

62±3

Salvation June

Australia

64±5

Commercial blend

Australia

72±6

Honey of unspecified origin

Canada

87±8

average

55±5

Sucrose (mean of 10 studies)

68±5

Glucose

100

12 AC = available carbohydrate

1 Table 5: List of bacteria that were found to be sensitive to honey [60,61]

Pathogen

Infection caused

Bacillus anthracis

anthrax

Corynebacterium diphtheriae

diphtheria

Escherichia coli

diarrhoea, septicaemia, urinary infections, wound infections

Haemophilus influenzae

ear infections, meningitus, respiratory infections, sinusitis

Klebsiella pneumoniae

pneumonia

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

tuberculosis

Proteus sp.

septicaemia, urinary infections

Pseudomonas aeruginosa

urinary infections, wound infections

Salmonella sp.

diarrhoea

Salmonella cholerae-suis

septicaemia

Salmonella typhi

typhoid

Salmonella typhimurium

wound infections

Serrata marcescens

septicaemia, wound infections

Shigella sp.

dysentery

Staphylococcus aureus

abscesses., boils, carbuncles, impetigo, wound infections

Streptococcus faecalis

urinary infections

Streptococcus mutans

dental carries

Streptococcus pneumoniae

ear infections, meningitis, pneumonia, sinusitis

Streptococcus pyogenes

ear infections, impetigo, puerperal fever, rheumatic fever, scarlet fever, sore throat, wound infections

Vibrio choleriae

cholera

Actinomyces pyogenes, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Nocardia asteroids, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agal., dysgal., uber

mastitis

Epidermophyton floccosum, Microsporum canis, M.. gypseum, Trichophyton rubrum, T. tonsurans, T. mentagrophytes var. ?

tinea

diff. Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio, Helicobacter pylori

peptic ulcer

1 Table 6: Effect of heat, light and storage time on the antibacterial activity of honey.

2 The antibacterial activity is expressed in % of the untreated controls [63] 3

Non-peroxide activity

Peroxide activity

Storage: 15 months rt

light

dark

light

dark

Blossom honey

Honeydew honey

Heat: 15 min 70oC

Blossom honey

Honeydew honey

5 rt = room temperature 15-20oC 6

9 Table 7. Antioxidative activity (ORAC) and total phenol content of different unifloral

10 honeys [32]

Honey type

ORAC

μmol TE/g

total phenolics GAE mg/kg

Buckwheat Illinois

16.95 ± 0.76

796 ±3 2

Buckwheat

9.81 ± 0.34

Buckwheat New York

9.75 ± 0.48

456 ± 55

Buckwheat

9.34 ± 0.57

Buckwheat

9.17 ± 0.63

Buckwheat

7.47 ± 0.27

Soy (2000)

9.49 ± 0.29

Soy (1996)

8.34 ± 0.51

269 ± 22

Hawaiian Christmas berry

8.87 ± 0.33

250 ± 56

Clover (January 2000)

6.53 ± 0.70

Clover (July 2000)

6.05 ± 1.00

128 ± 11

Tupelo

6.48 ± 0.37

183 ± 9

Fireweed

3.09 ± 0.27

62 ± 6

Acacia

3.00 ± 0.16

46 ± 2

12 ORAC = Oxygen radical absorbance capacity,

13 TE = Trolox equivalent, GAE = gallic acid equivalent, nd = not determined

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11 botulism. Pharmacotherapy 22:1479-1483, 2002.

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22 Temple N (ed): “Nutritional Health”. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press, pp 207-235, 23 2001.

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26 responses during and after resistance exercise. J Strength Cond Res 14:361, 27 2000.

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31 performance. J Strength Cond Res 18:466-472, 2004.

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33 management of radiation mucositis. A preliminary study. Support Care Cancer 34 11:242-248, 2003.

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36 Prevention of chemotherapy-induced neutropenia by special honey intake. Med 37 Oncol 23:549-552, 2006.

1 168. Bousquet J, Campos J, Michel F.B: Food intolerance to honey. Allergy 39:73- 2 75, 1984.

3 169. Helbling A, Peter C, Berchtold E, Bogdanov S, Müller U: Allergy to honey:

4 Relation to pollen and honey bee allergy. Allergy 47:41-49, 1992. 5

5 https://cloverhoney.web.id/

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15 https://cloverhoney.web.id/madu-hdi-manfaatnya/

16 https://cloverhoney.web.id/clover-honey-manfaatnya/

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phatjosh180 · 7 years ago

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180 WEEK: My Top 10 Favorite Race Medals

The past couple months as I’ve been preparing for this race — and everything that comes with it — I’ve been going through all of my race medals. I’ve not been going through them to reminisce, but to also organize a bit better. I have all of my medals stored by year in seven shoeboxes.

I want (well, need) to display them more prominently — and I am working on all of that. I’ve bought some wall mounts along with a race medal lamp holder. Yes, it’s a lamp I can hang my race medals on. It’s pretty cool.

For the past several years I’ve been sharing my year’s favorite race medals at the end of each year. And, I thought since we’re here at the end of the road of my 180 races — I should do the same, but for ALLLLLLLLL of my 180 races.

I don’t have a set criteria for the medals. They’re just my favorite for different reasons. Generally speaking I love medals that are large, detailed and have a good heft to them. But, there are also race medals that have some personal meaning to me — that might lack on the size, details and/or heft.

But, that doesn’t mean they’re not cherished equally. I guess this is what it’s going to feel like once I have kids?

I digress.

Anyways, here are my top ten favorite race medals from my 180 races. I’ve included a little blurb to each to explain why they’re one of my favorites.

Enjoy!

MEDAL #10

Mt. Nebo Half, 2017 pic.twitter.com/ymz2VFocvD

— Josher (@josherwalla) July 16, 2018

The Mt. Nebo Half is one of my favorite half marathons. It’s a fast fun downhill race that I PR’d at in 2013. Nebo will always have a special place in my heart. It’s just a great race.

I practically love this medal for the design — it’s just — rad. I love the colors and black gold. It makes the orange POP. Plus, the design on point and I love the edges that bring the mountain inside the leaf. A very, very, very awesome race medal. Consequently, the same year’s race shirt is one of my favorites to wear.

MEDAL #9

Ogden Marathon, 2014. pic.twitter.com/8fdMy46NAM

— Josher (@josherwalla) July 16, 2018

The detail on this medal is awesome. I love the Ogden arch design along with the mountains on this medal — it’s clean with simplicity of color. Not only that it’s a good size with a great heft to it. It doesn’t leave you feeling disappointed — you definitely feel like you EARNED the medal.

This medal is special to me as well, because this was the marathon I surprised my friend Becca at — after training for it with her thinking I wasn’t running it. You’ll read more about that later this week.

MEDAL #8

Ragnar Relay: Wasatch Back, 2013. pic.twitter.com/hVsRt04uXR

— Josher (@josherwalla) July 16, 2018

This was my first Ragnar — it was also my first and last time being the team captain. But, that’s a story for another day. But, I absolutely love this race medal. Not only does it have a spinny thing in the middle (my favorite feature), but it’s HUGE and HEAVY!

The design is fun and clean while the colors on point with the orange and silver. It’s just a great medal all around. This is one medal I love to show off whenever I give presentations about my journey and races.

RAGNAAAAAAAAR!!!

MEDAL #7

Joshua Tree Half Marathon, 2017. pic.twitter.com/QwP9KaVRAJ

— Josher (@josherwalla) July 16, 2018

It took me nearly six years of running to finally run a Vacation Races event. Something I’m a little bummed about, because I’ve always loved their race medal designs. They put great effort into them and they come out great. And, from a design aspect — they’re clean and on brand.

This was my first Vacation Races event — and I picked it mainly because it’s my name. And, I was able to run the Snow Canyon Half Marathon in the morning of the same — so I was able to run my name — Joshua Snow Hansen. Pretty cool, huh?

This was a tough race — and day — I was sick throughout the day (I threw up 12 times throughout the day) but I managed to finish both races — and earn this beauty! I can’t wait to run more Vacation Races!

MEDAL #6

Disneyland Half Marathon, 2012. pic.twitter.com/6ZWAfXjST1

— Josher (@josherwalla) July 16, 2018

It’s kind of fitting that I am sharing this post on Disneyland’s birthday. As many might know — I am somewhat of a Disneynerd. I love Disney, Disneyland, Walt Disney — pretty much anything Disney. So being able to combine my love for Disney and running was natural for me.

I did the Disneyland Half Marathon in both 2011 and 2012 — and honestly there’s not much of a difference in the design. Probably none to be honest with you. So this could technically be a tie?

Either way, I love the design and size of this race medal. The design is clean with the all gold cast — and the size is pretty hefty. Disney didn’t skimp on the medals — which they shouldn’t because when you’re paying nearly $200 for a race without getting a park ticket for the day — they should go all out.

I’m sometimes a conflicted jaded Disneyland fan.

MEDAL #5

Pony Express Trail 50, 2016. pic.twitter.com/ekWOAxCk5I

— Josher (@josherwalla) July 16, 2018

This is definitely the smallest race medal on this list. Don’t let the picture fool — it’s rather small. When I first got it — I’ll admit I was a bit disappointed. I was kinda hoping I got a honking 50lbs. race medal put around my neck for the accomplishment. But, I’m okay with it now.

What it lacks in size, it makes up in meaning. There’s so much meaning in this medal. Just the fact I was able to complete the 50 miles is meaning enough — but, the miles training for before the race, my journey, etc. all weighed into that finish line. The really made the size of this medal feel like that 50lbs. race medal.

I can’t wait to earn another one these medals and cherish it just as much — regardless of the size.

MEDAL #4

The Bakers Dozen Half Marathon, 2015. pic.twitter.com/7roXsYxcMq

— Josher (@josherwalla) July 16, 2018

You could serve cupcakes to a family of eight on this race medal! Seriously, no joke! This is the largest medal I own size wise. It’s HUGE! And, the whimsical, colorful and fun design just fits with the race and Race Director Cory Reese TOO WELL!

I feel like I need a redo on this race, because I ran it sick and wasn’t able to fully enjoy the race as one should. The race consists of four laps of a loop in Hurricane with an aid station of cookies, donuts and sugar galore — that you can (and are encouraged to) gorge on.

I just wasn’t feeling well — and ended up eating no more than 5 mini donuts.

Weak sauce!

But, hey, I still earned the medal!

MEDAL #3

Runtastic Events Trilogy Medal, 2017. pic.twitter.com/feCLSzP8VX

— Josher (@josherwalla) July 16, 2018

Seriously, this is an AWESOME medal. This is the Runtastic Events Trilogy Medal — a medal you get for running three of their half marathons or marathon during one calendar year. This has a double meaning for me — well maybe more, actually.

This medal has some serious size, heft and design. It’s absolutely HUGE and HEAVY! But, it’s special to me because it’s for the year that I worked with Runtastic Events. I quit to focus on PrepperCon in August of that year so I was also able to earn the medal by running the Mt. Nebo Half and both Haunted Half races.

I love this medal as well because it’s the same year that I visited Greece — so that tie into the meaning of earning it and working for the company — just puts it in a special place in my heart.

But, seriously — IT’S HUGE! (TWSS)

MEDAL #2

Revel Big Cottonwood Marathon, 2014. pic.twitter.com/EGMNPJuvsE

— Josher (@josherwalla) July 16, 2018

This medal has some serious heft to it! Not only that, but the design is clean and classy — an absolute favorite of mine. Not only is the design one of my favorites, but the memory attached to it bumps it up a few notches on the list.

This was Jill’s first marathon that I ran alongside her. I’ll have more about this memory and moment later this week. But, I will always love and cherish that moment.

And, Revel has always had awesome race medals.

MEDAL #1

The Haunted Half, 2016. pic.twitter.com/4sU6NPXnmz

— Josher (@josherwalla) July 16, 2018

Full disclosure — I am little biased on this medal. I had a hand in the design with this race medal when I worked for Runtastic Events. But, I seriously love it. Not only for the color design, but I love the black gold that makes all those colors pop and it’s a nice sized medal.

I’m not a huge fan of gore and scar when it comes to Halloween. So going the route of Día de Muertos I thought was perfect. You get the Halloween vibe without the blood and gore. It was really a winner.

But, it’s hard to not pick up this medal and not stare at it. This will be pretty hard to top in my book. I absolutely love it.

A post shared by The Runcast (@theruncast) on Apr 17, 2018 at 6:18am PDT

180 WEEK: My Top 10 Favorite Race Medals was originally published on PhatJosh | My Life Running.

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instituteofgeorgianhistory · 4 years ago

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Rome, Byzantium and NATO. Grand Strategy of the West and Georgia (Colchis/Lazica and Iberia)

Tedo Dundua, Emil Avdaliani

Introduction

There are two ways to prove Georgia’s place within the NATO Alliance. First is the current argument urging for total Euro-Atlantic unity, next – historical one. Previous pan-European (Roman and Early Byzantine) military presence in Georgia can be applied to the present discussion. The article covers this issue.

Roman Period. Frankish Limitanei in Lazica

Before being totally destroyed, Roman Imperial security system actually had shown three gradual phases of development.

Large number of the Italian colonists with the best technologies, swift and comfortable communications, the most prominent industrial output, Roman citizenship, municipal freedom – that was the Roman gift for the Western provinces in the 1st-2nd cc. A.D. Sincere intimacy with the metropolis had been founded as a direct result of complete satisfaction. It paved the way to the Romanization. As for the Greeks, the Romans reserved a quiet life and economic stability. Still beyond the Roman Rhine, Danube and Pontus there were others favouring this concept of pan-European integration. The happy client kings used to be awarded with the Roman citizenship. And for the Julio-Claudians these client kingdoms formed the first defense-line of the Imperial territories. A little behind, the whole perimeter was dotted by solid legionary concentrations, proving the system to be impregnable. No cardinal changes took place in the era of the Antonines, except for annexation of the client kingdoms and breaking the big army concentrations in favour of scattering the legions along the whole frontier. In both cases, after defeating comparatively weak enemy at the border, the Romans usually attacked their territory. This system of security is called forward defense.

Greeks and the Romans were sending more and more working hands towards industry, but not to manufacture the means of production. As a result, population was growing, but not amount of industrial goods per capita. Prices rushed high for the Italian produce, demanding damping for provincial food and raw materials, thus weakening the sympathies between the European subjects of the Roman Empire. Some even started to search for a relief beyond the Rhine and Danube rivers. Many things happened that completely changed the defensive strategy, namely: 1. economic crisis; 2. weakening of the integratory links; 3. socio-economic animation of “Barbaricum”; 4. financial chaos and some professional regiments converted into limitanei. From now on they are to stand the first strike and evacuate the whole frontier folk into citadels, thus wearing down the enemy. And there were large and mobile field armies deployed far behind those self-contained strongholds to cut down any invasion into the depth. This system shaped in the times of Diocletian is called defense-in-depth.

But before this new system was finally established, the Romans had been fighting those already easily passing the border wherever they could manage to concentrate large army-units. In the early days of the Empire praetorians formed the only Imperial reserve. And now Gallienus recruited special mobile reserve-regiments. Name for this defensive system is elastic defense.

Security system had to be changed at least because of emergence of the Germanic seaborne attacks from the 3rd c. everywhere at the seas that prolonged the line of the frontier (Ed. N. Luttwak. The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire. From the First Century A.D. to the Third. Baltimore. 1981, pp. 192-193; T. Dundua, N. Silagadze. European Industrial Complexes of I Cycle of Capitalism and the Georgian Western Affiliations. Historical and Numismatic Tale. Tbilisi. 2005, pp. 5-7; T. Dundua. North and South. Tbilisi. 2001, pp. 8-15).

Full-time units, legions, alae of cavalry, cohortes of infantry and mixed cohortes equitatae served the forward defense-system. Part-time border force of limitanei had appeared and auxiliary alae and cohorts had disappeared; and regular mobile reserve – comitatenses – substituted legions, fixed at the border. All they served new security system – defense-in-depth. The whole 3rd c. saw these changes, finally shaped in the times of Constantine I. Septimius Severus was the first to form a certain kind of reserve. He stationed II Parthica in Albanum, increased praetorian and urban cohorts in number. And Gallienus created special cavalry units to serve as a reserve (Ed. N. Luttwak. The Grand Strategy, pp. 173, 184).

In the 3rd c. large federations of Franki and Alemanni began to threaten the Rhine-frontier. And the Goths had already reached Dniester by 238 (Ed. N. Luttwak. The Grand Strategy, pp. 128, 146). Franks attacked Gaul, Alemanns – Italy. From the great deeds of Emperor M. Aurelius Probus (276-282) the most important is the deliverance of seventy Gaulic cities. He drove back Franks and Alemanns, four hundred thousand of them being killed. Probus passed the Rhine, and returned back with considerable tribute of corn, cattle, and horses. Sixteen thousand Germanic recruits were dispersed among the Roman units. Other captive or fugitive barbarians gained a new status, that of part-time peasant-soldiers (limitanei). Emperor transported a considerable body of Vandals into Cambridgeshire, great number of Franks and Gepidae were settled on the banks of the Danube and the Rhine, Bastarnae – in Thrace. Pontic (The Black Sea) coast was reserved for some more Franks (Ed. Gibbon. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Vol. 1. London. 1993 (first published in 1776), pp. 362-368). But which one exactly? This is to be discussed.

According to Ed. Gibbon, Franks settled at the sea-coast of Pontus had to check the Alani inroads. A fleet stationed in one of the harbors of the Euxine fell into their hands, and they resolved, through unknown seas, to explore their way from the mouth of Phasis (river Rioni in West Georgia) to that of the Rhine. They easily escaped through the Bosphorus and the Hellespont, and cruising along the Mediterranean, indulged their appetite for revenge and plunder by frequent descents on the shores of Asia, Greece and Africa. City of Syracuse was sacked by the barbarians. Franks proceeded to the columns of Hercules, coasted round Spain and Gaul, and steering their course through the British channel, at length finished their voyage by landing in safety on the Batavian or Frisian shores (Ed. Gibbon. The Decline and Fall . . ., pp. 367-368).

What is this whole story based on? Zosimus and one panegyric to Constantius Chlorus contributed to it.

Narrating about the events in the past, in the times of divine Probus, author of this panegyric mentions undeserved success of the small Frankish band, who, sailing from Pontus on the captured fleet, ravished Greece and Asia, damaged Africa, stormed Syracuse, and passing through the columns of the Hercules, reached the ocean (Recursabat quippe in animos illa sub diuo Probo paucorum ex Francis captiuorum incredibilis audacia et indigna felicitas, qui a Ponto usque correptis nauibus Graeciam Asiamque populati nec impune plerisque Libyae litoribus appulsi ipsas postremo naualibus quondam uictoriis nobiles ceperant Syracusas et immenso itinere peruecti oceanum, qua terras irrumpit, intrauerant atque ita euentu temeritatis ostenderant nihil esse clausum piraticae desperationi, quo nauigiis pateret accessus.) (Panegyricus Constantio Dictus, IV, XVIII. Panégyriques Latins. T. I (I-V). Texte Établi et Traduit par Édourd Galletier. Paris. 1949, pp. 96-97).

Zosimus tells us about the Franks having appealed to the Emperor, and having a country given to them. A part of them afterwards revolted, and having collected a great number of ships, disturbed all Greece; from whence they proceeded into Sicily, to Syracuse, which they attacked, and killed many people there. At length they arrived in Africa, whence though they were repulsed by a body of men from Carthage, yet they returned home without any great loss (Zosimus. New History. Book 1. London. 1814).

There is no mention of mouth of the river of Phasis as a spring-board for the expedition in the sources. Then, what was in Gibbon’s mind? Perhaps, logic, excluding the possibilities.

Indeed, the Northern Black Sea coast is beyond the Roman rule. The Western shores, and the Balkans are already packed with the barbarians. Southern littoral was less used for receptio, while Lazica (West Georgia) and Pontic Limes cannot be argued. And something strange had happened to this limes in the 3rd c. Now threat comes not from the front, the Romans have Lazi client king dwelling there, but – from behind, because of the Goths living at the Northern shores.

We can only guess that the Franks were in Lazica as limitanei. But we really know nothing about how they were coordinating with the full-time units, their number before and after the revolt, what was the life like for those who stayed loyal.

Still, it seems quite reasonable that the bargain of receptio-system should have been distributed among all Roman provinces to keep the centre undisturbed from the barbaric influx. In the 3rd c. the Empire is able to do this, not after.

Byzantines in Georgia

With the death of Theodosius, last Emperor of the united Roman world, in 395 A.D. the Empire was divided into two almost same-sized halves. The Western part, while defending itself throughout the 5th c. from various barbarian hordes (at the time, the Western part was defended by regiments consisting mainly of barbarians) coming from beyond the Rhine river, had an almost destroyed tax-paying system. This very factor did not allow the Imperial administration based in Ravenna to muster enough economic and military resources for effective defense of the Northern borders. Last Western Roman Emperors were mere puppets in the hands of barbarian warlords – the process which culminated in deposing the last Emperor Romulus Augustulus in 476.

The Eastern part (Byzantium) with the capital in Constantinople, on the other hand, showed greater resilience in managing internal problems and external threats. Byzantium managed simultaneously to hold off the barbarians coming from the North and the Sassanians from the East. This was made possible by an efficient tax-paying system the Byzantines inherited from the Romans, which, in turn, made it possible to field large armies to defend the Imperial borders on several fronts and at the same time wage offensive wars (Ed. N. Luttwak. The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire. Harvard. 2009, pp. 1-16. The most apparent case is the reign of Justinian when, while waging war on Vandals in North Africa and the Ostrogoths in Italy, Constantinople still had to defend its Eastern border from the Sassanians and the Danube river from the Slavs).

The Byzantines did not have such abundant resources as the Romans had during the first three centuries A.D. Moreover, the Eastern half was spread on three continents – Europe, Asia and Africa – making the Imperial borders highly vulnerable to foreign powers. In other words, the geography put the Byzantine Empire at a huge disadvantage as the Danube river was a barrier easy to cross for the Goths, or in later centuries Huns, Slavs and Avars. In Africa, the desert frontier stretching for more than a thousand kilometers had no geographic barrier to rely on making rich Tripolitania and Byzacena and the South of Egypt exposed to attacks from the Berbers and other nomadic groups. The Eastern frontier too was highly vulnerable as the Arab groupings could easily reach Palestine and Syrian cities from the Syro-Mesopotamian desert. In the North Mesopotamia Byzantium faced its greatest rival, Sassanian Iran, and this portion too needed to be defended with the assemblage of large military power, whether through the field armies or military fortifications. Moreover, the Byzantines had little geographic depth along its entire Eastern frontier to fully employ the defense-in-depth strategy (e.g., in the Balkans Constantinople did enjoy large geographic depth necessary for the defense. This was apparent when the Huns under Attila and then the Avars in early 7th c. broke through the Danubian defenses and reached Constantinople. However, military regiments placed in various fortresses and the distance of several hundreds of kilometers (from the Danube to the capital) enabled the Emperor, whether it was Theodosius II or Heraclius, to thwart the barbarian onslaughts). The similar situation was in Africa. Since Asia Minor, Balkans, Egypt and Syria were the most prosperous lands in terms of population number and the level of urbanization, the functioning of the Empire was contingent upon the defense of these provinces. Overall, the Byzantines were at much worse geographic situation than their Western counterparts.

Thus, in order to survive in this difficult geopolitical situation and preserve the Empire from early 5th c. to the 7th c., the Byzantines had to develop a whole set of military strategies. In other words, the Byzantines were no less successful than the Flavians, Antonines and late 3rd c. Emperors. However, the Byzantines made numerous changes by adapting to new circumstances. Since Constantinople had less economic and human resources than the united Roman Empire, the Byzantines always tried to use less military power and employ more diplomacy and the propagation of the Christian religion (G. Fowden. Consequences of the Monotheism in Late Antiquity. Princeton. 1993, pp. 80-100) to safeguard Imperial borders.

The Byzantines inherited from the Romans military presence in Lazica and alliance with Kartli/Iberia (East and South Georgia). This military tradition goes back to the first two centuries A.D. and represents a forward-defense strategy. Byzantine garrisons, which existed in Lazica from the 5th c. till the Arab invasion of the Middle East in the 30s of the 7th c. (T. Dundua. Influx of Roman Coins in Georgia. Roman Coins Outside the Empire. Ways and Phases, Contexts and Functions. Proceedings of ESF/SCH Exploratory Workshop. Nieborow (Poland). 2005. Moneta. Wetteren. 2008, p. 313), did not change their location. However, the role of Lazica considerably increased as in late 4th c. the so-called “Völkerwanderung” or Migration period began. Since the new peoples such as Huns, Avars etc. lived in the Eurasian steppes, which bordered the Caucasian range and the Danube river, Constantinople had to face a two-front war from the North (from the Eastern and Western parts of the Black Sea). Therefore, the Byzantine garrisons in Lazica were transformed into forward posts for collecting information about new peoples coming from the steppes and, in case of need, establishing first diplomatic contacts too.

For example, when approximately in 557 the Avars reached the Volga river, in modern-day Southern Russia, in a year or two through the Alans they sent an embassy to Constantinople. But, before the letter was received in the capital, first it had been passed through the hands of Byzantine generals stationed in Lazica (Ed. N. Luttwak. The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire, p. 59). The role of Lazica increased also because of the mountain passes through which the newly-coming nomads from the North could potentially penetrate into the South and cause havoc even in the Eastern provinces of the Byzantine Empire as it happened in 395 when the Huns reached as far as Antioch (P. Heather. The Fall of the Roman Empire. A New History of Rome and the Barbarians. Oxford. 2007, pp. 145-154). The Byzantine officials also used the passes to distract nomad leaders by making them to take much longer roads to reach the Imperial capital. Menander Protector preserves the bitter complaint of a Turkic chief from the steppes, North to the Caucasian range, dated by 577: “As for you Romans, why do you take my envoys through the Caucasus to Byzantium, alleging that there is no other route for them to travel? You do this so that I might be deterred from attacking the Roman Empire by the difficult terrain (i.e. high mountains which for horses are very hard to cross). But I know very well where the river Danapris (Dniepr) flows, and the Istros (Danube) and the Hebrus (Maritsa, Meric)” (Excerpta de Legationibus Romanorum ad Gentes, 14, in The History of Menander the Guardsman. Translated by R. C. Blockley. London. 1985, p. 175).

Lazica’s military importance increased even more following the stand-off between Justinian and the Sassanian Shahanshah Khusro I Anushirvan in mid-6th c. By the time Iran had already been increasing its political and military pressure towards North and West, which culminated in the abolition of the Albanian and Armenian kingdoms during the 5th-early-6th cc. As was said, mid-6th c. saw renewed warfare between the empires and the focus of the conflict, traditionally along with the North Mesopotamia, also fell on Lazica. Iran was interested in occupying the Eastern Black Sea coast to pressure Constantinople (which by the time was already embroiled in a war with the Ostrogoths in Italy) into signing a more winning peace treaty for Ctesiphon. The Byzantines knew well that if the Sassanians managed to occupy the Lazica shore, Iranian military vessels in the near future would make their way through the Bosphorus directly to Constantinople. This is well reflected in one of the passages from Procopius – Lazi sent an embassy to Khusro to explain the geopolitical advantages which the Iranians would gain through controlling Lazica and the Byzantine fortresses there: “To the realm of Persia you will add a most ancient kingdom, and as a result of this you will have the power of your sway extended, and it will come about that you will have a part in the sea of the Romans through our land, and after thou hast built ships in this sea (i.e. Black Sea), O King, it be possible for thee with no trouble to set foot in the palace in Byzantium. For there is no obstacle between. And one might add that the plundering of the land of the Romans every year by the barbarians along the boundary will be under your control. For surely you also are acquainted with the fact that up till now the land of the Lazi has been a bulwark against the Caucasus Mountains” (De Bello Persico. II. 15; Procopius of Caesarea. History of the Wars. Translated by H. B. Dewing. Cambridge. Massachusetts. 1914, pp. 225-226).

The above analysis of the Roman and Early Byzantine military strategies towards their neighbors quite clearly shows that Georgia always had its own place within the pan-European military alliances. Why not bring it back?

NATO and Georgia

NATO alliance’s strategy could be likened to the best military traditions of Rome and Byzantium discussed above. As was the case with these two Empires, NATO too regards the Black Sea and its Eastern shore – Georgia – as fundamental for the alliance’s strategy in the Eastern Europe and the Black Sea region overall.

As for the Romans and Byzantines before, for NATO too Georgia’s Black Sea shore would allow the alliance to expand militarily in the region and control crucial land and maritime military routes from the North to the Black Sea basin. There is also an economic dimension since Georgia serves as a vital transit route for oil/gas pipelines, important railroads connecting the Caspian and Black Seas. Indeed, as Roman and Byzantine army units before, NATO’s presence in Georgia would serve as a defensive shield for trade in the region which in Antiquity was often referred to as a part of the famous Silk Road and nowadays is called as the South Caucasus energy and transport corridor because of oil/gas transport infrastructure.

This strategic vision is well reflected in one of the recent NATO-Georgia Commission statement: “Georgia is one of the Alliance’s closest operational partners, and an Enhanced Opportunities Partner. Allies highly appreciate Georgia’s steadfast support for NATO’s operations and missions…” (NATO-Georgia Commission Statement. Oct. 2019.

https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_169323.htm?selectedLocale=en).

Direct allusion to the alliance’s Black Sea strategy is also seen in another passage from the same Commission statement: “NATO values Georgia’s engagement in, and contributions to, strategic discussion and mutual awareness, on security in the Black Sea region” (NATO-Georgia Commission Statement. Oct. 2019. https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_169323.htm?selectedLocale=en).

Thus NATO alliance’s strategic vision for Georgia and the wider Black Sea region is similar to how the Romans and Byzantines saw this part of the world.

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sonicfanuniverseproject-blog · 7 years ago

Text

Here’s an update to the overview, probably gonna keep changing this as more stuff gets added. Gonna move on to filling in the details now though.

############ #THE BASICS# ############ Primarily based off of the Archie Sonic Reboot Continuity, but incorporates elements of other parts of the franchise and fan-content.

Canon: The world established in the Nu-252 comics, minus the super genesis wave (whether or not Unleashed is canon should be at the author's discretion). The events in Sonic 3 & Knuckles, Sonic Adventure, and Sonic Adventure 2. The events of Sonic 1, Sonic 2, Sonic Heroes, and Shadow the Hedgehog are partially canon - some events may or may not differ from the way they are depicted in those games. Elements from other games may be canon, but the plot(s) either are not or else have not yet occurred.

########### #THE WORLD# ###########

###OVERVIEW### Set on Earth (or Mobius or whatever you want to call it) at an undisclosed point in the near-ish future. The world is currently undergoing a low-intensity global conflict between the United Federation (and Allied factions) and the Eggman Empire. Not quite a cold war but not a world war either.

Overall Geography matches Earth, with minor changes- Northamer - North America Soumerca - Central and South America Eurish - Europe Efrika - Sub-Saharan Africa or Africa as a whole Yurashia - Asia or Central and East Asia Midesta - The Middle East, Western Asia and/or North Africa Tralius - Australia Artika - The Artic Ocean and surrounding land, including the norther parts of Siberia, Alaska, Canada, Norway, Finland, Iceland, and Greenland.

###FACTIONS### United Federation (and GUN) -Federal Republic -Covers much of Eurish, Northamer, and parts of Yurashia and Efrika, with some territory in Soumerca and Artika. -A Republic, essentially the United States and European union combined. -Large Military force. -Allied with various other nations, at war with the Eggman Empire.

Eggman Empire -Authoritarian Dictatorship with Feudal Leanings. -Strong presence in Soumerca, Efrika, Midesta, and Tralius, with 'smaller' outposts in Yurashia, Northamer, and Artika, and an enclave in Avalon [British Isles] in Eurish. -Less an empire and more of a rogue military force at this point (Think Brotherhood of Nod from Command and Conquer). -At war with much of the rest of the world.

Kingdom of Acorn -Small Pacific Island Kingdom. -Small military, more of a defense force or guard. -Allied with the United Federation, at war with the Eggman Empire.

Kingdom of Meropis -Underwater City-State Kingdom off the coast of Soumerca. -Extremely Small military, really just a city guard. -Isolationist.

Black Arms -Extraterrestrial. -Ded (Mostly). -Military in nature, although in a distinctly alien way.

###LOCATIONS### (Feel free to add real world locations, or locations inspired by real places, but try to avoid anything that would be too jarring for the setting. For example, the Grand Canyon or Barringer crater might be good ideas, but Toronto might not. The Chernobyl Exclusion Zone would be right on the line between the two.) --Artika-- Holoska - A village located in northern or western Alaska (or equivalent). Part of the United Federation.

Artika Egg Army Base - A modest outpost, notable as the main radar array for the Eggman Empire in the northern hemisphere (similar to PAVE PAWS). Also used as an airstation.

--Efrika-- Mazuri - A city in the Sahel or Sudanian Savanna (think Timbuktu). Part of the United Federation.

Efrica Egg Army Base - Located at the edge of the Guinea region south of Mazuri (Note: since it is closer to England (Avalon) than Iraq (Shamar) - 2700 vs 3400 miles). Contains a large motorpool, among other facilities. One of the larger Egg Army Bases.

--Eurish-- Spagonia - A major city in southern or south-western Eurish (in either Spain or Italy or the equivalent). It contains a large university, Spagonia University. Part of the United Federation, it is safely away from the frontlines of the ongoing global conflict.

Apotos - A large city in south-eastern Eurish (in Greece or the equivalent). Part of the United Federation, it is also safely away from the frontlines of the ongoing global conflict.

Soleanna - A prosperous city-state in south-eastern Eurish (like Venice but on the Croatian or Montenegrin coast). Not part of the United Federation, although it is closely associated with it.

Coolette - A now modest farming village in Auvergne (or equivalent), with the now-abandoned Castle D'Coolette standing nearby.

Avalon Egg Army Base - A large, heavily fortified citadel in Avalon (British Isles), and the only presence of the Eggman Empire in Eurish. Also called the Sylvanian Egg Army Base (eg. Britian vs. England).

--Midesta-- Shamar - A large city in Mesopotamia (or equivalent). NOT part of the United Federation. Has been the scene of numerous conflicts in recent history. Currently contested by the Eggman Empire.

Midesta Egg Army Base - Located in the desert near Shamar (think Petra), specializing in desert warfare. One of the larger Egg Army Bases.

Babylon - 400 or 500 year old ruins of a once-great city located in the desert. Ancestral homeland of the Battle-Bird Armada and other (mainly avian) mobians.

--Northamer-- Empire City - A sprawling metropolis and the economic engine of the United Federation's Northamer territories (Essentially New York City, and located in about the same location). Under zero threat from any kind of overt attack by the Eggman Empire. clandestine operations, however, are another matter entirely.

Central City - Capital of the United Federation. Located in the Bay Area on the Pacific coast (Essentially San Francisco).

Westopolis - Another significantly large city in the United Federation. Located about midway between Empire City and Central City (think Chicago). Suffered significant damage recently, but has recovered quite well.

G.U.N. Headquarters - Headquarter for the Guardian Unit of Nations. Located either in or near Central City.

G.U.N Fortress - A major military installation and command center for G.U.N. (similar to Cheyenne Mountain).

Prison Island - A tropical island in the western pacific. Previously used by the United Federation and G.U.N. as a naval base and high security prison/depository. Since destroyed and left abandoned.

Northamer Egg Army Base - A small outpost located in an isolated part of Northamer (possibly around the area of Montana or Wyoming).

Metropolis - Important industrial center of the Eggman Empire and a major research hub. A quasi-capital of the Eggman Empire. Located somewhere in the south-east of Northamer, far away from Empire City and within flying distance of the Mystic Ruins. (Note: put it here because it wouldn't make sense for it and Mobotropolis to be so close to each other and not be constantly fighting, also needed to be close to the Mystic Ruins)

--Oceania-- Mobotropolis - Capital of the Kingdom of Acorn, a pastoral city located on Westside Island in the Acorn Archipelago in the south pacific (somewhere in Polynesia or Micronesia).

Meropis - Underwater City-Kingdom located off the coast of Soumerca, near Station Square.

Angel Island - A floating island typically found floating above the Pacific Ocean. Originally located near the Mystic Ruins before it became airborne. Contains many ancient ruins as well as left-over bases used by Doctor Eggman.

--Soumerca-- Station Square - A large city in the United Federation with a thriving tourism and entertainment industry. Located in the north of Soumerca, along the Pacific coast near the Mystic Ruins (think Acapulco with a dash of New York). Badly damaged by Perfect Chaos, but has mostly recovered.

Mystic Ruins - Ruins of an Ancient Echidna city. Dotted with archeological sites and small villages.

Harbor Heights - A small seaside resort town. Part of the United Federation.

Soumerca Egg Army Base - Located somewhere in the Jungles of Soumerca (most likely somewhere in either the Amazon, the Yucatan, Nicaragua, Venezuela, or Colombia).

--Tralius-- Tralius Egg Army Base - Primarily a research and development lab for egg army equipment, for this reason it is located far away from any United Federation territory.

--Yurashia-- Chun-Nan - Large, populated, coastal region in East Yurashia (around where Guangdong or Fujian are). Currently in a period of political upheaval, many parts of the county have been rendered effectively lawless while warlords fight for control. Can also refer to the greater area around Chu-Nan proper (effectively China).

Adabat - A costal city in South-East Yurasia. Part of the United Federation.

Yurashia Egg Army Base - Destroyed. Previously an outpost and special forces training center.

############ #CHARACTERS# ############

###Sonic & Co.### Sonic the Hedgehog - Needs no introduction. Originally from Westside Island in the Acorn Archipelago.

Miles "Tails" Prower - Best friend and 'adopted' little brother of Sonic. Genius mechanic and aeronautical engineer. Originally from South Island in the Acorn Archipelago.

Knuckles the Echidna - Last known echidna and guardian of the Master Emerald and occasional ally to Sonic. Originally from and resident of Angel Island.

Amy Rose - Admirer and close friend of Sonic. Resident of station square.

###The Caotix### Vector the Crocodile - Private detective and head of the Chaotix Detective Agency. Associate of Knuckles the Echidna.

Espio the Chameleon - Ninja member of the Chaotix Detective Agency.

Charmy the Bee - Member of the Chaotix Detective Agency.

###The Kingdom of Acorn### King Acorn - Monarch of the Acorn Archipelago, a benevolent ruler. Past dealings with G.U.N. and Dr. Eggman have made him cautious and guarded at times, although he is very open and friendly with those he trusts (such as Sonic & company). Wife died awhile back.

Vanilla the Rabbit - Courtier. Cream's mother.

Professor Charles "Uncle Chuck" the Hedgehog - Court inventor and scientist. Uncle (figure?) to Sonic.

Ben Muttski - Apprentice to Uncle Chuck.

Dr. Ellidy - Former court scientist. Creator of Nicole.

Nikki [Dead] - Dr. Ellidy's daughter.

Rosie Woodchuck - Former nanny and tutor of Princess Sally.

Elias Acorn - Prince of a cadet branch of the Acorn line and Sally's cousin. Presently attending Spagonia University.

###Freedom Fighters### Princess Sally Acorn - Heir to the throne of the Kingdom of Acorn. Leader of the Freedom Fighters. Mother died awhile back. Spent a good part of her later childhood separated from her father due to Dr. Eggman's attack on the kingdom.

Bunnie Rabbot D'Coolette - Dutchess of Coolette, Cyborg with the ability to fly and shoot lasers out of her arm-gun. Married to Antion D'Coolette.

Antion D'Coolette - Duke of Coolette, swordsman and royal guard in the service of King Acorn. Married to Bunnie Rabbot D'Coolette.

Rotor Walrus - Resident inventor and mechanic for the freedom fighters. Often collaborates with Tails when the two of them meet. Originally from Artika. Left after the death of his mother and an abusive childhood.

Cream the Rabbit - Junior member of the freedom fighters.

Nicole - Extremely advanced empathetic human-level AI. Close friend of Sally. Master hacker. Created by Dr. Ellidy.

###United Federation### The President - President of the United Federation.

Professor Gerald Robotnik [Dead] - Creator of Shadow the Hedgehog, the Biolizard, and the Eclipse Cannon. Grandfather of Maria Robotnik. Head researcher on Project Shadow immortality research project.

Maria Robotnik [Dead] - Granddaughter of Gerald Robotnik and sister-figure to Shadow the Hedgehog. Suffered from N.I.D.S. Shot and killed during the raid on space colony ark ~50 years ago.

###G.U.N.### Abraham Tower - Commander of G.U.N., close friend of Maria Robotnik, and Shadow's boss.

Amanda Tower - Captain of a G.U.N. Battleship. Daughter of Abraham Tower.

Madonna Garnet - G.U.N. counterintelligence agent and interrogator.

###Team Dark### Shadow the Hedgehog - G.U.N. agent and friends with his colleagues Rouge and Omega. Created by Professor Gerald Robotnik as both an immortality experiment and a potential cure to N.I.D.S.

Rouge the Bat - G.U.N. agent, spy, saboteur, infiltrator, and tactician for Team Dark. Friends with her colleagues Shadow and Omega.

E123 Omega - Renegade E-Series robot. 'Friends' with Shadow and Rouge. Agent of G.U.N. and walking arsenal. Enjoys destroying Eggman's robots.

###Empire City### Honey the Cat - Famous fashion designer and a prize fighter on the side. Friends with Amy Rose and business associate of Breezie the Hedgehog.

Breezie the Hedgehog - Successful (and ruthless) business tycoon and owner of Breeze Media as well as Casino Park. Formerly in the employ of Dr. Eggman, but currently in good standing with the United Federation.

###Meropis### King Puff - King of Meropis.

Queen Angelica - Queen of Meropis

Princess Undina - Sly, somewhat impish princess of Meropis. Currently traveling the world on a stolen pirate submarine, accompanied by lieutenant Echo the Dolphin.

Echo the Dolphin - Lieutenant of the Meropis City Guard and currently the personal bodyguard of princess Undina.

Striker the Mantis Shrimp - Captain of the Meropis City Guard.

Coral the Betta - Priestess of the Eusebes Shrine near Meropis. Responsible for maintaining the Meropis shield barrier. Friends with Pearly and Razor, and more recently with Amy Rose.

Pearly the Manta Ray - Apprentice and close friend of Coral.

Razor the Shark - Guardian of the Eusebes Shrine and friend of Coral and Pearly. Former member of the Pirates of the Setting Dawn and brother of Blade the Shark. Former acquaintance of Abyss the Squid.

###Shamar### Spike the Porcupine - Leader of the Desert Raiders, close friends with Sonar and Trevor. Similar to Sonic personality-wise, although a bit more of a realist.

Sonar the Fennec - Member of the Desert Raiders and close friends with Spike and Trevor. While at first she may appear bright and upbeat, in reality she often worries about her friends.

Trevor Burrow the Mole - Member of the Desert Raiders and close friends with Sonar and Spike. Completely blind, but mostly made up for with his other senses heightened as a result.

###Chu-nan### Dulcy the Dragon - The somewhat shy leader of the Shijin Warriors. Formerly a member of the Eastern Forest Clan (before she ran away). Friends with Princess Sally and Sonic, as well as the other Shijin Warriors. Can fly and breath fire.

Jian the Tiger - Member of the Shijin warriors and former member of the Yurashia Egg Army. (Former) childhood friend of Conquering Storm.

Bunker the Tortoise - Monk, shrine matron, and member of the Shijin warriors.

Cinder the Pheasant - Junior member of the Shijin warriors and assistant to Bunker the Tortoise.

###Eggman Empire### Dr. Ivo 'Eggman' Robotnik - Would-be world emperor and self-proclaimed "greatest scientific genius in the world". Most folks just call him Dr. Eggman now. Holds doctoral degrees in Engineering, Philosophy, Science, and Medicine, granted by himself, of course.

##Northamer Egg Army## Clove the Pronghorn - Egg Boss of Northamer and Cassia's older sister. Only follows Eggman for a cure to her sister's disease, although that may change soon. Is a surprisingly skilled fighter (probably in the top 3 for the Egg Bosses) but prefers a diplomatic approach most of the time, unless her friends or family are threatened.

Cassia the Pronghorn - Co-Egg Boss of Northamer and Clove's younger sister. Suffers from an incurable disease and receives ongoing treatment for it from Eggman, making her and her sister dependent on Eggman. Competent fighter Loves videogames.

##Soumerica Egg Army## Thunderbolt the Chinchilla - Egg Boss of Soumerica and Dr. Eggman's self-proclaimed 'number-one-fan'. One of the few genuinely loyal members of eggman's forces.

##Efrica Egg Army## Axel the Water Buffalo - Egg Boss of Efrica and talented Mechanic. Leader of a biker gang before joining up with Eggman, now leads them as the Efrica Egg Army.

##Artika Egg Army## Turndra the Walrus - Artika Egg Boss and Rotor's father. Originally the chief of one of two major tribes before submitting to Eggman. Believes in survival of the fittest and that the strongest should rule. A fierce fighter, tends to think of things in black and white.

##Norther Oceans Egg Army## Akhlut the Orca - Egg Boss of the northern oceans and rival/enemy of Tundra. Ferocious in combat and a bit of a sadist. Can be manipulative, but tends to favor brute strength.

##Southern Oceans Egg Army## Abyss the Squid - Egg Boss of the southern oceans. Former member of the Pirates of the Setting Dawn and self-proclaimed 'greatest pirate who ever lived'. Loves everything about the pirate life, especially the drinking.

##Tralius Egg Army## Maw the Thylacine - Egg Boss of Tralius. A scientist and inventor in his own right, also one of the few genuinely loyal members of Eggman's forces, although more for selfish reasons. Very little is known about his true motivations. May be a war criminal.

##Midesta Egg Army## Nephthys the Vulture - Egg Boss of Midesta. An old war veteran and a mentor to Spike, Sonar, and Trevor. Prefers to avoid conflict, after having seen the destruction caused by Midesta's periodic wars firsthand. Respected by those under her, many of whom served with her before Eggman arrived.

##Avalon Egg Army## Mordred Hood - Lord of Avalon (Sylvania), acting as the Eggman Empire's Egg Boss for the region. While noble by birth, no-one else recognizes his claim to the throne. Only still in power because Eggman is backing him.

##Yurashia Egg Army## Conquering Storm - Egg Boss of Chu-nan and leader of a formerly-independent clan which now make up the bulk of the Yurasia Egg Army. Driven to unify Greater Chu-nan and bring an end to the conflict and strife in central and western Chu-nan (think Warlord-era China).

##Battle Bird Armada## Battle Lord Kukku XV - "Fifteenth son of a noble lineage" which streches back around 400-500 years to the destruction of the city of Babylon and leader of the Battle Bird Armada. Only works for Eggman to avoid having to fight both Eggman and The United Federation. plans on breaking away from Eggman when the opportunity presents itself.

Speedy (Battle Lord Kukku XVI) - Son of Kukku and heir to the Battle Bird Armada. Acts mature when 'on the job', but still has a childish streak in him. Secretly loves videogames.

###Black Arms### Black Doom [Dead] - (Former) Leader of the Black Arms. Tried to eat the inhabitants of the World.

Eclipse the Darkling - Last member of the Black Arms? Half-Brother to Shadow by blood, not that Shadow would ever admit that. Vengeful and lost, not sure of anything other than getting revenge on Shadow for destroying the Black Arms.

######## #EVENTS# ########

###THE DISTANT PAST### ??Real World Events?? (if they fit the setting, WW2 probably didn't happen, but the middle ages or Rome, or their equivalent might have) SA1 Flashbacks

###THE RECENT PAST### S3&K, SA1, SA2 Much of the reboot comic

###CURRENT EVENTS###

###THE FUTURE?### (Maybe a metaplot at some point)

#sonicfanuniverse #sonic the hedgehog #overview

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