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dracademy · 2 years ago

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Biological Classification

Biological classification is the process of classifying distinct organisms together based on their phylogenetic descent, similarity, and differences. R.H. Whittaker proposed a five-kingdom categorization system that categorized species based on their cellular structure, complexity, mechanism of nourishment, evolutionary link, and ecological role. Whittaker classified creatures into five groups: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.

Monera- All types of bacteria that have prokaryotic cells—cells without a clearly defined nucleus—fall into this category. Bacteria come in a variety of morphologies, including spherical cocci, rod-shaped bacillus, comma-vibro, and spirit spirilla. Fission, spore formation under unfavorable conditions, and DNA transfer from one bacterial cell to another are their primary methods of reproduction. Mycoplasma is the smallest cell that can exist without oxygen because it lacks a cell wall. Archaebacteria can be found in hot springs, salt marshes, and other extreme environmental conditions. Ruminant’s guts contain methanogens, which make biogas. In contrast to motile creatures, which have flagella, eubacteria are real bacteria and have stiff cell walls. Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) are examples of photosynthetic autotrophs. They contain carotenoids and chlorophyll. Chemosynthetic molecules are crucial for recycling nutrients. The oxidation of numerous inorganic materials, including ammonia, nitrates, and nitrites, provides them with the energy they need to produce ATP. Heterotrophic bacteria come in a vast variety. As a decomposer, they work. They provide a variety of functions, including the production of curd, antibiotics, and fixing nitrogen.

Protista- This group contains eukaryotes with only one cell. A protist that uses photosynthetic organisms connects plants and mammals. It consists of protozoans, dinoflagellates, euglenoids, slime moulds, and chrysophytes. Diatoms and desmids are examples of chrysophytes; they are primarily photosynthetic organisms with silica-based cell walls that are impervious to damage. Dinoflagellates are photosynthetic sea organisms that vary in color depending on the pigment present, including yellow, green, red, and blue. Euglenoids, which produce photosynthesis but lack a cell wall, serve as a bridge between plants and animals. Slime moulds are saprophytic protists that eat decomposing twigs, leaves, and other organic matter. Unicellular, eukaryotic heterotrophs in the protozoan category can be either parasites or predators. These are separated into four main groups: sporozoans, flagellated, ciliated, and amoeboids.

Fungi- Fungi are universal and cosmopolitan organisms. Because they are heterotrophic, they absorb nutrients. Chitin, also known as fungal cellulose, makes up their cell wall. Several significant fungi include Yeast (used in the fermentation process to produce cheese, bread, and beer), Penicillium (a source of antibiotics), Puccinia (which causes wheat rust), Ustilago (which causes smut disease), Symbionts (lichens, mycorrhiza), Rhizopus (the bread mould), Albugo (the parasitic fungi on mustard), Neurospora (heavily utilized in genetic and biochemical research), etc.

Plantae- It is mostly inhabited by eukaryotic, autotrophic organisms that contain chlorophyll and have hard, cellulose-based cell walls. Some plants, like parasitic and insectivorous ones, are somewhat heterotrophic. Algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, and angiosperms are all members of the kingdom Plantae.

Animalia- The Kingdom Animalia encompasses all heterotrophic, eukaryotic, and multicellular organisms and they lack a cell wall.

For NEET candidates, biological categorization is the most crucial subject. To pass the NEET exam, they must read every chapter and section on this subject. NEET applicants can benefit from the best NEET coaching in Bangalore and Hyderabad to help them understand this crucial subject.

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lupinepublishers · 4 years ago

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lupine publishers| Economic Returns of Foliar Fungicides Application to Control Yellow Rust in Bread Wheat Cultivars in Arsi high lands of Ethiopia

Wheat yellow rust caused by Puccinic Striiformis f. sp tritici is the most widespread and destructive disease of wheat, especially in the highlands of Ethiopia. Application of foliar fungicides are important mechanisms to control wheat yellow rust disease. The activity was conducted at two experimental sites Meraro and Bekoji in 2018 main cropping season, in order to determine net returns of wheat yields from the application of fungicides. The aim of the study was to know net reruns obtained from the application of propiconazole and Thiophanate-methyl 310g/l +Epoxiconazole 187g/l fungicides with twice application frequency in four bread wheat cultivars with different resistance level, being susceptible, moderately susceptible, moderately resistant and resistant including Kubsa, Danda’a, Lemu and Wane against wheat yellow rust respectively in 2018. The positive net returns at Meraro, 12.66, 11.4, 8.39 and 7.65, and at Bekoji 12.14, 11.4, 7.92 and 5.18 on Kubsa, Lemu, Danda’a and Wane (susceptible, moderately susceptible, moderately resistant and resistant bread wheat varieties by the twice application of RexDuo respectively. Maximum net return on fungicide application was obtained on the susceptible (Kubsa) variety $1164.98 ha−1 at Bekoji and $1215.13 ha−1 at Meraro and minimum net returns was observed on Wane (resistant) variety $ 5.18 ha−1 at Bekoji and 7.65 at Meraro experimental stations by the twice application of Rex®Duo. Epoxiconazole +Thiiophanate-methyl applied treatments were resulted the highest returns at the rate of 0.5l ha−1, but low net returns were observed on propiconazole applied treatments at a rate of 0.5l ha−1 at both location. From the study lower economic return at Bekoji was obtained due to dry climatic conditions which resulted in low rust severity as compared to Meraro obtained higher profitability to higher altitude with cooler climate, lower temperature, heavy dew and intermittent rains. This indicated that conducive climatic conditions to yellow rust disease development during the growing season, cultivar resistance, fungicide application frequency, plant growth stage, fungicide and fungicide application costs and the price of wheat determines the net return in fungicide application of wheat. The results from this study indicated that foliar fungicide applications to bread wheat cultivars can be profitable in twice application with sensitive to semi sensitive(moderately susceptible to susceptible)varieties; however, net loss can result if fungicide

usts caused by obligate pathogens of wheat are yellow rust (Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici), stem rust (Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici) and leaf rust (Puccinia recondite f.sp. tritici) which infect the foliage, stem and sometimes the spikes lost more than $5bilion in each year .They have the capacity to develop into widespread epidemics and complex life cycles that involve alternate hosts and several spore stages resulting in yield losses of 30-50% sensitive and semi sensitive cultivars and 57-97% on [1-8]. Wheat stripe rust, caused by Puccinia striiformis is one of the most widespread, destructive and an emerging serious disease, especially in cool climates, present in almost all the wheat growing areas and a formidable threat to global wheat production [2-6]. In Ethiopia Arsi, Bale and North shoa areas, are wheat mono cropping and the most prevalent to yellow rust disease epidemics which causes 57 to 97% of yield losses in sensitive and semi sensitive bread wheat cultivars [7,8] Application of foliar fungicides are important mechanisms to control wheat yellow rust and reduce yield losses. According to [9], [6] findings comparatively better yields were obtained on sprayed treatments rather than unsprayed treatments under experimental condition. During the fungicide application; conduciveness of

environment to rust, varietal resistance, effectiveness and timing of fungicide application to be taken into consideration in reducing the disease severity and rate of epidemic development. Large scale commercial and government-run wheat farms have generally chosen to plant rust-susceptible wheat varieties because they have a greater yield potential of 20%-25% and 36.6% -51.1% than rust-resistant varieties [5 and 8]. Wheat grown in a higher-yield potential (highland) environment may be more likely to produce a yield response. Timely application of fungicides effectively prevents yield losses and further spread of the disease to the wheat production regions, and potentially huge nationwide yield loss was avoided through use of fungicides [10]. Fungicide prices influence the decision of spraying or not spraying. However, when the disease severity is low, crop yield is usually not impacted. The benefit from fungicide applications in crop production is reflected in the returns of up to three times the cost involved [11]. There is a misconception that fungicides are used to get a “yield bump” but most crop scientists agree that fungicides simply protect yield potential. When disease severity has the potential to reduce crop yields, then fungicide applications may help to protect the crop from potential losses. On the other hand, if disease severity is low and there is minimal yield loss, then applying a fungicide will not result in either a yield or economic advantage [12]. In the considerable studies researchers emphasized that there are a number of factors that farmers should consider before making a fungicide spray decision, including yield potential, wheat price, fungicide cost, and disease pressure. Although many farmers and private wheat growers spray as soon as the rust occurred without considering economic threshold level of the disease and positive net return on the economic yield of wheat. The main objective of this research was to determine the profitability of wheat yield using fungicides against yellow rust in susceptible, moderately susceptible, moderately varieties and comparing with commercial relatively resistant wheat varieties. Materials and Methods The study was undertaken at Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center, sub-stations Bekoji and Meraro, in Arsi highlands of South Eastern Ethiopia during 2018 main cropping season. The experiment was conducted at Meraro and Bekoji experimental stations from the Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center substations during the main cropping season of 2018 at south eastern part of Ethiopia.Treatments and Experimental design The experiments were laid out in randomized complete block design (RCBD) in factorial arrangement with three replications. Four bread wheat cultivars which were selected based response of reaction being Kubsa susceptible (Sensitive), Danda’a Moderately susceptible (semi sensetive), Lemmu moderately resistant and Wane relatively resistant to wheat yellow rust and released from Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center, Ethiopia were used (Table 1). All the varieties were sown at the recommended rate of 100 kg seed ha-1 to six row plots of 2.5m length and 1.2m width with 20 cm inter-row spacing. The gaps between plots and replications were 1m and 1.5m, respectively. Spreader rows consisting of a mixture of highly susceptible bread wheat varieties of Morocco, Kubsa and PBW 343 were planted in each border row in order to ensure uniform spread of inocula and sufficient disease development. Experimental plots were fertilized with Diamonium phosphate (DAP) and Urea (41kgN/46kg P2O5ha-1) just at planting and weeds and insect pests were controlled as management recommendations

Fungicide and application frequency Wheat plots were sprayed with recently registered and widely used fungicides viz. Rex® Duo (Epoxiconazole + Thiophanate-methyl) and Tilt 250EC*(propiconazole) at 0.5lt product ha-1in 250lha-1 water using Manual Knapsack Sprayer (Table 2). Foliar fungicides and its application costs were used to analysis profitability on the spraying of fungicides to four bread wheat cultivars (Table 3). The average price of bread wheat cultivars were calculated from data provided by the Ethiopian Agricultural and commodity Marketing Service and average local fungicide prices used were obtained by assessing local retailers and chemical manufacturers. Since knapsack fungicide application was agreed by contract between the grower and the commercial applicators so Adjuvant and surfactant, and machinery and machinery, maintenance costs were omitted because of the wide variation in their uses and costs. Net return from fungicide application was calculated as follows: Rn = YiP− (Fc + Ac) Where, Rn is the net return from fungicide application ($ ha-1); Yi is yield increase from fungicide application (kg ha-1), obtained by subtracting the yield in the Control treatment from the yield in the fungicide treatments; P is the wheat price ($ kg-1); Fc is the fungicide cost ($ ha-1) and Ac is the fungicide application cost ($ ha-1). At Bekoji, profitability from the application of fungicides varied from $7ha-1 in Lemu variety treated with one application of Tilt to 1165$ha-1 in Kubsa variety that received twice application of Rex®Duo (Table 4). At Meraro, net return after fungicide application ranged from 88$ha-1 in Danda’a variety treated once with Tilt to 1215$ha-1 in Kubsa variety treated twice with Rex® Duo (Table 5). From the application of fungicides profitability of economic yield in bread wheat varieties at Bekoji and Meraro in experimental stations, similarly showed variability in net returns from location to location (Table 4 and 5).The lower profitability at Bekoji can be attributed to dry weather which resulted in low disease levels as compared to Meraro obtained higher profitability to higher elevation with cooler climate, lower temperature, heavy dew and intermittent rains. In Meraro, yellow rust on bread wheat is first observed ate early seedling stage with optimum urediniospores in mid belig or early mehar season (June to November). The positive net return can be strongly influenced by the Market price of wheat on applying fungicides to control wheat yellow rust. The expected yield increase of 2967 kg ha−1 representing 51.1% of the yield potential and a fungicide and application cost of $96 ha−1, the net return was $1164.98 ha−1 at a wheat price of $0.425kg−1 compared to $497.7 ha−1 t at the same wheat price of $0.425kg−1. Therefore twice application of Rex® Duo or Tilt 250 EC immediately after appearance of rust disease on wheat varieties at 15 days interval are effective in controlling the disease and achieving higher economic return. The results indicated that lower economic return at Bekoji was obtained due to dry climatic conditions which resulted in low level of rust severity as compared to Meraro obtained maximum profitability to higher altitude with cooler climate, lower temperature, heavy dew and intermittent rains. This findings are convenient with work done by [13,14 and 15] indicated that conducive climatic conditions to yellow rust disease development during the growing season, cultivar resistance, fungicide application frequency, plant growth stage, fungicide and fungicide application costs and the price of wheat determines the net return in fungicide application of wheat. According to [16] findings doubling and tripling the grain price of bread wheat had the highest impact on the net return from fungicide application, followed by increasing fungicide cost. In conclusion, profitability is dependent on many factors, including weather conditions favorable to disease development, the level of disease intensity, efficacy of the fungicide applied in controlling each specific disease, fungicide and fungicide application costs and rates, fungicide application timing, cultivar resistance, cultural practices and the price of wheat.

Conclusion and RecommendationWheat yellow rust caused by puccinia striiformis f.sp.tritici, is the most widespread, destructive and formidable threat especially in cool climates, present in the highland wheat growing areas of Ethiopia. Now a day, possibility of producing new resistant variety is difficult due to complexity of yellow rust and continually evolvement of new races. In East Africa the current commercial wheat cultivars including recently released varieties are susceptible to the new races and not possible to grow a profitable yield of wheat without application of fungicides to the private sectors, farmers and government run wheat growers in Ethiopia. To obtained positive net returns, environmental factors, varietal response to rust, efficacy and timing of fungicide application, cost of fungicide, wheat price and agricultural practices should be taken into consideration. Our results and similar studies suggested that application of fungicide specifically diazoles like Epoxiconazole + Thiophanate-methyl, at hotspot areas to yellow rust province on sensitive(susceptible) and semi sensitive(intermediate) cultivar is beneficial and can constitute a significant part of stripe rust managing program. So research suggested to wheat growers to use effective fungicides on susceptible and intermediate varieties in the golden time of stripe rust occurrence, able to control wheat yellow rust to yield and net return increase.Acknowledgments Ethiopian institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR) is kindled thanked for the financial support of the study and Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center is acknowledged for conducting experimental study. The all-round support provided by the wheat rust research team especially, to Tamirat Negash, Getenesh Demissie and Askinew solomon indebted and highly appreciated

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symbiotic-science · 6 years ago

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Researchers from the University of Sydney, CSIRO, the United Kingdom's John Innes Centre, Limagrain UK and the National Institute of Agricultural Botany (NIAB) have isolated the first major resistance genes against the detrimental stripe rust disease that is devastating wheat crops worldwide.

The discovery by the scientists, who have cloned three related rust resistance genes—called Yr7, Yr5, and YrSP—will enable these important genes to be accurately monitored and integrated into breeding programs in the fight against ever-changing pathogens that could kill about 70 percent or more of whole wheat crops at a time.

Wheat is relied on by more than one-third of the world's population and one of the most economically important staple foods. Wheat rust is one of the most widespread and devastating diseases and stripe rust—which is bright yellow and shaped as stripes—is the most problematic of these pathogens worldwide because it easily adapts to different climates and environments, and there are not many effective genes that breeders can use in their varieties.

#wheat rust #genetics #science #botany #sciblr #biology #news #scienceblr

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loveaaronwilliamson · 4 years ago

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Journal of Plant Physiology & Pathology

This is an International peer-reviewed open access journal publishing quality articles on plant physiology, cell biology, genetics, metabolism, pathology, and stress physiology and plant nutrition. The editorials board of the Journal is constituted by subject experts in plant science from USA, Canada and Egypt. The inception of the journal took place in the year 2013 and the Journal since then has been consistently publishing quality peer-reviewed articles on contemporary research topics in plant physiology including integrated disease management, plant disease control, plant metabolism, plant parasite interaction and microbiology. In the current year volume 9 the Journal has published five original research articles as follows: 1. Evaluation of Bread Wheat (Triticum aestivumL.) Genotypes for Stem and yellow Rust Resistance in Ethiopia.2. Chemical Management of Anthracnose-Twister (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penzig and Sacc-Gibberella moniliformis Wineland) Disease of Onion (Allium cepa L.).3. Effect of Genotypes, Ethephone and Boron and Their Interaction on Sex Expression and Yield of Summer Squash. 4. Characterization of Fungi of Stored Common Bean Cultivars Grown in the Menoua Division, Cameroon. 5. In-Vitro Screening of Indigenous Botanicals of Manipur for Anti Fungal Activities of Helminthosporium Oryzae an Incitant of Brown Spot Disease of Rice and Efficacy Test at Different Level of Concentrations. The articles were contributed by 14 distinct authors from diverse regions of the world. The journal is compiling the next issue and the manuscripts can be submitted online at https://www.scholarscentral.org/submissions/plant-physiology-pathology.html or as an email attachment to [email protected]. The manuscript preparation guidelines are accessible at https://www.scitechnol.com/instructionsforauthors-plant-physiology-pathology.php.

#Plant Pathology #Tree Physiology #Plant and Soil Sciences #Plant Parasite Interactions #Cell Biology and Molecular Genetics

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lupine-publishers-oajess · 5 years ago

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Lupine Publishers|Wheat Leaf Rust Detection at an Early Stage with Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)

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Abstract

In this study, we demonstrated the early stage wheat rust diagnosis using Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). Wheat rust is a common disease, caused by parasitic fungus and reduces crop yield up to 30 to 40 percent by effecting leaf and stem of plant. The wheat seed having fungus are the carrier of rust infection for the plant. The infected seed and rust fungus not only reduce food quantity but effect its quality. In our experimental research, the wheat leaf sample of day 10, 27, 35 and 45 were analyzed. The rust appears after day 24 on leaf, and rusted leaf has higher surface roughness than the normal one. We analyzed shape, surface structure of normal and rusted wheat leaf surface with AFM. The leaf protein and structure with high-resolution AFM imaging under controlled environmental conditions. The results revealed the morphological details of normal and viral infected proteins of wheat leaf with high-resolution in vivo study. The findings provide the basis for AFM as a useful tool for investigating microbial-surface structures and properties at an early stage of rust. We can visualize the starch granule surface at different stages of maturity reveals information regarding the development of granule architecture. The changes in infected leaf compared to normal can be seen at starch granule interior throughout the growth. Leaf surface shows depressions on the granule surface and changes in protein for the infected, and we can manage the disease at an early stage of rust development. These results will be used for an early stage detection of wheat rust and can be extended to other crops diseases detection using AFM and laser-scanning microscopy.

Keywords:Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM); Wheat Rust; Fungal Infection; viral detection

Introduction

In recent decades, there has been impressive growth in food production worldwide, which have been attributed to the development of improved, disease-resistant varieties, increased use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Although enough food is produced, but yet this food and the technology to produce it does not match the requirements and as a result about thousand million people do not get enough to eat and several millions die worldwide from hunger or hunger-related diseases [1-3]. During the period 1995 to 2050, the world’s population is projected to increase by 75 percent and food security projected to become more critical, increasing wheat yield potential in the developing world remains a high priority [4]. Among the other fungal and viral infections, wheat leaf rust caused by viral fungus continue to pose a major threat to wheat production over large areas, particularly in Asia. Rust diseases significantly influence several crop species and considerable research focuses on understanding the basis of host specificity and resistance. Like many pathogens, rust fungi vary considerably in the number of hosts they can infect, such as wheat leaf rust (Puccinia triticina), which can only infect species in the genera Triticum and Aegilops. Rusts often produce spots similar to leaf spots and are bright yellow, orange-red, reddish-brown or black in color. The pustules are usually raised above the leaf surface, and some types of rust occur on stems. Rusts are common on grains and grasses [5-7].

Wheat rusts spread rapidly over long distances by wind. If not detected and treated on time. For effective integrated management of wheat rust diseases close monitoring, international collaboration and strengthening of national capacities are crucial. Although in certain cases fungicide application may be necessary, preventive approaches are the most effective and environmentally friendly means of wheat rust management. specialists from international institutions and wheat producing countries work together to stop these diseases that involves continuous surveillance, sharing data and building emergency response plans to protect their farmers and those in neighboring countries. In general, a fungal infection can cause local or extensive necrosis and can inhibit normal growth of entire plant [8-10].

Several studies worldwide have been carried out for early rust detection. We have applied the surface morphological structure characterization using atomic force microscopy (AFM). It is a non-invasive method and are used for a variety of materials in surface science, biochemistry and biology [11-12]. It is a powerful technique and has the ability to obtain topographic information on, and surface morphology of, the sample. It can also use to investigate chromosomes, proteins, living cells, carbohydrates and DNA [13]. In addition to obtain detailed structural information on the sample and allows us to visualize the cell surface properties on the nanometer scale [14]. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) provides images of biological structures without requiring labeling and to follow dynamic processes in real time. In structural biology, it has proven its ability to image proteins and protein conformational changes at sub molecular resolution, and in proteomics, it is developing as a tool to map surface proteomes and to study protein function by force spectroscopy methods. The power of AFM to combine studies of protein form and protein function enables bridging various research fields to come to a comprehensive, molecular level picture of biological processes [15]. In this study, a wheat leaf rust through the field experiment by the identification and disease index inversion is investigated successfully at an early stage with AFM. The aim of this study is to provide a method for monitoring and evaluating the diseases, so that proper management for rust protection can be made will in time.

Materials and Methods

The normal and rusted wheat leaf were collected during the season from National Agricultural Research Council (NARC). The samples were fixed, and changes are observed using the Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM, Alpha Contac, Germany). About 40 samples including 10 control and 30 rusted are taken from field. The AFM system installed at National Institute of lasers and Optronics (NILOP) used to analyze the fresh sample taken from field in 1 to 2 hours. The sample of day 10, 27, 35 and 45 are observed. The rust appears after day 24 on leaf, and rusted leaf has higher surface roughness than the normal one. The surface imaging was performed in the contact mode in air. Silicon nitride tips (Alpha Contac, Germany) were used for all AFM experiments. The radius of the cantilever of the tip was 7 nm and the diameter of the tip was 14 nm. The length of the cantilever was 12.6 μm, thick-ness 3.52-4.08 μm, width 30-31 μm, and had an oscillation frequency of 287-336 kHz and a force constant of 28-45 N m-1. The images were analyzed by using WSXM 4.0 Develop 12.1 software for gaining information from the topography of the cells. The observation was performed inside a chamber at room temperature [1,2,3,16].

Results and Discussion

The leaf rust, caused by Puccinia triticina, is an important disease in most wheat growing areas. The use of genetic resistance is the most economical and environmentally friendly way to combat this disease. For early stage rust fungus detection, several conventional methods are being utilized [17-18]. Atomic force microscopy is a powerful technique, which allows surface imaging of non- conducting samples in nanometer scale. In this experiment wheat leaf are imaged under ambient conditions, i.e. in air and with minimal sample preparations. The wheat corps of normal and rusted field are shown in Figure 1. Determining the time and scale of primary infections is also difficult with leaf rust because P. triticinainfected wheat crops show weak symptoms during the latent period of the disease. The samples were collected from the field for day 10, 27, 35 and 45 and shown in Figure 2. The rust appears after day 24 on leaf, and rusted leaf has higher surface roughness than the normal one Leaf rust symptoms are also checked several times to distinguish it by stem rust outbreaks at different time. Wheat leaf rust samples collection and examination of signs and symptoms in the field is very essential before AFM test. In some cases, diagnosis of leaf rust often requires isolation of the fungus and identification of the fungal pathotypes on differential host genotypes, which is complicated and time-consuming. Monitoring and early detection of this disease is crucial for the effective control and implementation of measures. Recent developments of remote sensing technology had the potential to enable direct detection of plant diseases under field conditions. However, sometime due to poor resolution the detection probability reduces.

Figure 1: The field picture of wheat leaf normal and rust fungus infection crop overview.

Figure 2: The wheat rusts fungal infected leaf samples of day 10 (a) normal and for day 27 (b), day 35(c) and day 45(d) are collected and analyzed with Atomic Force microscopy (AFM) topographic, phase images, and their cross-section analysis.

The AFM study of rusted wheat leaf from very early stage of growth provides a means to quantify their mechanical properties and examine their response to nanoscale forces, pulling single surface proteins with a functionalized tip allow one to understand their role in sensing and adhesion. The combination of these nanoscale techniques with modern molecular biology approaches, genetic engineering and optical microscopies provides a powerful platform for understanding the sophisticated functions of the plant machinery, and its role in the onset and progression of complex diseases. Topographic image and the cross-section analysis of the samples of day 10, 27, 35 and 45 were imagine with AFM. The results can be seen in Figure 3 for the sample collected on day 10 (normal sample). It can be seen in Figures 2(a) & 3, no fungus attack is observed on leaf and it represents normal study. The rust fungus appears after day 24 on leaf, and rusted leaf has higher surface roughness than the normal one at day 10. The leaf starch granule surface structure can be seen in Figure 3. The observation represents essentially a top view of the surface enabling estimations in two and three dimensions of the size of different microstructures. The rust fungus appears after day 24 and the sample in Figure 2(bd) and two and three-dimensional AFM images in Figure 4. As seen in the topographic image block lets are clearly visible in image.

Figure 3: The Atomic Force microscopy (AFM) 2D and 3D topographic, phase image of Wheat leaf rust infection at day 10 for normal leaf. Scale of the axis of the cross-section analysis of topographic is 10 μm, angle 10-15o, whereas depth is 2.4 nm.

Figure 4: The Atomic Force microscopy (AFM) 2D and 3D topographic, phase image of Wheat leaf rust infection at day 45 for rust fungus infection. Scale of the axis of the cross-section analysis of topograph is 10 μm, angle 10-15o, whereas depth is 2.4 nm.

The AFM 2D and 3D images had dimensions between 10 x10 μm. Apparently, the blocklets were clustered or fused together at different heights forming nodules and are mostly elongated in shape. Depressions were also observed on the surface of the granule. Phase image in an AFM study highlights the stiffness of the sample surface. It records the phase lagging between the cantilever oscillation and the phase of driving signal giving an indication of relative stiffness at different locations of the surface of the sample, indicating rust formation. Thus, phase images can be utilized to recognize fungus and understand the microstructure inside depressions, which were hidden in the topographic image. The topographic image shows some corresponding features, surface roughness hinders the identification of domains. The phase image allows unambiguous resolution of the different material phases. The surface of the day 35 and 45 are similar to day 27 and indicate that top of the nodules was mostly stiffer than valleys, as shown in Figure 4.

The cross-section analysis of phase images, the stiffness of granule surfaces for normal and rusted leaf is different. The phase image further visualized the texture of surface depressions, which may be hidden in the topography, and the presence of deep gaps dividing bundles of nodules from each other. In contrast to the surface with blocklets commonly observed and reported in literature [19]. We can see that the presence of 4.5 nm deep depressions with higher stiffness similar to regular granule surface in the background of the amorphous surface suggests that these depressions likely extend to the underneath semi-crystalline growth ring. These depressions might also be a part of internal channels. The wheat tissue morphology can be described as a succession of more or less thick layers including the starchy endosperm layer, the protein stored as granules in the cells of plant seeds layer and the internal cells layers with external pericarp.

In past some researchers worked on an optical light detection for visible and near-infrared region to detect different types of rust at the leaf scale [20]. In this study, none of these indices were able to detect and discriminate the types of rust. However, the anthocyanin reflectance index can be used to detect yellow rust, and the transformed chlorophyll absorption and reflectance index can be used to detect leaf rust [21]. In another study conducted by Frank and Menz, hyperspectral and leaf multispectral data were used to estimate the severity of wheat leaf rust [22]. Results indicated that leaf rust could be detected in the early symptoms by using hyperspectral data. The algorithm used in this research was based on the minimum noise fraction transformation. The reflectance spectra of the infected, non-infected, and dry area, as well as the soil class were taken at the canopy level. Ashourloo et al. showed that the disease symptoms have a high impact on the infected plant reflectance spectra [23]. This means that as the disease severity increases, so does the collected spectrum variations at a specific disease severity. Results showed that as the disease severity increases, the scattering of the numerical values for all of the indices also increases. For the different amounts of scattering and classification accuracy are not the same and depend on the wavelength of light used. Wheat leaf rust at the leaf scale was studied for two purposes, one is to estimate the reflectance spectra of various disease symptoms; and other is to introduce an index for precise determination of disease severity using the spectral reflectance of leaf [24]. In our previous study we have applied optical detection techniques to several viral infection monitoring using human blood in vivo and in vitro [25-32].

Conclusion

In this, experimental studies we demonstrated that Atomic Force Microscopy AFM provides a powerful platform for detect wheat leaf rust fungus at nanoscale level. The main advantages of AFM are the ability to image and manipulate early stage fungus infection at nanometer resolution and its operation under a wide variety of physiological conditions for quantifying the physical properties of cellular structures and leaf surface molecules topography and structure morphology. The applied technique provides early stage detection of fungus pathogen, when it it cannot be observed visually. So, the protection management with anti-pathogen chemicals can be made to save the crop from disease. The development and combination of multiple orthogonal, yet complimentary, biophysical tools will clearly play a major role in illuminating a deeper understanding of the complex interplay between physical and biological information.

Collaborations between the Nano, physical and life sciences will lead to the AFM being used more routinely in studies of fundamental and complex biological processes. Such studies will lead to the understanding of the importance of the physical mechanisms governing fungal infection and its characteristics in biology. The atomic force microscopy (AFM) provides the structural, mechanical strength, topography, and surface morphology of the sample in easy way. The information related to the rust fungus infection at an early stage can facilitate the wheat management planning. AFM qualitative and quantitative imaging of granules and stomata support blocklet structural information of diverse starch systems. This imaging methodology will enhance other early stage rust detection techniques to be utilized for wheat food improvements.

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dhyeyaiasworld · 5 years ago

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What is Yellow Rust? | Current Affair by Dhyeya IAS |

An advisory was released regarding Yellow rust, by the Punjab Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare Department. Yellow Rust was detected in wheat crops in parts of Punjab and Haryana. In India, especially in the Northern Hill Zone and the North-Western Plain Zone, yellow rust is a major disease. It spreads easily during the starting of cool weather and with the help of favorable wind conditions. In this DNS we will know about the yellow rust.

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kamounlab · 5 years ago

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Ten things we learned in 2010-2019 (aside from everything else)

He who has studied himself is his own master. –Sri Lankan proverb.

By the time this gets posted, you’ll probably be sick and tired of all those retrospective articles looking back at the 2010-2019 decade. I feel your pain. But hey, we’re still early in the new decade and I have a good reason for writing this. This last decade has been such an exhilarating period of exploration and discovery for me, my team and my collaborators that I just can’t resist the urge to write this post. The decade took us through unexpected research paths that I would have never imagined ten years ago. As I’m drafting these words during my holidays break in Sri Lanka—in between tasting the local milk rice curries and soaking the soft Indian ocean December sunshine—I’m reflecting on the local proverb above and I’m using it as my lame excuse to offer you yet another list of decadal achievements.

Please note that this is my personal highly biased perspective on ten things we have learned in 2010-2019. This list is by no means meant to be comprehensive review of advances in our research field but rather a reflection of my own personal take on the scientific topics we investigate.

2010. Two-speed genomes, everywhere? What started as a loose metaphor inspired from economics went sort of viral at some point in this decade, sometimes to comical effects (one speed genome anyone?). To those who struggle with metaphors, the idea is that there is an uneven distribution in the rates of gene evolution across the genome, not that there are precisely two-rates of gene evolution. The term actually dates back to 2009 press releases associated with the Haas et al. paper on the genome of Phytophthora infestans. We noted at the time that it was a catchy term that does illustrate the point we were making, and I really liked the French translation into the poetic “génome à deux vitesses”. By 2010, we were confident enough that we formally used the term in the Raffaele et al. paper on genome evolution after host jumps. What was even more exciting about the “two-speed genome” concept is that it turned out to apply not just to Phytophthora genomes but also to many other plant pathogens. Ten years later, we start the new decade with a paper on the two-speed genome architecture of the blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae.

2011. WY fold—commonalities amid diversity. Our collaboration with Mark Banfield started yielding its fruits with the 2011 Boutemy et al. paper. This and related papers by the Staskawicz and Shirasu Labs in the US and Japan, respectively, marked the discovery of the WY-fold of oomycete effectors. This has now expanded into the LWY-foldand an effector of the tobacco blue mold pathogen Peronospora tabacina has 18 WY units. The finding that pathogen effectors share structural features despite limited primary sequence similarity has also extended to other filamentous pathogens, for example the MAX-fold of M. oryzae effectors. This is very useful because it improves prediction of effector genes from pathogen genomes and sets the stage for effectoromics.

2011. The haustorial interface—where it all happens? I’m a big fan of this Bozkurt et al. paper because it was very challenging for me to get outside my comfort zone into the murky world of plant cell biology (where many people seem reluctant to quantify their observations…). Kudos to Tolga Bozkurt and Sebastian Schornack for leading the way and taking me through this journey. As often, the effectors gave us the first clue and the discovery that some P. infestans effectors accumulate at the haustorial interface (perihaustorial) turned out to be a starting point for many cool projects. Thanks in part to a nudge from an anonymous reviewer who was dissing the novelty of studying effectors that suppress PAMP-triggered immunity (the “it has all been done with Pseudomonas syringae” type of reviewer), we decided to focus on perihaustorial effectors. This resulted, in many important findings, notably the discovery of the ATG8-binding effector PexRD54 and that the host autophagy machinery is diverted to the haustorial interface during infection by P. infestans. This also led us to study plant ATG8 proteins and how they have specialized throughout evolution.

2013. Genome editing made easy. Ten years ago, geneticists were dreaming about gene editing. What if there was a tool that would allow facile gene editing. TALENs popped up first in 2009 but, in our hands, applying them turned out to be anything but simple. Vlad Nekrasov noted that the AvrBs3 backbone of standard TALEN constructs wouldn’t generate transgenic tomatoes because they elicit Bs4-mediated cell death. That frustration was one motivation in early 2013 to ditch the TALEN work and focus on the newly reported CRISP/Cas9 system. That was a wise decision and Vlad got CRISPR/Cas9 to work in what seemed like weeks. The rest is history with Vlad’s CRISPR/Cas9 plasmids have been distributed >500 times via Addgene. Vlad, in collaboration with Detlef Weigel’s lab, went on to engineer the transgene-free powdery mildew resistant mutant Tomelo in less than a year. This work ended up being highlighted by the BBC as one of “four good things that happened in 2016″.

2013. Field pathogenomics—just sequence it! It was the ash dieback outbreak that gave us our first opportunity to combine sequencing of field collected tissue with open science and crowdsourcing to mount a rapid response to plant health emergencies. Back then it did feel like plant pathology was lagging behind in immediately applying genome sequencing to emerging plant pathogens. Diane Saunders, Kentaro Yoshida and Dan MacLean managed to put OpenAshDieback together and release a draft of the pathogen’s genome just weeks after the outbreak was detected in Norfolk. Diane then applied the approach to yellow rusts and we later used field pathogenomics to identify the origin of the pathogen that caused the 2016 wheat blast outbreak in Bangladesh. That project kicked off a very inspiring collaboration with Tofazzal Islam and Nick Talbot and further strengthened my dedication to advocate for open science. It also changed the research direction of my lab, especially after the BLASTOFF project was funded by the ERC.

2013. Going back to the past to better prepare for the future. It’s not every day that you get lampooned by the Colbert Report. Stephen Colbert was correct, it wasn’t the 1b haplotype of P. infestans that triggered the Irish famine disaster, it was HERB-1. Our collaboration with Hernan Burbano, Detlef Weigel and several others on sequencing P. infestans genomes from 19th century herbarium samples, received incredible media coverage. With Hernan having recently started a new position at UCL, you can expect more pathogen aDNA projects in the future. Stay tuned.

2014. Effector adaptation after jumping hosts. There are literally dozens and dozens of examples of rapid evolutionary adaptations in plant-pathogen interactions in which the precise mutation is known. It's no big deal to find a new one these days. But almost all of these are AVR effectors that overcome host resistance. What Suomeng Dong and others documented is an effector that has adapted to a new target after switching hosts. Suomeng showed that the protease inhibitor effector EPIC1 has undergone biochemical specialization on the protease of its new host. This paper builds up on work dating back to the 2000-2009 decade by PhD students Miaoying Tian who discovered the protease inhibitor effectors of Phytophthora and Jing Song who further studied the EPICs. It was also the point when we decided to center the lab around the theme of evolutionary molecular-plant microbe interactions or #EvoMPMI as it’s known on Twitter.

2015. The beauty of a protein complex structure. Stella Cesari and her colleagues deserve much credit for articulating the NLR integrated decoy concept, although some of us prefer to use the more agnostic term integrated domain (NLR-ID). I’m thrilled to have been the matchmaker who helped link up the amazing work of Ryohei Terauchi on rice blast effectors and R genes with the structural biology magic of Mark Banfield. This resulted in bringing an unprecedented level of detail to Harold Flor's gene-for-gene model with Abbas Maqbool solving the structure of M. oryzae AVR-PikD in complex with the integrated HMA domain of the rice immune receptor Pik-D. Mark and his team went on to publish a series of trail blazing follow-up papers on how to exploit this knowledge to engineer new disease resistance specificities (De la Concepcion et al. 2018, 2019; Varden et al. 2018).

2017. Do NLRs work in pairs—it’s more complicated! In what was initially a follow-up study to the AVRblb2 project of Bozkurt et al., Chih-hang Wu, Ahmed Abd-El-Haliem and Jack Vossen “accidental” discovery that NRC4 is necessary for Rpi-blb2 ended up having some very unexpected ramifications. Chih-hang’s PhD took quite a turn when he followed up on a suggestion by Khaoula Belhaj to silence multiple NRC paralogs and uveil a complicated NLR network. He went on to his most insightful discovery that the NRC network is phylogenetically structured and has expanded over 100 million years ago (Mya) from an NLR pair to a network that makes up to half of the NLRs of asterid plants. All this cool stuff ended up taking over my research program by storm, with Team NRC making up half of my lab. It also led to the fascinating research question of how NLRs have evolved from singletons to pairs to networks. Meanwhile, Chih-hang is starting his new lab at Academia Sinica in January 2020.

2019. The coming of age of the plant resistosome. Courtesy of Jijie Chai, Jian-Min Zhou and their collaborators, 2019 brought us a full-length NLR structure some 25 years after their discovery in the early 1990s. But these landmark papers by Wang et al. (2019a, 2019b) had much more than that. They showed that they could activate the ZAR1 resistosome in vitro by flooding it with ATP. This results in the “death switch”, a conformational change that generates a funnel-shaped structure that is proposed to insert into the plasma membrane and cause cell death. Beyond this extraordinary breakthrough, we had good reasons to celebrate—as we did in this video. The ZAR1 death switch model immediately explained some two-year old results that Hiroaki Adachi and Adeline Harant had produced with our own NRC4. This led Aki to discover the functionally conserved N-terminal MADA motif of NLR proteins that defines the N-terminus of NRC4, ZAR1 and at least one fifth of CC-type NLRs. We predict that a ZAR1 type conformational “death switch” is a common activation mechanism for CC-NLRs. What a way to end the decade. IT'S A MADA, MADA, MADA, MADA WORLD!

Conclusion. Over the last decade, the research topics in my lab have drifted from a focus on Phytophthoragenome and effector biology to new interests such as M. oryzae and NLR biology. I heard that several colleagues find this puzzling. Some of the drift can be explained by a tendency to follow Peter Medawar’s maxim of “science is the art of the soluble”. Another reason is an obsession with Keplerian thinking—unexpected findings are opportunities to explore new research avenues and shouldn’t be dismissed because they don’t fit the current theory. Also, some of the projects moved on to greener pastures when postdocs took on independent positions at other institutions and it didn’t make any sense for me to continue working on those topics. This said, there is probably more to this willingness to jettison projects and switch to new ones. I should think deeper about this. After all, “he who has studied himself…”

Acknowledgements. I’m deeply grateful to past and present lab members and collaborators for their many contributions, several of which are not described here. I want to particularly thank Joe Win for his across the board involvement in pretty much most of the projects described above. Thanks also to the funders, particularly the Gatsby Charitable, BBSRC and ERC.

To cite: Kamoun, S. Ten things we learned in 2010-2019 (aside from everything else). Zenodo. http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3613856

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global-journal-blog1 · 7 years ago

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Yellow rust resistance overstated for many wheat varieties

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Friday 29 September 2017 12:38

About two-thirds of wheat varieties have a lower resistance to yellow rust than their official AHDB Recommended List rating, according to a new cereal disease survey.

Yellow rust is a devastating disease that can result in wheat yield losses of about 40-50% in susceptible varieties.

Varietal resistance has a role to play in helping to…

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#overstated #Resistance #rust #varieties #wheat #yellow

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satpalda-blog · 6 years ago

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Satellite and UAV data for detection of crop diseases

Plant diseases and pests can affect a wide range of commercial crops, and result in a significant yield loss. It is reported that at least 10% of global food production is lost due to plant diseases. Satellite data shows different spectral characteristics between healthy and disease plants. This is useful to detect yellow rust, a fungal disease of wheat crop. Hyperspectral remote sensing is one of the advanced and effective techniques in disease monitoring and mapping. Multispectral and multi-temporal imagery are used for detecting powdery mildew and leaf rust in wheat. UAV based sensors are also used for this purpose. They provide ultra high resolution imageries. UAV based sensor showed 67-85% classification accuracy while the accuracy was 61-74% in aircraft based sensor, indicating that UAV at low altitudes could become a low-cost and reliable tool for disease detection .

SATPALDA is an ISO 9001:2015 certified leading provider of geospatial products and services. The company is also a reseller of multiple satellite data products and has a proven track record of delivering project-critical geospatial products, including satellite imagery, UAV imagery, elevation models, LULC maps, planimetry, terrain solutions and many more. For more information login: http://www.satpalda.com.

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evoldir · 6 years ago

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PostDoc: NIAB_Cambridge.Bioinformatics

Post-Doctoral Research Associate in Bioinformatics & Quantitative Genetics (3 years fixed term) We are looking for an enthusiastic and talented bioinformatician/quantitative geneticist to work on the genetics of wheat yellow rust resistance at NIAB in Cambridge, UK. The post is funded by a BBSRC-LINK grant to investigate the best way to combine complementary adult plant disease resistance loci to obtain durable resistance. Working with seven commercial breeding companies, the project will characterise (a) the in-field effectiveness of combinations of disease resistance loci in multi-site trials, (b) the location and timing of action of resistance within the plant at the microscopic level and (c) the underlying genetics of resistance using differential RNA expression analysis. The successful candidate will mostly be responsible for the quantitative genetic analysis of the field trial data, particularly the detection of genetic interactions, and the bioinformatics analysis of the differential expression data. With the majority of the UK commercial wheat breeding companies involved, the project offers an excellent opportunity to work on translational research at the academic-commercial interface. The essential requirements for this role are: 路 Relevant BSc; 路 PhD in quantitative genetics, bioinformatics, plant genetics or similar with evidence of specialisation in data analysis; 路 Evidence of training in statistics and basic bioinformatics 路 Experience of genetic data analysis and bioinformatics analysis; 路 Good knowledge of a statistical package, preferable R or GenStat 路 Programming skills e.g. Python 路 Ability to work independently, once given adequate training 路 Ability to work in a team 路 Presentation skills both written and verbal The desirable requirements for this role are: 路 RNA seq/differential expression analysis 路 Advanced genetic mapping skills 路 Advanced Quantitative Genetics or bioinformatics training 路 Experience of curation and analysis of large data sets 路 Good knowledge of experimental design 路 Interest in plant breeding, plant pathology or crop science 路 Glasshouse/field data collection or laboratory genetics experience 路 Positive attitude to challenges, views problems when they arise with creativity 路 Enthusiasm for developing new ideas 路 Driving Licence The post will require travel within the UK and internationally. NIAB is the UK's fastest growing crop science organisation, with rapidly expanding research capabilities in plant genetics, agronomy, farming systems and data science, the largest national field trials capability, and strong research links with industry, government and academia. The NIAB Genetics and Breeding team, based at Cambridge, carries out leading-edge crop genetics research, with direct translation to plant breeding programmes in the UK and elsewhere. Starting salary is in the range of pounds 30,042 to pounds 39,640 per annum depending on qualifications, skills and experience. Further details and an application form are available at: http://www.niab.com/vacancies/index/ or from the HR Office, NIAB, Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 0LE, Tel No. 01223 342282, Email: [email protected], quoting Ref No. T/354. Closing date for applications: 16 June 2019 Interviews to be held week of 1st July 2019 Keith Gardner | Programme Leader in Quantitative Genetics NIAB | Huntingdon Road | Cambridge CB3 0LE Office (dd) +44 (0) 1223 342484| Mob +44 (0) 7765 508940 Email [email protected] | Web niab.com Keith Gardner

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sabrinawhill · 5 years ago

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Plants Most Vulnerable to Rust and How to Deal with it

Yellow Rust in a Wheat Field

In yesterday’s program, Cathy Isom filled you in about how to locate rust in your garden. Today she reviews the plants most vulnerable to rust and how to deal with it.

Plants Most Vulnerable to Rust and How to Deal with it

There are so many species of rust that it’s pretty much impossible to list all of the plants that are susceptible to the disease. In…

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#Cathy Isom #gardening #plant rust

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tipsycad147 · 5 years ago

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The Goddess Flora

By shirleytwofeathers

Flora is the Roman Goddess of flowering plants, especially those that bear fruit. Spring, of course, is Her season, and She has elements of a Love-Goddess, with its attendant attributes of fertility, sex, and blossoming. She is quite ancient; the Sabines are said to have named a month for Her (which corresponds to our and the Roman April), and She was known among the Samnites as well as the Oscans, where She was called Flusia.

She was originally the Goddess specifically of the flowering crops, such as the grain or fruit-trees, and Her function was to make the grain, vegetables and trees bloom so that autumn’s harvest would be good. She was invoked to avert rust, a nasty fungal disease of plants that causes orange growths the exact colour of rusting iron, and which was (is) an especial problem affecting wheat.

Hers is the beginning of the process that finds its completion with Pomona, the Goddess of Fruit and the Harvest; and like Pomona, Flora had Her own flamen, one of a small number of priests each in service to a specific Deity. The flamens were said to have been instituted by Numa, the legendary second King of Rome who succeeded Romulus; and whether Numa really existed or not, the flamens were undoubtedly of ancient origin, as were the Deities they served.

In later times Flora became the Goddess of all flowering plants, including the ornamental varieties. Her name is related to Latin floris, meaning naturally enough “a flower”, with the additional meaning of “[something] in its prime”; other related words have meanings like “prospering”, “flourishing”, “abounding”, and “fresh or blooming”.

In one story, Flora was said to have provided Juno with a magic flower that would allow Her to conceive with no help from a man; from this virgin-birth Mars was born. A late tale calls Flora a courtesan and gives Her a story similar to Acca Larentia: Flora was said to have made a fortune as a courtesan, which She bequeathed to Rome upon Her death, and for which She was honoured with the festival of the Floralia. As Flora was originally a Sabine Goddess, and as the Sabines were a neighbouring tribe whom the Romans conquered and assimilated into Rome, perhaps this is an acknowledgement of the land so acquired, put into legendary terms.

Flora had two temples in Rome, one near the Circus Maximus, the great “stadium” of Rome where chariot races were held, and another on the slopes of the Quirinal Hill. The temple on the Quirinal was most likely built on the site of an earlier altar to Her said to have been dedicated by Titus Tatius, King of the Sabines, who ruled alongside Romulus for a time in the very early (hence legendary) days of Rome. Her other temple was built quite near to the Circus Maximus, though its exact site has not been found, and was associated with a neighbouring temple dedicated to the triad of Ceres (the Grain Goddess) and Liber and Libera (God and Goddess of the Vine). These Deities and Flora were all concerned with the fertility and health of the crops.

Flora’s temple by the Circus was dedicated on the 28th of April in 241 (or 248) BCE in response to a great drought at the command of the Sybilline books, and this day became the starting date of Her great festival, the Floralia. In Imperial times (1st century CE) this temple was rededicated (I assume after some restorations were made) on the 13th of August, and this date was given to a second festival of Flora, coinciding with the ripening of the grain, whose flowers She had set forth.

The Floralia of April was originally a moveable feast to coincide with the blossoming of the plants, later becoming fixed with the dedication of Her temple on the 28th (or 27th, before the calendar was reformed–I mention this because holidays were almost always held on odd-numbered days as it was considered unlucky to start a festival on an even-numbered day), though ludi or “games”–horse-races or athletic contests–were not held every year.

By the Empire the festival had grown (or should I say, blossomed) to seven days, and included chariot-races and theatrical performances, some of which were notoriously bawdy. It was given over to merriment and celebrations of an amorous nature, much like that northern flower-and-sex festival Beltaine whose date neatly coincides. Prostitutes considered it their own special time, and the Floralia gained a reputation as being more licentious and abandoned than the Saturnalia of December, whose name is legendary even now.

At the chariot-races and circus games of the Floralia it was traditional to let goats and hares loose, and lupines, bean-flowers and vetch (all of which have similarly-shaped blossoms and are a sort of showier version of wheat in bloom) were scattered, symbolic of fertility. Brightly coloured clothes were a must, as were wreaths of flowers, especially roses; and the celebrations drew great crowds. Of the two nationalised chariot-teams who shared a deep rivalry, the Greens and the Blues, the Greens (of course) were Hers, and She had been invoked at chariot-races from ancient times.

The last day of the festival, May 3rd, was called Florae; it may be a special name for the closing day of the Floralia, or it may refer to a separate ceremony conducted in Her temple on the Quirinal.

Flora was depicted by the Romans wearing light spring clothing, holding small bouquets of flowers, sometimes crowned with blossoms. Honey, made from flowers, is one of Her gifts, and Her name is said to be one of the secret (holy) names of Rome. She is sometimes called the handmaiden of Ceres. Ovid identifies Her with the Greek flower-nymph Chloris, whose name means “yellow or pale green”, the colour of Spring. The word flora is still used as a general name for the plants of a region.

Alternate names/epithets: Flora Rustica, “Flora the Countrywoman” or “Flora of the Countryside”, and Flora Mater, or “Flora the Mother”, in respect to Her ancient origins. Among the Oscans She was known as Flusia.

Source: Thaliatook.com

https://shirleytwofeathers.com/The_Blog/powers-that-be/tag/spring/

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