#Thinker 2nd civil war

[wisdomrays]

TAFAKKUR: Part 428

AL-ANDALUS: THE LOST CIVILIZATION

How many people now know who Ibn Hazm, Al-Mu’tamid, Ibn Tufayl, Abu Ishaq al-Butruji were, or even where they came from? Most probably, not many. Yet these were among the most important scientists and thinkers of their age and lived in Al-Andalus.

The year 1492 has long been a historical landmark: the Americans recently celebrated the 500th anniversary of Columbus’s ‘discovery’ of the new continent. But there was another 500th anniversary to be marked in 1992. Although this event was also of momentous importance for the history of mankind, it has attracted much less attention. The event we are referring to was the fall of the last Muslim city left in Spain: Granada. The date was the second day of 1492 when the Catholic king of Castile captured the city which had been governed for nearly eight centuries by Muslims.

The Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, which marked one of the most magnificent and glorious periods in Islamic history began with an invitation from one side of a civil war then raging in Visigothic Spain in 711. Musa Ibn Nusayr, the Umayyad governor of North Africa, was asked to help the rival of a Visigoth king. Thereupon, Nusayr ordered his general Tariq Ibn Ziyad to aid these people with an army of 7,000. In the following years he himself went to Spain. Within seven years the Muslims took control of the whole of the Peninsula, except for Galicia and Austuria. Muslim rule was accepted voluntarily by many Spaniards and over time some of them accepted Islam. The Andalusian Muslims did little to disturb the natives and allowed them to perform their religions and customs. After the dissolution of the central Umayyad government between 1009 and 1031 as a result of uprisings and a succession of weak rulers, a number of independent petty kingdoms (in Arabic mutluk al-tawaif and in Spanish taifa) became established. In spite of the fact that these little kingdoms were weaker than the former Umayyad state, an astonishing flowering of arts and learning took place during the taifa period. One reason for this outstanding development was that each ruler patronized artists, scholars and scientists to gain more prestige than the others. Eventually, the absence of a centrally organized state led to the end of Muslims’ power in the Peninsula. They lost considerable areas of territory to the Christian kingdoms that were reasserting themselves in the north. The petty kingdoms of Al-Andalus asked Yusuf Ibn Tashufin, the Almoravid (in Arabic al-Murabitun) ruler in Morocco, to intervene. They got the help they needed, but in 1090, the Almovarids left the country to its own destiny. This time the taifa kingdoms asked the Almohads (in Arabic al-Muwahhidun) for help. The Almohads willingly accepted and for a period of time they won some success in Spain. Nevertheless, in 1212 at the battle of al-Iqab they were defeated and within a few decades the Almohads were forced back across the Strait of Gibraltar. Muslim cities fell one after another until 1260, when only the kingdom of Granada remained. Granada survived for another two centuries. By the end of 1491, the armies of Ferdinand and Isabella were at the gates of the city. There remained only one final act to be played out on January 2nd, 1492 by which Muslim political sovereignty in Spain came to an end. In 1500, Spanish Muslims were presented with a terrible choice–either to convert to Catholicism or be expelled from Spain. Some did convert, others continued to practice their faith in secret and the rest chose exile.

It is a fact that the Andulusians developed a uniquely plural society whose main features were freedom, tolerance and lack of assimilation–Arabs, Christians, Jews and other immigrants lived side by side in peace for about eight centuries. Cordoba, the capital city of Al-Andalus, was the centre of a sophisticated and rich Islamic-Hispanic civilisation. In its heyday, Cordoba was famous for its intellectually advanced culture, its centres of learning and its great libraries. In those years, there were about one million people, 200,000 houses, 60 palaces, 600 mosques, 700 baths, 17 universities and 70 public libraries in the city. The biggest central library of Cordoba had 400,000 hand-written books and the catalogues which included only the names of the books consisted of 44 volumes. The famous orientalist, Dozy, stated that nearly all the people in Cordoba could read and write.

Gebert of Aurillac, the French monk, later to become Pope Sylvester II, was the first European scholar of importance to study Arabic sciences. He was also responsible for sending many teams of students into Al-Andalus during the closing years of the 10th century. By the end of that century, the various schools in Cordoba employed hundreds of students as translators and just as many copyists working closely to interpret and translate hundreds, perhaps thousands, of manuscripts from Baghdad and Cairo. Through these translations, philosophical and scientific thought from the Greek, Roman and Arab worlds, preserved and expanded upon by Muslim scholars, passed into European consciousness to fuel both the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment. Western Europe, in general, owes a great debt to this enormously long and rich intellectual flow from Al-Andalus.

Islamic Spain was an immensely fertile ground for learning, producing a long series of intellectual, aesthetic and scientific advances attributable to Muslim, Christian and Jewish thinkers and the ethos they created. This blossoming was due in part to the spirit of tolerance that prevailed for much of the history of Al-Andalus.

In literature, Ibn Hazm (died in 1013) expanded traditional romantic poetry with his Tawq al-Hamamah (Dove’s necklace). This form of poetry passed from Al-Andalus into North Africa. Islamic literature in Andalus, however, reached its peak during the taifa era when the poet-king of Seville, Al-Mutamid, established an academy of letters, and Ibn Darraj al-Qastalli wrote a series of qasaid (poems) of unequalled beauty.

By the end of 11th century, Al-Andalus was at the forefront of European sciences. The Andalusians excelled in astronomy, both theoretical and practical, perfecting their tables and the precision of their astronomical instruments. Toledo astronomer Al-Zargali, (d. 1087), simplified the Hellenic astrolabe; his version, known as the saphea azarchelis, remained in use until the 16th century. He also anticipated the 17th century German astronomer Johannes Kepler in suggesting that the orbits of the planets are not circular but elliptical.

In medicine, Al-Andalus produced scholars like Al-Zahrawi (d. 1013), who wrote extensively on surgery, pharmacology, medical ethics and the doctor-patient relationship. Ibn Zuhr (known in the west as Avenzoar), a century and a half later, was an advocate of clinical research and practical experimentation. The first medical school in Europe was built in Salerno by Andalusians.

Abdullah Ibn Abdulaziz was one of the best-known geographers and renowned for his great work Al-Masalik wa’l-Mamalik (Roads and Countries). Another important geographer was Al-Idrisi who was educated in Cordoba and wrote Kitab al-Rujari (Roger’s Book) under the patronage of the King of Sicily, Roger II. In this book he divided the world into seven different climatic regions and each region into ten parts. He illustrated his book with some outstanding maps remarkable (and unique) for their accuracy.

Andalusians were also very successful in mathematics, especially geometry. They used the number ‘0’ for the first time in Europe. Among the well-known philosophers who lived in Andalus were Ibn Bajja, Ibn Tufayl and Ibn Rushd all of whom influenced European thought very profoundly. Abu Bakr Ibn Umar, Abu Marwan, Ibn Fradi were particularly famous in historical studies.

Although, over the years, the lost splendour of Al-Andalus has been much idealized in the Islamic world, there remains an appreciation of the factors behind its downfall. Some of these were external, such as the unification and expansion of the Christian kingdoms of Spain and the geographic and political isolation of Al-Andalus from the rest of the Muslim world. There were also internal factors that contributed to the decline of Al-Andalus particularly the rivalries that weakened and divided Muslim Spain, the greed and self-indulgence that gripped its elites, and the loss of inner religious dynamic.

[a1detective]

"...It isn't a coup...Because we then think it's about Mr. Trump... It isn't...." - IT'S ABOUT YOU.

“…It isn’t a coup…Because we then think it’s about Mr. Trump… It isn’t….” – IT’S ABOUT YOU.

THIS ARTICLE BY PHIL D’AGOSTINO APPEARED FIRST IN AMERICANTHINKER.COM

EXCERPT:

Tyrants, dictators, and their minions are very clever when it comes to using the rules you agree to play with against those playing by the rules.

This is war.

When Trump leaves office, the war shall continue.

—AMERICANTHINKER.COM

Original ARTICLE, As Written: It’s not a coup. It’s a civil war.

Lately, it’s been…

[avengersandco]

Can i ask what your ocs (and peter) would think abt the sokovia accords ???

That is an extremely interesting question, mostly bc in this au the kids area actually fairly young at the time of Civil War (go check out The Kid’s Aren’t Alright). But for the sake of the question (which i really love btw), i’m gonna explain how they would feel about it if it happened when they were older (think teens).

For Isabel, she’d be completely against them. Like, lowkey even worse than Steve. She’s pretty independent, has always been one to ask forgiveness instead of permission, and has always kept things to herself bc she thinks can handle things (a major point of contention between her and Tony). Isabel also has always wanted to be an avenger because of all the good they and idolizes steve to the point where she would potentially side with him just bc it’s him, so in her mind, they would just be unnecessary and cause more problems than they solve.

Peter’s kind of the opposite. He’s a bit more open and a rule follower, but ultimately he wants to help the most amount of people he can, especially those who are innocent (i.e. civilians). He’d definitely understand the need to be held accountable and go where people actually want and need the help. However, he would still be fairly skeptical of a lot of the accords and would be going through it very carefully.

Now Matt’s very different from those two, at least in terms of the accords, for one major reason. He’s not an Avenger or superhero or anything like that (Peter was still spiderman when he was 15ish and Isabel joins the avengers when she’s like, 19 or something). Hasn’t wanted to since he was like, 8ish (bc most little boys do want to be superheroes, but he grew out of it). So for his opinion, it’s really more about how his family is affected, and a bit more objective than the other 4. That being said, Matt is definitely the most conflicted. Matt is a pretty nuanced thinker, and is one of those people who thinks of EVERYTHING, when it comes to making major decisions. He really does believe that there should be accountability and listening to the UN bc he does realize that it’s a lot of 2nd and 3rd world countries being harmed and asking for the accords, but he would have a hard time agreeing with a lot of the things that are in the accords. I think ultimately though, if it really had to be yes or no, he’d side with the accords, mostly on the basis of nations with less money shouldn’t be subjected to the avengers if they don’t want them there out of fear of destruction, but he would have a lot of issues with a lot of things on them

Edit: I included a little chart of where I see all 5 of their opinions on the accord

[elvisgreyson]

Chess and Life with Benjamin Franklin

Benjamin Franklin, a founding father of the USA, was a well known philosopher and thinker in history. 

He avidly played chess and wrote a popular essay on chess, which I’m taking the liberty to re-“copy” below. Franklin eventually was inducted to the U.S. Chess Hall of Fame. 

Get a glimpse of how chess can be used as a powerful metaphor and tool for mental health and wholeness in life.

The Morals Of Chess

by Benjamin Franklin

The Game of Chess is not merely an idle amusement; several very valuable qualities of the mind, useful in the course of human life, are to be acquired and strengthened by it, so as to become habits ready on all occasions, for life is a kind of Chess, in which we have often points to gain, and competitors or adversaries to contend with, and in which there is a vast variety of good and ill events that are, in some degree, the effect of prudence, or the want of it. By playing at Chess, then, we may learn:

1st: Foresight, which looks a little into futurity, and considers the consequences that may attend an action, for it is continually occurring to the player, “If I move this Piece, what will be the advantage or disadvantage of my new situation? What use can my adversary make of it to annoy me? What other moves can I make to support it, and to defend myself from his attacks?”

2nd: Circumspection, which surveys the whole Chess-board, or scene of action, the relation of the several Pieces, their situations, and the dangers they are repeatedly exposed to, the several possibilities of their aiding each other, the probabilities that the adversary may make this or that move, and attack this or that Piece, and what different means can be used to avoid his stroke, or turn its consequences against him.

3rd: Caution, not to make our moves too hastily. This habit is best acquired by observing strictly the laws of the game, such as, if you touch a piece you must move it somewhere, and if you set it down, you must let it stand.

Therefore, it would be the better way to observe these rules, as the game becomes thereby more the image of human life, and particularly of war, in which, if you have incautiously put yourself into a bad and dangerous position, you cannot obtain your enemy’s leave to withdraw your troops and place them more securely, but you must abide by all the consequences of your rashness.

And, lastly, we learn Chess by the habit of not being discouraged by present bad appearances in the state of our affairs, the habit of hoping for a favourable chance, and that of preserving in the search of resources. The game is so full of events, there is such a variety of turns in it, the fortune of it is so subject to vicissitudes, and one so frequently, after contemplation, discovers the means of extricating one’s self from a supposed insurmountable difficulty, that one is encouraged to continue the contest to the last, in hopes of victory from our skill, or, at least, from the negligence of our adversary, and whoever considers, what in Chess he often sees instances of, that success is apt to produce presumption and its consequent inattention, by which more is afterwards lost than was gained by the preceding advantage, while misfortunes produce more care and attention, by which the loss may be recovered, will learn not to be too much discouraged by any present successes of his adversary, nor to despair of final good fortune upon every little check he receives in the pursuit of it.

That we may, therefore, be induced more frequently to choose this beneficial amusement in preference of others, which are not attended with the same advantages, every circumstance that may increase the pleasure of it should be regarded, and every action or word that is unfair, disrespectful, or that in any way may give uneasiness should be avoided, as contrary to the immediate intention of both the parties, which is to pass the time agreeably.

1st: Therefore, if it is agreed to play according to the strict rules, then those rules are to be strictly observed by both parties, and should not be insisted upon for one side while deviated from by the other, for this is not equitable.

2nd: If it is agreed not to observe the rules exactly, but one party demands indulgences, he should then be as willing to allow them to the other.

3rd: No false move should ever be made to extricate yourself out of a difficulty, or to gain an advantage, for there can be no pleasure in playing with a man once detected in such unfair practice.

4th: If your adversary is long in playing, you ought not to hurry him, or express any uneasiness at his delay, not even by looking at your watch, or taking up a book to read; you should not sing, nor whistle, nor make a tapping with your feet on the floor, or with your fingers on the table, nor do anything that may distract his attention, for all these things displease, and they do not prove your skill in playing, but your craftiness and your rudeness.

5th: You ought not to endeavour to amuse and deceive your adversary by pretending to have made bad moves and saying you have now lost the game, in order to make him secure and careless, and inattentive to your schemes, for this is fraud and deceit, not skill in the game of Chess.

6th: You must not, when you have gained a victory, use any triumphing or insulting expressions, nor show too much of the pleasure you feel, but endeavour to console your adversary, and make him less dissatisfied with himself by every kind and civil expression that may be used with truth, such as, you understand the game better than I, but you are a little inattentive, or, you play too fast, or, you had the best of the game, but something happened to divert your thoughts and that turned it in my favour.

7th: If you are a spectator while others play, observe the most perfect silence, for if you give advice you offend both the parties: him against whom you give it, because it may cause him to lose the game, and him in whose favour you give it, because, though it be good and he follow it, he loses the pleasure he might have had if you had permitted him to think till it occurred to himself. Even after a move or moves you must not, by replacing the Pieces, show how they might have been placed better, for that displeases, and might occasion disputes or doubts about their true situation.

All talking to the players lessens or diverts their attention and is, therefore, unpleasing, nor should you give the least hint to either party, by any kind of noise or motion; if you do, you are unworthy to be a spectator.

If you desire to exercise or show your judgment, do it in playing your own game, when you have an opportunity, not in criticizing, or meddling with, or counseling the play of others.

Lastly, if the game is not to be played rigorously, according to the rules before mentioned, then moderate your desire of victory over your adversary, and be pleased with one over yourself.

Snatch not eagerly at every advantage offered by his unskillfulness or inattention, but point out to him kindly that by such a move he places or leaves a Piece en prise unsupported, that by another he will put his King into a dangerous situation, etc.

By this general civility (so opposite to the unfairness before forbidden) you may happen indeed to lose the game, but you will win what is better:  his esteem, his respect, and his affection, together with the silent approbation and good will of the spectators.

from Dr. Angelo O. Subida, Psychotherapist http://www.drsubida.com/2019/12/chess-and-life-with-benjamin-franklin_6.html

[goldeagleprice]

Celebrating 150th Birth Anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi with Coins

On 7th June 1893, a young practicing lawyer was thrown off a train in South Africa for refusing to comply with the travel rules of ‘racial segregation’. The same person later became the reason for awe for the British. He is known by many names in India. Ravindranath Tagore called him Mahatma! Some call him Bapu. Some call him Gandhiji or just Gandhi. It doesn’t matter what you call him! He has a special place in the heart of every Indian. His ethics had influenced many thinkers all around the world and encouraged them to fight against injustice. Not just in India, his work and philosophy have been commemorated and followed by many nations. Being the Father of the Nation (Rashtrapita), Gandhiji’s effigy appears on many coins of India. It is the moment of pride for India that this great Indian Leader is featured on many coins issued by more than 10 countries. In the commemoration of 150th Birth Anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi, let’s get acquainted with the coins issued by several countries which feature the glimpses of the life of this ‘great soul’ and unveil important milestones of his life.

    The Father of the Nation, Mahatma Gandhi, was born as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi on 2nd October 1869 in the princely state of Porbandar, which is located in modern-day Gujarat. He was born into a Hindu family to Karamchand Gandhi who was a diwan of Porbandar. Just like Independence Day and Republic Day, Gandhi Jayanti is one of the three national holidays of India. Also celebrated as the International Day of Non-Violence, Gandhi Jayanti or the Birth Anniversary of this remarkable person is a cause for celebration and is commemorated in many ways in India as well as throughout the world.

  Countries like Ajman, Andorra, Cook Islands, Equatorial Guinea, etc. have issued many  Uncirculated Proof coins portraying the bust or the effigy of Mahatma Gandhi. This year marks the 150th Birth Anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi and the whole world is waiting for the unique celebrations of Gandhi’s 150th-anniversary date.

    Mahatma Gandhi is known for his philosophy and principles that were unusual to the contemporary world that was preoccupied in wars, fights, and violence. The strength of his character and simplicity is something of an inspiration. When we think of him the image that comes to our mind is a simple, kind old man wearing simple clothes. The world knows Mahatma Gandhi as a bespectacled skinny man wearing a loincloth and a shawl wrapped around his shoulders.

  However, Mahatma Gandhi did not dress like this always. He was one of the few Indians who got educated in England during the pre-independence time. He wore western clothes or traditional Gujarathi clothes such as long turbans, kurta, and dhoti. Though this attire is not so famous, the world is always curious to have a glance at this veiled side of their beloved personality. What would be a better moment than the 150th Birth Anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi to peep into his lesser-known side? Mints of South Africa and Niue issued two special commemorative coins depicting portraits of young Mahatma Gandhi.

  South Africa issued a coin with the denomination of 1 South African rand within the series “the life of Gandhi”. The coin depicts a Frontal figure of Gandhi as a young lawyer. Three figures next to bust along with his signature. Inscription: “My life is my Message” and denomination “R1”. This coin depicts Gandhi in his youth wearing western-style clothes.

  On the other hand, 1 dollar coin issued by Niue shows another dressing Style of Gandhi which is more traditional. This coin is among the five coins set issued to commemorate 100 years since the return of Mahatma Gandhi to India. The coin features a frontal portrait of young Gandhi in January 1915, when he and his wife arrived in India. Inscription: “Be the change that you wish to see in the world” at the top and “Gandhi’s Arrival in India, 1915” at the bottom. This coin depicts Gandhi in traditional attire wearing a traditional Gujarati Headgear.

  It was in the year 1921that Gandhi adopted his signature attire of Dhoti. In the year 1921, Mahatma Gandhi visited Madurai. On his way to Madurai, he had seen farmers and poor people wearing the simplest of clothes, a small towel like dhoti around their waist. He was much disturbed and was affected by this image; he took the decision to dress in a simple way just like so many of the people of his beloved country. He continued to dress this way throughout his life.

    Another such turning point of Mahatma Gandhi’s life was his stay in South Africa. Before leading the Indian freedom movement, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi used to live in South Africa. During his stay in South Africa, Gandhi propagated the philosophy of Satyagraha there and propelled the country towards a no class or ethnic discrimination society. This particularly attracted the attention of the congress members of the moderate group who were at that time in a regular tussle with the extremist G. K. Gokhale – the leader of moderates in Indian National Congress needed a strong man to assert his views. He was drawn towards the work of Gandhi. He believed that his achievements would influence the attentions of a large section of the Indian community towards him. So, he advised Gandhi to come to India to study the conditions of his own country and also mentored him occasionally. Hence, Gandhi left South Africa on 19th July 1914 and reached London on 4th August 1914. Gandhi had returned to India from South Africa on January 9, 1915. Gandhiji’s return to India became a pivotal moment in the History of Freedom Struggle of India. The celebration of Centenary of Mahatma Gandhi’s return from South Africa has been a separate theme to be featured on coins. The Indian Government Mint, as well as the Government Mint of Mauritius, issued coins commemorating this historic event.

  India issued coins with two different denominations on the same theme. These Rs. 10 and Rs. 100 coins depict Dual Portrait of Mahatma Gandhi (both young Mahatma Gandhi and Gandhi Ji in old age), showing his transformation and is inscribed RETURN FROM SOUTH AFRICA1915 – 2015 and CENTENARY COMMEMORATION around the central portrait.

  On the other hand, the 100 Mauritian rupee coin is a simple one. It depicts Bust of Gandhi facing 3/4th to left with Inscription: “MAHATMA GANDHI” at the top and “CENTENARY OF ARRIVAL IN MAURITIUS” at the Bottom.

  After his return, Gandhi joined the Indian National Congress where Gokhale introduced him to Indian issues, politics, and the Indian people. Gandhi took leadership of the Congress in 1920 and led Indian Politics for almost 3 decades.

    The Civil Disobedience Movement was one of the most significant movements launched by Mahatma Gandhi in the course of India’s freedom. On 12th March 1930, Gandhi begins a defiant march to the sea in protest of the British monopoly on salt, his boldest act of civil disobedience yet against British rule in India. Dandi March, Salt March or the Salt Satyagraha was an act of nonviolence protest against the Salt Tax imposed by the British government on the Indians.

  This 24-day march which started on 12th March 1930 ended on 5th April 1930 with Gandhiji picking up a fist full of salt from the shores of Dandi village. The significance of this act was great as it defied the Salt Act and Salt Tax levied on Indians by the British. The Salt Act prohibited Indians from collecting or selling salt, a staple in the Indian diet. Citizens were forced to buy the vital minerals, which were freely available in nature, from the British. Picking up a small lump of natural salt out of the mud from salt planes of Dandi was an ingeniously simple way to break a British law non-violently. This first nationwide movement was remembered by issuing commemorative coins.

  India, without the doubt, issued two special commemorative coins to celebrate the 75th year of Dandi/Salt March with the denominations of Rs. 5 and Rs. 100. The coin depicts Mahatma Gandhi in the center marching with his followers surrounded by Inscription”75 YEARS OF DANDI MARCH” in Devanagari and Roman.

  The Niue mint issued a One Dollar coin which depicts Gandhi walking with his followers with the inscription “In a gentle way you can shake the world” at the top and “Gandhi’s Salt March 1930” at the bottom.

  The Civil Disobedience Movement was suspended, when Mahatma Gandi withdrew mass Satyagraha on July 14th, 1933. Though the movement ceased completely on April 7th, 1934, the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi had a beneficial impact. This gave rise to the most important movement in the History of India as well as in the life of Mahatma Gandhi i.e. Quit India Movement.

      The Quit India Movement was another important nation-wide movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi. It was launched on 8 August 1942demanding an end to the British Rule of India. After the failure of the Cripps mission which proposed the Dominion Status of India, Gandhi made a call of “Do or Die” in a speech delivered in Bombay at the Gowalia Tank Maidan. Through his passionate speeches, Gandhi moved people by proclaiming “every Indian who desires freedom and strives for it must be his own guide…”  Gandhi declared in his fiery “Do or Die” speech the day the Quit India Movement was declared. This crucial moment of Indian History has been commemorated on the coins not only India but also by Niue.

  India issued a set of 4 coins (one circulating, 3Non circulating coins) to mark the Golden Jubilee of the Quit India Movement. The coins show a sculpture depicting the freedom struggle of India with the inscription “QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT” and “GOLDEN JUBILEE”.

  Niue Mint issued a set of 5 limited edition silver commemorative coins on 2nd October 2015 on Gandhi’s birth anniversary as a lasting tribute to his message and teachings commemorating 100 years since the return of Mahatma Gandhi to India. This coin is titled “THE FUTURE DEPENDS ON WHAT YOU DO TODAY” on the left to the upper periphery and “QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT, 1942 at the bottom. The engraving shows an aerial view of three waves of marchers in the Quit India Movement.

  The British government responded to the call of Gandhi by arresting all major Congress leaders the very next day. They were lodged in prisons in different parts of the country. The congress was banned. This act created a major dishevel amongst the people of India. There were hartals and processions in every part of the country. There is no doubt that “Quit India Movement”, united the Indian people against British rule. The August Revolution was a historic event and it had a tremendous influence on the future of Indian nationalism. By the end of World War II, Britain’s position in the world had changed dramatically and the demand for independence could no longer be ignored.

    At midnight, on 15 August 1947, after the struggle of decades, India became an independent nation. The struggle for freedom in India is one inspirational liberating movement in the World. The spirit of independence spread to other countries as well. A wind of change was blowing through the world which gave rise to the growth of national consciousness. Gandhiji, who played a vital role in the struggle, is given the credit for shaping up the Freedom Movement. With the partition of India and Pakistan followed by the assassination of Gandhiji, Indian Freedom becomes the last achievement of his life which is commemorated on the following coins.

  The last coin of the series of 100 years since the return of Mahatma Gandhi to India issued by Niue mint in the year 2015 commemorated the Freedom of India. This One Dollar coin depicts a smiling portrait of Mahatma Gandhi with the National Flag of India in the background with inscriptions “INDIAN INDEPENDENCE, 1947” and “My LIFE IS MY MESSAGE – MAHATMA GANDHI”.

  The other coin was issued by the Republic of Liberia in the year 1997 to celebrate the completion of the 50 years of Independence. The coin depicts left-facing seated figure of Gandhiji in front of a Taj Mahal with a “Charkha” and is inscribed with “Indian Independence” at the top flanked by the year 1947 and 1997 and the denomination $1 is at the bottom.

  During the struggle of independence each and, every Indian played its role in some way or other. While we are aware of several freedom fighters and revolutionaries, many have remained unsung heroes. Even though they are not mentioned, their efforts and contribution is always remembered and recognized and will always run through our veins.

  Conclusion

  Life of Mahatma Gandhi was eventful and hectic. Even after the 150th birth anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi, his stories are being narrated from generations to generations. Since a very young age, he gave himself to the cause of eradicating injustice from society and he became successful in his life’s goal. Unfortunately, his “Great Soul” did not linger on much to see the progress of his beloved nation. Within few months after India became free, Gandhiji was assassinated by Nathuram Godse. Though he lived to see his nation became free, he did not stay long afterward. However, the efforts put by him are still in the minds of the citizens of his country. Whether it is the 150th Birth Anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi or the 200th, he will be always remembered and worshipped by the people of India.

  To remember Mahatma Gandhi, the most significant campaign was launched by the Prime Minister of India. Known as Swachh Bharat AbhiyanProject, this campaign aims to achieve the vision of a ‘Clean India’ by 2nd October 2019. Also known as “Pradhan MantriSwachhBharat Abhiyan” and “Pradhan MantriSwachh Bharat Mission Yojana”, the SwachhBharat Campaign would be the best tribute India could pay to Mahatma Gandhi on his 150 birth anniversary date in 2019.

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[airoasis]

Peter van Uhm: Why I chose a gun

New Post has been published on https://hititem.kr/peter-van-uhm-why-i-chose-a-gun/

Peter van Uhm: Why I chose a gun

Because the very best military commander of the Netherlands, with troops stationed all over the world, i’m quite honored to be here in these days. After I look around this TEDxAmsterdam venue, I see an extraordinarily specified audience. You’re the motive why I stated sure to the invitation to come back here at present. When I look round, I see persons who wish to make a contribution. I see persons who want to make a better world, by using doing groundbreaking scientific work, through developing impressive works of art, with the aid of writing significant articles or inspiring books, by way of opening up sustainable firms. And you all have chosen your own devices to fulfill this mission of constructing a greater world.Some chose the microscope as their instrument. Others selected dancing or painting, or making track like we just heard. Some selected the pen. Others work via the instrument of money. Females and gentlemen, I made one other alternative. Thanks. Females and gentlemen … (Laughter) (Applause) I share your goals. I share the pursuits of the speakers you heard before. I didn’t decide on to soak up the pen, the brush, the digicam. I selected this instrument. I chose the gun. For you, and also you heard already, being so nearly this gun could make you think uneasy. It’s going to even suppose scary. An actual gun at just a few feet’s distance. Allow us to stop for a moment and think this uneasiness. You could even hear it. Allow us to cherish the fact that commonly most of you’ve got in no way been almost a gun. It way the Netherlands is a peaceable country.The Netherlands will not be at struggle. It method squaddies are not needed to patrol our streets. Guns are not a part of our lives. In many nations, it is another story. In lots of international locations, humans are confronted with weapons. They’re oppressed. They are intimidated — through warlords, through terrorists, by using criminals. Weapons can do quite a lot of harm. They are the reason of much distress. Why then am I standing before you with this weapon? Why did I pick the gun as my instrument? In these days I want to inform you why.Today I want to inform you why I chose the gun to create a greater world. And that i need to let you know how this gun can aid. My story begins within the metropolis of Nijmegen within the east of the Netherlands, town where I was born. My father was a hardworking baker, but when he had completed work in the bakery, he generally instructed me and my brother reviews. And more often than not, he advised me this story i’ll share with you now.The story of what happened when he was once a conscripted soldier in the Dutch armed forces at the establishing of the 2nd World battle. The Nazis invaded the Netherlands. Their grim plans had been evident. They meant to rule by means of repression. Diplomacy had did not stop the Germans. Best brute force remained. It used to be our final lodge. My father used to be there to provide it. As the son of a farmer who knew how you can hunt, my father was once an great marksman.When he aimed, he on no account neglected. At this decisive moment in Dutch history my father was once positioned on the financial institution of the river Waal near the town of Nijmegen. He had a clear shot on the German soldiers who got here to occupy a free country, his nation, our nation. He fired. Nothing occurred. He fired once more. No German soldier fell to the ground. My father had been given an ancient gun that might not even reach the opposite riverbank. Hitler’s troops marched on, and there was nothing my father could do about it. Until the day my father died, he was once frustrated about missing these pictures. He would have done some thing. But with an historic gun, not even the best marksman in the militia would have hit the mark. So this story stayed with me. Then in high institution, I was once gripped by means of the experiences of the Allied soldiers — squaddies who left the security of their possess houses and risked their lives to liberate a country and a people that they failed to comprehend.They liberated my delivery town. It used to be then that I decided i might take in the gun — out of respect and gratitude for these men and women who got here to liberate us. From the recognition that oftentimes best the gun can stand between good and evil. And for this reason I took up the gun — not to shoot, to not kill, not to ruin, but to stop folks that would do evil, to safeguard the inclined, to safeguard democratic values, to face up for the freedom we have to speak right here today in Amsterdam about how we are able to make the sector a better place.Women and gents, I do not stand here in these days to let you know in regards to the glory of weapons. I don’t like guns. And after you have been beneath hearth your self, it brings house much more naturally that a gun just isn’t some macho instrument to brag about. I stand here today to inform you about using the gun as an instrument of peace and balance. The gun may be some of the fundamental instruments of peace and balance that we have now in this world. Now this may increasingly sound contradictory to you. But now not best have I seen with my own eyes throughout my deployments in Lebanon, Sarajevo and as the Netherlands’ Chief of Defence, this is also supported through bloodless, tough records. Violence has declined dramatically over the last 500 years.Regardless of the snap shots we are shown everyday within the information, wars between developed international locations are now not typical. The homicide expense in Europe has dropped by a factor of 30 since the core a long time. And occurrences of civil struggle and repression have declined in view that the end of the bloodless struggle. Facts exhibit that we’re dwelling in a moderately peaceful generation. Why? Why has violence reduced? Has the human intellect converted? Well, we had been talking concerning the human intellect this morning. Did we effortlessly lose our beastly impulses for revenge, for violent rituals, for pure rage? Or is there anything else? In his cutting-edge guide, Harvard professor Steven Pinker — and plenty of different thinkers before him — concludes that one of the main drivers in the back of less violent societies is the spread of the constitutional state and the introduction, on a colossal scale, of the state monopoly on the legitimized use of violence — legitimized by a democratically elected executive, legitimized through checks and balances and an impartial judicial method.In other phrases, a state monopoly that has the usage of violence well below control. Such a state monopoly on violence, first of all, serves as a reassurance. It gets rid of the inducement for an palms race between possibly adverse groups in our societies. Secondly, the presence of penalties that outweigh the benefits of making use of violence hints the balance even extra. Abstaining from violence becomes more moneymaking than beginning a battle. Now nonviolence starts to work like a flywheel.It enhances peace even extra. The place there is no conflict, alternate flourishes. And trade is one more important incentive in opposition to violence. With exchange, there is mutual interdependency and mutual obtain between parties. And when there’s mutual achieve, both sides stand to lose more than they would gain in the event that they began a conflict. Battle is readily now not the first-class choice, and this is why violence has reduced. This, ladies and gentlemen, is the cause at the back of the existence of my military. The militia enforce the state monopoly on violence. We do that in a legitimized method most effective after our democracy has requested us to take action. It is this legit, managed use of the gun that has contributed generally to decreasing the records of battle, clash and violence all over the world. It’s this participation in peacekeeping missions that has led to the resolution of many civil wars. My soldiers use the gun as an instrument of peace. And that is exactly why failed states are so hazardous. Failed states don’t have any legitimized, democratically controlled use of force. Failed states have no idea of the gun as an instrument of peace and stability.That is why failed states can drag down a whole neighborhood into chaos and conflict. That is why spreading the inspiration of the constitutional state is such an fundamental facet of our foreign missions. That is why we’re looking to build a judicial system correct now in Afghanistan. For this reason we coach police officers, we teach judges, we teach public prosecutors all over the world. And for this reason — and within the Netherlands, we’re very specified in that — for this reason the Dutch structure states that one of the vital foremost duties of the military is to uphold and promote the global rule of regulation. Women and gentlemen, watching at this gun, we’re confronted with the unpleasant aspect of the human mind.Daily i hope that politicians, diplomats, progress workers can flip conflict into peace and threat into hope. And i hope that at some point armies will also be disbanded and people will give you the chance of residing together without violence and oppression. But until that day comes, we will be able to must make ideals and human failure meet someplace in the core. Until that day comes, I stand for my father who tried to shoot the Nazis with an historical gun.I stand for my men and ladies who’re all set to hazard their lives for a much less violent world for every body. I stand for this soldier who suffered partial hearing loss and sustained permanent accidents to her leg, when she used to be hit by a rocket on a mission in Afghanistan. Ladies and gents, except the day comes once we can do away with the gun, i’m hoping all of us agree that peace and balance do not come gratis. It takes difficult work, commonly in the back of the scenes.It takes excellent apparatus and well-informed, dedicated squaddies. I’m hoping you’ll aid the efforts of our militia to coach infantrymen like this younger captain and furnish her with a just right gun, as a substitute of the unhealthy gun my father was once given. I am hoping you’ll help our soldiers when they’re in the market, once they come dwelling and when they are injured and wish our care. They put their lives on the road, for us, for you, and we can’t let them down. I hope you will recognize my soldiers, this soldier with this gun. Given that she needs a greater world. Due to the fact that she makes an lively contribution to a better world, just like every person right here in these days. Thank you very much. (Applause) .

[batterymonster2021]

Peter van Uhm: Why I chose a gun

New Post has been published on https://hititem.kr/peter-van-uhm-why-i-chose-a-gun/

Peter van Uhm: Why I chose a gun

Because the very best military commander of the Netherlands, with troops stationed all over the world, i’m quite honored to be here in these days. After I look around this TEDxAmsterdam venue, I see an extraordinarily specified audience. You’re the motive why I stated sure to the invitation to come back here at present. When I look round, I see persons who wish to make a contribution. I see persons who want to make a better world, by using doing groundbreaking scientific work, through developing impressive works of art, with the aid of writing significant articles or inspiring books, by way of opening up sustainable firms. And you all have chosen your own devices to fulfill this mission of constructing a greater world.Some chose the microscope as their instrument. Others selected dancing or painting, or making track like we just heard. Some selected the pen. Others work via the instrument of money. Females and gentlemen, I made one other alternative. Thanks. Females and gentlemen … (Laughter) (Applause) I share your goals. I share the pursuits of the speakers you heard before. I didn’t decide on to soak up the pen, the brush, the digicam. I selected this instrument. I chose the gun. For you, and also you heard already, being so nearly this gun could make you think uneasy. It’s going to even suppose scary. An actual gun at just a few feet’s distance. Allow us to stop for a moment and think this uneasiness. You could even hear it. Allow us to cherish the fact that commonly most of you’ve got in no way been almost a gun. It way the Netherlands is a peaceable country.The Netherlands will not be at struggle. It method squaddies are not needed to patrol our streets. Guns are not a part of our lives. In many nations, it is another story. In lots of international locations, humans are confronted with weapons. They’re oppressed. They are intimidated — through warlords, through terrorists, by using criminals. Weapons can do quite a lot of harm. They are the reason of much distress. Why then am I standing before you with this weapon? Why did I pick the gun as my instrument? In these days I want to inform you why.Today I want to inform you why I chose the gun to create a greater world. And that i need to let you know how this gun can aid. My story begins within the metropolis of Nijmegen within the east of the Netherlands, town where I was born. My father was a hardworking baker, but when he had completed work in the bakery, he generally instructed me and my brother reviews. And more often than not, he advised me this story i’ll share with you now.The story of what happened when he was once a conscripted soldier in the Dutch armed forces at the establishing of the 2nd World battle. The Nazis invaded the Netherlands. Their grim plans had been evident. They meant to rule by means of repression. Diplomacy had did not stop the Germans. Best brute force remained. It used to be our final lodge. My father used to be there to provide it. As the son of a farmer who knew how you can hunt, my father was once an great marksman.When he aimed, he on no account neglected. At this decisive moment in Dutch history my father was once positioned on the financial institution of the river Waal near the town of Nijmegen. He had a clear shot on the German soldiers who got here to occupy a free country, his nation, our nation. He fired. Nothing occurred. He fired once more. No German soldier fell to the ground. My father had been given an ancient gun that might not even reach the opposite riverbank. Hitler’s troops marched on, and there was nothing my father could do about it. Until the day my father died, he was once frustrated about missing these pictures. He would have done some thing. But with an historic gun, not even the best marksman in the militia would have hit the mark. So this story stayed with me. Then in high institution, I was once gripped by means of the experiences of the Allied soldiers — squaddies who left the security of their possess houses and risked their lives to liberate a country and a people that they failed to comprehend.They liberated my delivery town. It used to be then that I decided i might take in the gun — out of respect and gratitude for these men and women who got here to liberate us. From the recognition that oftentimes best the gun can stand between good and evil. And for this reason I took up the gun — not to shoot, to not kill, not to ruin, but to stop folks that would do evil, to safeguard the inclined, to safeguard democratic values, to face up for the freedom we have to speak right here today in Amsterdam about how we are able to make the sector a better place.Women and gents, I do not stand here in these days to let you know in regards to the glory of weapons. I don’t like guns. And after you have been beneath hearth your self, it brings house much more naturally that a gun just isn’t some macho instrument to brag about. I stand here today to inform you about using the gun as an instrument of peace and balance. The gun may be some of the fundamental instruments of peace and balance that we have now in this world. Now this may increasingly sound contradictory to you. But now not best have I seen with my own eyes throughout my deployments in Lebanon, Sarajevo and as the Netherlands’ Chief of Defence, this is also supported through bloodless, tough records. Violence has declined dramatically over the last 500 years.Regardless of the snap shots we are shown everyday within the information, wars between developed international locations are now not typical. The homicide expense in Europe has dropped by a factor of 30 since the core a long time. And occurrences of civil struggle and repression have declined in view that the end of the bloodless struggle. Facts exhibit that we’re dwelling in a moderately peaceful generation. Why? Why has violence reduced? Has the human intellect converted? Well, we had been talking concerning the human intellect this morning. Did we effortlessly lose our beastly impulses for revenge, for violent rituals, for pure rage? Or is there anything else? In his cutting-edge guide, Harvard professor Steven Pinker — and plenty of different thinkers before him — concludes that one of the main drivers in the back of less violent societies is the spread of the constitutional state and the introduction, on a colossal scale, of the state monopoly on the legitimized use of violence — legitimized by a democratically elected executive, legitimized through checks and balances and an impartial judicial method.In other phrases, a state monopoly that has the usage of violence well below control. Such a state monopoly on violence, first of all, serves as a reassurance. It gets rid of the inducement for an palms race between possibly adverse groups in our societies. Secondly, the presence of penalties that outweigh the benefits of making use of violence hints the balance even extra. Abstaining from violence becomes more moneymaking than beginning a battle. Now nonviolence starts to work like a flywheel.It enhances peace even extra. The place there is no conflict, alternate flourishes. And trade is one more important incentive in opposition to violence. With exchange, there is mutual interdependency and mutual obtain between parties. And when there’s mutual achieve, both sides stand to lose more than they would gain in the event that they began a conflict. Battle is readily now not the first-class choice, and this is why violence has reduced. This, ladies and gentlemen, is the cause at the back of the existence of my military. The militia enforce the state monopoly on violence. We do that in a legitimized method most effective after our democracy has requested us to take action. It is this legit, managed use of the gun that has contributed generally to decreasing the records of battle, clash and violence all over the world. It’s this participation in peacekeeping missions that has led to the resolution of many civil wars. My soldiers use the gun as an instrument of peace. And that is exactly why failed states are so hazardous. Failed states don’t have any legitimized, democratically controlled use of force. Failed states have no idea of the gun as an instrument of peace and stability.That is why failed states can drag down a whole neighborhood into chaos and conflict. That is why spreading the inspiration of the constitutional state is such an fundamental facet of our foreign missions. That is why we’re looking to build a judicial system correct now in Afghanistan. For this reason we coach police officers, we teach judges, we teach public prosecutors all over the world. And for this reason — and within the Netherlands, we’re very specified in that — for this reason the Dutch structure states that one of the vital foremost duties of the military is to uphold and promote the global rule of regulation. Women and gentlemen, watching at this gun, we’re confronted with the unpleasant aspect of the human mind.Daily i hope that politicians, diplomats, progress workers can flip conflict into peace and threat into hope. And i hope that at some point armies will also be disbanded and people will give you the chance of residing together without violence and oppression. But until that day comes, we will be able to must make ideals and human failure meet someplace in the core. Until that day comes, I stand for my father who tried to shoot the Nazis with an historical gun.I stand for my men and ladies who’re all set to hazard their lives for a much less violent world for every body. I stand for this soldier who suffered partial hearing loss and sustained permanent accidents to her leg, when she used to be hit by a rocket on a mission in Afghanistan. Ladies and gents, except the day comes once we can do away with the gun, i’m hoping all of us agree that peace and balance do not come gratis. It takes difficult work, commonly in the back of the scenes.It takes excellent apparatus and well-informed, dedicated squaddies. I’m hoping you’ll aid the efforts of our militia to coach infantrymen like this younger captain and furnish her with a just right gun, as a substitute of the unhealthy gun my father was once given. I am hoping you’ll help our soldiers when they’re in the market, once they come dwelling and when they are injured and wish our care. They put their lives on the road, for us, for you, and we can’t let them down. I hope you will recognize my soldiers, this soldier with this gun. Given that she needs a greater world. Due to the fact that she makes an lively contribution to a better world, just like every person right here in these days. Thank you very much. (Applause) .

[lucasgriffinhamilton1travel-blog]

Glorious Revolution Bus Tour of London, UK

Next I took a classic big bus tour of the gloomy city of London to learn about the establishment of a limited monarchy after the glorious revolution. I went to the hotel cafe for a breakfast of crumpets with ham and stereotypical brithish tea. I left the hotel in downtown London and walked along the river Thames to the bus stop. The bus traveled to the outskirts of the city and finally rolled through the cool fog to arrive at the grandiose Windsor Castle.

It was sitting in a sea of perfect green grass and trees crisscrossed by walking paths. The palace is known now mostly for being the site of the most recent royal wedding ceremony. But I came to learn about how king Charles the l was deposed by the supporters of parliament led by Oliver Cronwell. I walked around the wall and saw where Oliver Cronwell's soldiers surrounded and stormed the palace and I toured the rooms in which the king and his family lived during the English Civil War. He was later tried and beheaded for dissolving parliament.This is really significant because it's the first time a absolute monarch was tried and executed, this established rule by law.

The Glorious revolution was started because of centuries of absolute monarchs abusing power and ignoring the Magna Carta. But the main reason I found was actually religous. King Charles the 2nd was a catholic while the vast majority of the English were protestant. And during those times religious differences weren't accepted especially by kings.

To continue my studies of the glorious revolution I hopped back on a bus and went to Buckingham palace. I arrived at the gates and witnessed the machine like changing of the guard. *Travel tip, the guards wont flinch unless you actually hit them them they will proceed to punch you. The changing of the guard is the changing of the branch of the military that's guarding one of the most important places in England. The palace houses the royal family and the English parliament. It was here where England limited monarchy was actually established. King Charles the second was ruling in the 1860's after Oliver Cromwells death.

Parliament, supporters of parliament and protestants. All wanted to overthrow him due to his differences in faith. So they invited William of Orange and his wife queen Mary who was of royal english blood. They came over with their armies and king james fled to France. This is called the bloodless revolution because supposedlh no one died. King William and Queen Mary then signed the 1st English bill of rights agreeing to a limited monarchy which included rule by law and having to ask parliament before making decisions.

This is more significant because it held all future kings accountable to the constitution while the magna carta didn't and was quickly discarded by the next kings. I then took a cab back to near my hotel and went into a pub on the river shore. I sat down now realizing that everything in sight is a part of living history and began to appreciate the amount of effort people are willing to expend and how much people care about being in a government that will support their freedoms. This gave me a new perspective because I have always been in a country where freedoms are a given right. But this made me grateful for the people before me who fought to make the world a better place.

So in conclusion England contributed to Modern Democracy by being a role model for other countries who want to revolt against leaders with absolute power. And by having one of the most famous enlightenment thinkers John Locke who greatly influenced democratic governments in how they control their officials. I went to bed already thinking of my final destination. Paris, France. The center for enlightenment thinkers and the center stage of the French revolution. One of the most famous and deadly fights for freedom.

[mcvan]

29th August, 2018 For Immediate Release “DR BUSIA WAS A FAR-SIGHTED POLITICAL THINKER” – PRESIDENT AKUFO-ADDO The President of the Republic, Nana Addo Dankwa Akufo-Addo, says Ghana, and, indeed, Africa, has not seen a more far-sighted political thinker than Dr. Kofi Abrefa Busia. Speaking at the 40th anniversary of the death of Ghana’s Prime Minister of the 2nd Republic, on Tuesday, 28th August, 2018, at the Accra International Conference Centre, President Akufo-Addo noted that the overthrow of the Progress Party Government meant that Ghana was deprived of the full impact of Dr. Busia’s agenda for development. “Decades have gone to show that we turned out to be the poorer for it. We can imagine, for example, where our nation would have been now if he had been given the opportunity to develop his visionary programme of rural development,” he said. He continued, “Some of the ills of contemporary Ghana, such as rural-urban migration, which has been the source of much current social tension, could well have been avoided.” Dr Busia’s emergence onto Ghana’s nation’s political scene coincided with the period when one-party state ideologies were dominant on the continent, and appeared to be more appealing and relevant to developing economies. In his book, “The Challenge of Africa”, written in 1962, at the height of the Cold War, Dr Busia argued against the post-colonial myth, propounded, with convenient ease, by Africa’s first generation of leaders, that multiparty democracy was allegedly a luxurious western concept alien to African society. Dr. Busia is quoted as saying “The principles of democracy – freedom of speech, including the right to criticise and to make propaganda against the government; freedom of assembly and association, including the freedom to organise opposition parties and to propose alternative governments; freedom of the people to choose their governments at general elections and to change them peacefully; freedom of religion; freedom from arbitrary arrest and imprisonment without trial; the rule of law; guarantees for human rights and civil liberties – all these principles of parliamentary government are universal. They can be adopted https://www.instagram.com/p/BnDsAblAhHK/?utm_source=ig_tumblr_share&igshid=6ctdan02deug

[babssmithart]

Essay on Enlightenment

In this essay I have chosen to consider the period of Enlightenment.   This period was described as “The century of Philosophy par excellence” by D’Alambert  (William 2017,2nd paragraph).  I am interested in and believe that even in society today we have become removed from   the   responsibility of independent thinking, often within this framework we make the ‘right’ decisions, regardless of it.

The Age of Enlightenment covers the 18th Century (1685 – 1815) and was also known as the Age of Reason. It affected England, France, Germany and other parts of Europe. It was sparked by the 30 Year war that ended in and drove German writers to criticise nationalism and warfare. I will look specifically at the work of a Emmanuel Kant, a Philosopher and an  artist who’s work embodies Enlightenment, Jacques Louis David.

During the Enlightenment developments and progressions in science including maths, astronomy, physics, politics, economics and medicine, developed very quickly and were beginning to have an effect upon questions of religion and metaphysics. The following list was created by Isaiah Berlin, a 20th Century Russian British social and political theorists, who points out that “by the middle of the nineteenth century most of these ideals were at least in theory shared by the civilised governments and peoples of Europe.” (Mclelland, 1996, p. 298).

At its core was: Institutionalism, civil liberties, moderation and gradualism, the abolition of slavery, the reform of morals, politics and manners, social and economic progress with respect for national and local tradition, peace and internationalism, the balancing of the powers of government, the division of political rule as a weapon between government agencies by individuals. Mostly it supported liberty under an enlightened system of law in an environment in which it would not disturb the orderly process of Government.

Among the many great thinkers of the Enlightenment were philosophers, composers, economists and scientists. Key French thinkers included: Voltaire, D’Alembert, Montesquieu and Diderot. And in other parts of Europe thinkers such as:  Adam Smith, David Hume, Thomas Reid and Emmanuel Kant.

Immanuel Kant was as Philosopher, born in1724 in the Baltic City of Konigsburg now part of Russia Kalinngrad. He died in 1804 at 80. He was a sickly small frail man and lived on a low income, he did not become a professional until his 50’s when he became a Professor and began earning a modest income. Kant was not religious but his parents were and as he matured he began to understand the importance of religion to them in helping their resolve in difficult times. Clearly a talented child his mother suggested and supported his educational advancement.

Kant’s quote “Dare to know! Have courage to know your own reason”, which came from his article  ‘What is Enlightenment?’, had been said one hundred and fifty years earlier by Galileo “I do not feel obliged to believe that the same God who endowed us with sense, reason and intellect intended us to forge their use….. “. Kant’s response to a question posed by the editors of a journal, Berlinische Monatsschrift had been prepared in anticipation of the conflict which came from the state authorities. In this article he considered that “eighteenth century thought was a revolt against ignorance and superstition. Knowing, was to know the basis of how things really worked” (Mclelland, 1996, p. 298).

This comment is at the core of our understanding, when we consider questions being asked at the time such as how true a record was the Bible, for example the measurements in Genesis describe the Arc as a vessel that would not contain all of the animals described in the story of Noah’s Arc.  In Kant’s  famous essay entitled  “An answer to the question what is enlightenment humankinds release from self-incurred maturity. Immaturity is the inability to use one’s own understanding without the guidance of another”

 I looked at one of the  well-known examples of artists who have didactic (a message delivered within a painting for example) in their work. Jacques Lane David’s painting   Oath of The Horatii 1785, painted four years before the French Revolution.

 This painting was commissioned by the King of France. The subject would have been suggested by his Minister of Art’s but its story never actually appears in ancient history or later. The painting had a place reserved on the wall of the Royal Court and when it arrived later than planned, the anticipation of this young artists work had grown immensely. The story tells of the battle between Rome and Alba. Rather than go to war each side elected three combatants to represent the country in a fight to the death. The Horatii brothers represented Rome and in the painting their father held their swords as they swore their oath. The artist was focusing on this moment to emphasise the idea of a willingness to die for his country.

As sister of one of the brothers is married to a combatant of Alba. When she loses her husband, her sadness is seen as unpatriotic and for this her brother kills her. The artist uses this notion so to perpetuate the idea that we can pull through this together for the good of the state.

The painting although commissioned in France was painted in Rome.  Jaques utilised the three Greek arches as order. The shallow space is explained by perfect geometric lines to describe the notion of the rational. Doric columns are the simplest and strongest. The vanishing point leads the eye to where the swords meet. The male figures look Greek with hard lines, whilst the females are soft with fabric draped. Jaques didactic aim was to improve public morality through art.

Jaques used  “the nobility of ancient Rome. Stoicism and patriotism is the message which David conveyed stoic directness and economy of visual means, style fused with subject matter.” (A World History of Art,1996 p.632).

References:

McClelland,J., 1996. A History of Western Political Thought. 2nd ed. Britain: Routledge.

Honour, H.,2009. A World History of Art. 7th ed. London: Laurence King Publishing Ltd.

Bristow, William, “Enlightenment”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2017 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = https://plato.stanford.edu/cgi-bin/encyclopedia/archinfo.cgi?entry=enlightenment

Bibliography:

Want, C., 1996. Introducing Kant. 2nd ed. Australia and UK: Totem Books USA and Icon Books UK.

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[muzaffar1969]

http://ift.tt/2rYCXJr

Authored by By Michael Hart and StockBoardAsset,

“If you do a worldwide survey of eclipse lore, the theme that constantly appears, with few exceptions, is it’s always a disruption of the established order,” said E. C. Krupp, director of the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles, California. That’s true of both solar and lunar eclipses. 

  “People depend on the sun’s movement,” Krupp said. “[It’s] regular, dependable, you can’t tamper with it. And then, all of a sudden, Shakespearean tragedy arrives and time is out of joint. The sun and moon do something that they shouldn’t be doing.”

On August 21st of this year, the United States will witness its first total solar eclipse seen across the totality of the country in nearly forty years. For millennia, humans have gazed towards the skies in awe, observing that heavenly bodies move regularly and predictably with mathematical certainty, and this has inspired poets, philosophers, and other thinkers to ruminate on man’s relationship to the universe, and the possibility that human activity is ruled by laws and patterns independent of human activity.

Although many of these ideas that were fashionable hundreds of years ago, such as astrology, have been put to rest by contemporary scientific knowledge, perhaps there is value to be gleaned from entertaining the possibility that there are indeed larger forces and patterns governing human affairs. Against the backdrop of this cosmically anomalous event, are we on the cusp of a more temporal form of disruption this summer in the United States?

Since President Donald Trump’s stunning victory over Hillary Clinton in the 2016 presidential election, much of the press have made note of Steve Bannon’s interest in an influential book published in 1997 called, “The Fourth Turning: What Cycles of History Tell Us About America’s Next Rendezvous With Destiny.”

In this book, authors William Strauss and Neil Howe make the argument that our ideas about the nature of history, linear time, and progress are illusory, and that if we want a more accurate concept about the way that history unfolds, we would do well to study the ancient Greek concept of cyclical time. This concept views national and global historical phenomenon not as randomly occurring events, or the linear march of historical “progress,” but instead sees them as recurring archetypes placed into a larger tapestry of a greater repeating historical cycle.

According to Strauss and Howe, the relative geographic and historical isolation of the United States provides a unique opportunity to view this cycle unfolding regularly and predictably every 80 years.

This 80-year cycle can be divided into four stages or seasons, each lasting approximately twenty years:

High– This initial stage occurs immediately following a period of crisis. The High is characterized by strong institutions, a sense of collective destiny, and a weakness of individuality. The most recent example of this would be the period of prosperity and conformity in the U.S. immediately following the conclusion of World War II.

Awakening- The second stage, or turning, is a period of questioning established values and asserting one’s independence from established norms and morals, be they spiritual or political. This stage may be seen as a rebellion of the previous era’s emphasis on material wealth and conformity. The 1960’s, with the psychedelic revolution, anti-war protests, Civil Rights marches, and New Age spiritual movements can be seen as recent characteristics of this second stage, as well as Reaganomics and the mid-1980s Wall Street ethos.

Unraveling- The emphasis on autonomy and the questioning of spiritual, political, and individual authority in the Awakening stage eventually destabilizes society, leading to the Third Turning, in which institutions are weak and untrusted while the subjective experience of the individual is emphasized. This stage can be thought of as the inverse of the initial High stage, where collective destiny is replaced by atomization. Recent symptom of this stage would be the culture wars, corporate malfeasance, a lack of faith in government, social justice movements, and political correctness.

Crisis- In the Fourth Turning, a destabilizing event, usually involving warfare, leads to the destruction and reconstruction of institutions of power. In the face of destruction, Americans are forced to unite and forge a vision to restructure a disrupted society. This fourth stage can be seen as the inverse of the Awakening stage, and the authors cite World War II as the defining event of the most recent period of Crisis.

Strauss and Howe predicted that the next Crisis period that the U.S. would face would happen sometime around 2005 and end around 2025. Anyone who has been paying attention over the last decade would have a difficult time refuting this. The financial crisis of 2008 threw the planet into discord, and we are now just beginning to see some of the political ramifications of this. We may be reaching the apex of this crisis this summer, or at least we will witness a significant acceleration of it.

The institutions that once defined American stability are rapidly crumbling. Mounting debt, unsustainable consumerism, and illegal immigration are chipping away at once sturdy foundation of America.

And the robust civil discourse needed to solve these problems has been interrupted by advocates of social justice, sometimes violently. Recent small skirmishes between the two sides may be headed toward larger eruptions.

Some analysts are predicting a ‘Summer of Rage’, which will boil over in violent protests all across the United States. The DNC has called for a George Soros-financed ‘Resistance Summer’, in which protestors are encouraged to invade town halls, and organize rallies and neighborhood meetings to undermine President Trump. This will culminate in a national training being billed as a ‘Resistance Summer Camp’ to effectively train operatives inorganizing strategies.

Meanwhile, other leftist groups are calling for a day of ‘Impeachment Marches’ on July 2nd in dozens of major cities across the country. Their goal is to pressure congressional representatives to begin impeachment proceedings against President Trump.

Emboldened by a mainstream media apparatus which functions as a mouthpiece of Deep State interests, these activists are determined to overturn democratically elected officials and overturn law and order on the grounds that they personally disagree with the results.

As we have seen in recent months, Trump supporters, conservatives, and other patriots are not afraid to confront leftist activists in the streets, and this is likely to intensify as these DNC-backed groups become more desperate and confrontational in their tactics.

James Comey’s congressional testimony this week showed that the Trump administration is indeed attempting to break the old political order and its far-too-power Deep State. The cracks are surfacing now, and this will likely shatter and spill into many facets of social life outside of the realm of politics.

This shattering seems to be the apex, or perhaps the precursor to the major Crisis event described by Strauss and Howe in the Fourth Turning, and it is proving to be a global movement, as evidenced by the recent elections this week in the United Kingdom.

As the Soros-backed DNC footsoldiers wreak havoc in American cities this summer, and the old political order is eclipsed by what is shaping up to be a much more democratic order, we can expect these types of events to increase in frequency as well as intensity.

June 11, 2017 at 09:02AM http://ift.tt/2sfXxIp from Tyler Durden http://ift.tt/2sfXxIp

[melindarowens]

The Fourth Turning: A Summer Of Rage And The Total Eclipse Of The Deep State

Authored by By Michael Hart and StockBoardAsset,

“If you do a worldwide survey of eclipse lore, the theme that constantly appears, with few exceptions, is it’s always a disruption of the established order,” said E. C. Krupp, director of the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles, California. That’s true of both solar and lunar eclipses. 

 “People depend on the sun’s movement,” Krupp said. “[It’s] regular, dependable, you can’t tamper with it. And then, all of a sudden, Shakespearean tragedy arrives and time is out of joint. The sun and moon do something that they shouldn’t be doing.”

On August 21st of this year, the United States will witness its first total solar eclipse seen across the totality of the country in nearly forty years. For millennia, humans have gazed towards the skies in awe, observing that heavenly bodies move regularly and predictably with mathematical certainty, and this has inspired poets, philosophers, and other thinkers to ruminate on man’s relationship to the universe, and the possibility that human activity is ruled by laws and patterns independent of human activity.

Although many of these ideas that were fashionable hundreds of years ago, such as astrology, have been put to rest by contemporary scientific knowledge, perhaps there is value to be gleaned from entertaining the possibility that there are indeed larger forces and patterns governing human affairs. Against the backdrop of this cosmically anomalous event, are we on the cusp of a more temporal form of disruption this summer in the United States?

Since President Donald Trump’s stunning victory over Hillary Clinton in the 2016 presidential election, much of the press have made note of Steve Bannon’s interest in an influential book published in 1997 called, “The Fourth Turning: What Cycles of History Tell Us About America’s Next Rendezvous With Destiny.”

In this book, authors William Strauss and Neil Howe make the argument that our ideas about the nature of history, linear time, and progress are illusory, and that if we want a more accurate concept about the way that history unfolds, we would do well to study the ancient Greek concept of cyclical time. This concept views national and global historical phenomenon not as randomly occurring events, or the linear march of historical “progress,” but instead sees them as recurring archetypes placed into a larger tapestry of a greater repeating historical cycle.

According to Strauss and Howe, the relative geographic and historical isolation of the United States provides a unique opportunity to view this cycle unfolding regularly and predictably every 80 years.

This 80-year cycle can be divided into four stages or seasons, each lasting approximately twenty years:

High– This initial stage occurs immediately following a period of crisis. The High is characterized by strong institutions, a sense of collective destiny, and a weakness of individuality. The most recent example of this would be the period of prosperity and conformity in the U.S. immediately following the conclusion of World War II.

Awakening– The second stage, or turning, is a period of questioning established values and asserting one’s independence from established norms and morals, be they spiritual or political. This stage may be seen as a rebellion of the previous era’s emphasis on material wealth and conformity. The 1960’s, with the psychedelic revolution, anti-war protests, Civil Rights marches, and New Age spiritual movements can be seen as recent characteristics of this second stage, as well as Reaganomics and the mid-1980s Wall Street ethos.

Unraveling– The emphasis on autonomy and the questioning of spiritual, political, and individual authority in the Awakening stage eventually destabilizes society, leading to the Third Turning, in which institutions are weak and untrusted while the subjective experience of the individual is emphasized. This stage can be thought of as the inverse of the initial High stage, where collective destiny is replaced by atomization. Recent symptom of this stage would be the culture wars, corporate malfeasance, a lack of faith in government, social justice movements, and political correctness.

Crisis– In the Fourth Turning, a destabilizing event, usually involving warfare, leads to the destruction and reconstruction of institutions of power. In the face of destruction, Americans are forced to unite and forge a vision to restructure a disrupted society. This fourth stage can be seen as the inverse of the Awakening stage, and the authors cite World War II as the defining event of the most recent period of Crisis.

Strauss and Howe predicted that the next Crisis period that the U.S. would face would happen sometime around 2005 and end around 2025. Anyone who has been paying attention over the last decade would have a difficult time refuting this. The financial crisis of 2008 threw the planet into discord, and we are now just beginning to see some of the political ramifications of this. We may be reaching the apex of this crisis this summer, or at least we will witness a significant acceleration of it.

The institutions that once defined American stability are rapidly crumbling. Mounting debt, unsustainable consumerism, and illegal immigration are chipping away at once sturdy foundation of America.

And the robust civil discourse needed to solve these problems has been interrupted by advocates of social justice, sometimes violently. Recent small skirmishes between the two sides may be headed toward larger eruptions.

Some analysts are predicting a ‘Summer of Rage’, which will boil over in violent protests all across the United States. The DNC has called for a George Soros-financed ‘Resistance Summer’, in which protestors are encouraged to invade town halls, and organize rallies and neighborhood meetings to undermine President Trump. This will culminate in a national training being billed as a ‘Resistance Summer Camp’ to effectively train operatives inorganizing strategies.

Meanwhile, other leftist groups are calling for a day of ‘Impeachment Marches’ on July 2nd in dozens of major cities across the country. Their goal is to pressure congressional representatives to begin impeachment proceedings against President Trump.

Emboldened by a mainstream media apparatus which functions as a mouthpiece of Deep State interests, these activists are determined to overturn democratically elected officials and overturn law and order on the grounds that they personally disagree with the results.

As we have seen in recent months, Trump supporters, conservatives, and other patriots are not afraid to confront leftist activists in the streets, and this is likely to intensify as these DNC-backed groups become more desperate and confrontational in their tactics.

James Comey’s congressional testimony this week showed that the Trump administration is indeed attempting to break the old political order and its far-too-power Deep State. The cracks are surfacing now, and this will likely shatter and spill into many facets of social life outside of the realm of politics.

This shattering seems to be the apex, or perhaps the precursor to the major Crisis event described by Strauss and Howe in the Fourth Turning, and it is proving to be a global movement, as evidenced by the recent elections this week in the United Kingdom.

As the Soros-backed DNC footsoldiers wreak havoc in American cities this summer, and the old political order is eclipsed by what is shaping up to be a much more democratic order, we can expect these types of events to increase in frequency as well as intensity.

source http://capitalisthq.com/the-fourth-turning-a-summer-of-rage-and-the-total-eclipse-of-the-deep-state/ from CapitalistHQ http://capitalisthq.blogspot.com/2017/06/the-fourth-turning-summer-of-rage-and.html

[everettwilkinson]

The Fourth Turning: A Summer Of Rage And The Total Eclipse Of The Deep State

Authored by By Michael Hart and StockBoardAsset,

“If you do a worldwide survey of eclipse lore, the theme that constantly appears, with few exceptions, is it’s always a disruption of the established order,” said E. C. Krupp, director of the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles, California. That’s true of both solar and lunar eclipses. 

  “People depend on the sun’s movement,” Krupp said. “[It’s] regular, dependable, you can’t tamper with it. And then, all of a sudden, Shakespearean tragedy arrives and time is out of joint. The sun and moon do something that they shouldn’t be doing.”

On August 21st of this year, the United States will witness its first total solar eclipse seen across the totality of the country in nearly forty years. For millennia, humans have gazed towards the skies in awe, observing that heavenly bodies move regularly and predictably with mathematical certainty, and this has inspired poets, philosophers, and other thinkers to ruminate on man’s relationship to the universe, and the possibility that human activity is ruled by laws and patterns independent of human activity.

Although many of these ideas that were fashionable hundreds of years ago, such as astrology, have been put to rest by contemporary scientific knowledge, perhaps there is value to be gleaned from entertaining the possibility that there are indeed larger forces and patterns governing human affairs. Against the backdrop of this cosmically anomalous event, are we on the cusp of a more temporal form of disruption this summer in the United States?

Since President Donald Trump’s stunning victory over Hillary Clinton in the 2016 presidential election, much of the press have made note of Steve Bannon’s interest in an influential book published in 1997 called, “The Fourth Turning: What Cycles of History Tell Us About America’s Next Rendezvous With Destiny.”

In this book, authors William Strauss and Neil Howe make the argument that our ideas about the nature of history, linear time, and progress are illusory, and that if we want a more accurate concept about the way that history unfolds, we would do well to study the ancient Greek concept of cyclical time. This concept views national and global historical phenomenon not as randomly occurring events, or the linear march of historical “progress,” but instead sees them as recurring archetypes placed into a larger tapestry of a greater repeating historical cycle.

According to Strauss and Howe, the relative geographic and historical isolation of the United States provides a unique opportunity to view this cycle unfolding regularly and predictably every 80 years.

This 80-year cycle can be divided into four stages or seasons, each lasting approximately twenty years:

High– This initial stage occurs immediately following a period of crisis. The High is characterized by strong institutions, a sense of collective destiny, and a weakness of individuality. The most recent example of this would be the period of prosperity and conformity in the U.S. immediately following the conclusion of World War II.

Awakening– The second stage, or turning, is a period of questioning established values and asserting one’s independence from established norms and morals, be they spiritual or political. This stage may be seen as a rebellion of the previous era’s emphasis on material wealth and conformity. The 1960’s, with the psychedelic revolution, anti-war protests, Civil Rights marches, and New Age spiritual movements can be seen as recent characteristics of this second stage, as well as Reaganomics and the mid-1980s Wall Street ethos.

Unraveling– The emphasis on autonomy and the questioning of spiritual, political, and individual authority in the Awakening stage eventually destabilizes society, leading to the Third Turning, in which institutions are weak and untrusted while the subjective experience of the individual is emphasized. This stage can be thought of as the inverse of the initial High stage, where collective destiny is replaced by atomization. Recent symptom of this stage would be the culture wars, corporate malfeasance, a lack of faith in government, social justice movements, and political correctness.

Crisis– In the Fourth Turning, a destabilizing event, usually involving warfare, leads to the destruction and reconstruction of institutions of power. In the face of destruction, Americans are forced to unite and forge a vision to restructure a disrupted society. This fourth stage can be seen as the inverse of the Awakening stage, and the authors cite World War II as the defining event of the most recent period of Crisis.

Strauss and Howe predicted that the next Crisis period that the U.S. would face would happen sometime around 2005 and end around 2025. Anyone who has been paying attention over the last decade would have a difficult time refuting this. The financial crisis of 2008 threw the planet into discord, and we are now just beginning to see some of the political ramifications of this. We may be reaching the apex of this crisis this summer, or at least we will witness a significant acceleration of it.

The institutions that once defined American stability are rapidly crumbling. Mounting debt, unsustainable consumerism, and illegal immigration are chipping away at once sturdy foundation of America.

And the robust civil discourse needed to solve these problems has been interrupted by advocates of social justice, sometimes violently. Recent small skirmishes between the two sides may be headed toward larger eruptions.

Some analysts are predicting a ‘Summer of Rage’, which will boil over in violent protests all across the United States. The DNC has called for a George Soros-financed ‘Resistance Summer’, in which protestors are encouraged to invade town halls, and organize rallies and neighborhood meetings to undermine President Trump. This will culminate in a national training being billed as a ‘Resistance Summer Camp’ to effectively train operatives inorganizing strategies.

Meanwhile, other leftist groups are calling for a day of ‘Impeachment Marches’ on July 2nd in dozens of major cities across the country. Their goal is to pressure congressional representatives to begin impeachment proceedings against President Trump.

Emboldened by a mainstream media apparatus which functions as a mouthpiece of Deep State interests, these activists are determined to overturn democratically elected officials and overturn law and order on the grounds that they personally disagree with the results.

As we have seen in recent months, Trump supporters, conservatives, and other patriots are not afraid to confront leftist activists in the streets, and this is likely to intensify as these DNC-backed groups become more desperate and confrontational in their tactics.

James Comey’s congressional testimony this week showed that the Trump administration is indeed attempting to break the old political order and its far-too-power Deep State. The cracks are surfacing now, and this will likely shatter and spill into many facets of social life outside of the realm of politics.

This shattering seems to be the apex, or perhaps the precursor to the major Crisis event described by Strauss and Howe in the Fourth Turning, and it is proving to be a global movement, as evidenced by the recent elections this week in the United Kingdom.

As the Soros-backed DNC footsoldiers wreak havoc in American cities this summer, and the old political order is eclipsed by what is shaping up to be a much more democratic order, we can expect these types of events to increase in frequency as well as intensity.

from CapitalistHQ.com http://capitalisthq.com/the-fourth-turning-a-summer-of-rage-and-the-total-eclipse-of-the-deep-state/

[thespaghettibowl]

Public Domain. 1820 painting depicting Arjuna, left on the chariot, with Krishna, the charioteer. Pivotal moment, the ‘Bhagavadgita’, in the Mahabharata where Arjuna follows the guidance of Krishna to fulfil his duty to his nation despite his misgivings about the necessary killing and suffering caused by the war. From the Philadelphia Museum of Art. 

Amartya Sen in The Idea of Justice describes this as an argument between a deontologist (someone concerned with just actions) and a consequentialist (someone concerned with the consequences of the action) (23). 

Civil and Political Rights: positive, negative and interdependent.

The preamble to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (‘UDHR’) declares all persons equal in dignity and rights by virtue of their birth. This conception of universal rights was heavily influenced by enlightenment, liberal philosophy such as Locke, Montesquieu, Kant, and Mill. These thinkers characterised rights primarily in terms of freedoms from state intervention into a person’s natural rights. According to the liberalist conception, a person is a rational actor with the capacity to choose their own method of self-determination. The freedom from intervention protects the essence of personhood and therefore some areas of life are deemed beyond the reach of the state.

This traditional conception of rights has been heavily criticised and the contemporary theory is that rights require both protection from intervention as well as the creation of resources, institutions, and structures to support exercising those rights meaningfully. However, it is clear that the traditional conception of right to life, as a negative freedom from deprivation of life, is a deontological argument. It is morally impermissible to deprive a citizen of their life under the rights in the ICCPR, art 6(1) therefore restricts state action, no matter the result. However there are further substantial, and positive obligations in art 6 that include paras (2) and (4), which envisage the existence of a competent court to give final judgment and an appropriate avenue to seek pardon or commutation of a death sentence, respectively. These would require more than mere prohibition but actual state action in the creation of (legal) frameworks to litigate these rights.  

Beyond these substantial provisions, jurisprudence on the right to life shows that even art 6(1) can be interpreted as obligating states parties for positive steps to its realisation. In Rodriguez v Honduras, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights said that it was not enough that the Honduran government could not be proven to have actually killed the victims in the case, but that it needed to have in place effective measures that would prevent the effective deprivation of life of its citizens, and provide for the ‘free and full exercise of human rights’ [167]. Further, in the Indian case Olga Tellis v Bombay Municipal Corporation (1986) AIR SC 180, the court interpreted the right to life to include a right to livelihood. This takes the right to life from a negative prohibition on deprivation of life to the requirement that the state implement measures to ensure that the health, employment, and education of citizens were not unnecessarily deprived when pursuing its policies. 

I like Sen’s analysis in his book, because it shows that the debates between formal and substantial justice have existed for centuries, and across cultures. It also shows that this debate is likely to continue to challenge our approach to governance and human rights. It seems eminently clear to me that why we do something, and the consequences of what we do should both bear on our desire to do it. What we do must be morally just, and we must seek just ends. Positive and negative rights are interdependent to achieving equality, both formally and substantially. For example, the right to life is useless without the access to healthcare services, likewise the right to education is useless without freedom of expression, thought and opinion. I feel that while we may seek out utopian ideals of equality and equity, if we do not seek to achieve them in ways that also give effect to equality and equity, then we have corrupted our own principles. 

Amartya Sen, The Idea of Justice (Penguin, 2009). 

Universal Declaration on Human Rights, GA Res 217A (III), UN GAOR, 3rd sess, 183rd plen mtg, UN Doc A/810 (10 December 1948) art 1.

Burns H Weston, Human rights (14 March 2016) Britannica, Academic Edition <https://www.britannica.com/topic/human-rights>

John Locke, The Second Treatise of Civil Government: and a Letter Concerning Toleration (Basil Blackwell, 1946) [61].

Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws (Anne M Cohler et al (eds) trans, Cambridge University Press, 1989) [trans of: De l'esprit des loix (first published 1748)]

Immanuel Kant, ‘The Doctrine of Virtue’, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (H J Paton trans, 1964) 116 [25] [trans of: Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten (first published 1797)]

John Stuart Mill, On Liberty (Oxford University Press, 1865) 6, 11

Karl Klare, ‘Legal Theory and Democratic Reconstruction’ (1991) 25 University of British Columbia Law Review 69, 97–8.

Velasquez Rodriguez v Honduras, Judgement of July 29 1988 IACHR (Ser C No 4 28 ILM (1989) 294 paras 147-188. 

Olga Tellis v Bombay Municipal Corporation (1986) AIR SC 180 (India) (extract from H Steiner and P Alston, International Human Rights in Context: Law Politics and Morals (2nd Edition, Oxford University Press, 2000) 286-291.